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ASSIGNMENT: SET 2

NAME: NAYAK CHAITALIBEN AMRUTLAL

ROLL NO.: 520920472

SEMESTER: FIRST (I)

SUBJECT NAME: Organization Behavior

SUBJECT CODE: MB0022

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Factors thatInfluencePerception

Factors in the perceiverAttitudesMotivesInterestsExperienceExpectation

Perception

Factors in the targetNoveltyMotionSoundsSizeBackgroundProximitySimilarity

Factors in the situationTime

Work settingSocial setting

Q.1 Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging others Explain

Ans. Perception:- Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensoryimpressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

People behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world is as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.

Person Perception: Making Judgment about Others

Attribution Theory: When individual observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it isinternally or externally caused.

Distinctiveness: Shows different behaviors in different situation.

Consensus: Response is the same as others as to same situation.

Consistency: Responds in the same way over time.

Selective Perception

Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that itwill be perceived. It is impossible for an individual to internalize and assimilate everything that isseen .Only certain stimuli can be taken in selectively. Selectivity works as a shortcut in judging otherpeople by allowing us to speed-read others, but, not without the risk of drawing an inaccuratepicture. The tendency to see what we want to see can make us draw unwarranted conclusions from anambiguous situation.

Definition: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background,experience, and attitude.

Description:

The tendency to single out those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistentwith ones needs, values, or attitudes.

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Strongest impact is at the attention stage. Perception checking with other persons can help counter the adverse impact of selective

perception.

Shortcuts in Judging Others

Individuals have a tendency to use a number of shortcuts when they judge others. An understanding ofthese shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions.

There are following frequently shortcuts:

1. Halo effect2. Contras effect3. Projection4. Stereotyping

Halo Effect:

Definition: - As per Murphy & Anhalt the halo effect occurs when we draw a general impression on thebasis of a single characteristic.

Example:- While appraising the lecturer, students may give prominence to a single trait, such as,enthusiasm and allow their entire evaluation to be tainted by how they judge the instructor on that onetrait which stood out prominently in their estimation of that person.

Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous inbehavioral terms, when the traits have moral overtones, and when the perceiver is judging traits withwhich he or she has had limited experience.

Description:-

Halo effects. Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall

impression of the individual or situation. Likely to occur in the organization stage. Individual differences are obscured. Important in the performance appraisal process.

The Halo Effect: Keeping Perceptions ConsistentThe tendency for people to credit teams for their successes but not to hold them accountable for theirfailures.

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The Halo Effect: A Demonstration

One manifestation of the halo effect is the tendency for people rating others to give either consistentlyhigh ratings (if the individual is generally perceived in a positive manner), or low ratings (if theindividual is generally perceived in a negative manner). Because each rating dimension is not

considered independently, inaccurate evaluations may result.

Have you ever heard someone say something like, Shes very smart, so she also must be Hard-working? Or, Hes not too bright, so I guess hes lazy? If so, then you are already aware of acommon perceptual bias known as the halo effect Once we form a positive impression of someone,we tend to view the things that person does in favorable terms even things about which we have noknowledge. Similarly, a generally negative impression of someone is likely to be associated withnegative evaluations of that persons behavior. Both of these tendencies are referred to as halo effects(even the negative case, despite the fact that the word halo has positive connotations). Inorganizations, the halo effect often occurs when superiors rate subordinates using a formalperformance appraisal form. The manager would then be likely to evaluate that person highly on otherdimensions see above figure. Put differently, the halo effect may be responsible for finding high

correlations between the ratings given to people on various dimensions. When this occurs, theresulting evaluations are lacking in accuracy, and the quality of the resulting evaluations iscompromised. The halo effect applies not only to individuals, but to work teams as well.

Team halo effect: the tendency for people to credit teams for their successes but not to hold themaccountable for their failures.

We will tend to perceive things according to our beliefs more than as they really are, and reactaccordingly. This is how placebos work. We will also become drunk when we drink what we believe isalcohol.

Blind trust in the competence of specific individuals because of their experience or education.Consequently, other personnel drop their guard against error by the competent individual, andvigilance to check the respected person's actions weakens or ceases altogether. This dynamic is

prevalent in hospital operating rooms, where members of the operating teams often fail to stayvigilant and check the procedures and actions in

Progress because a renowned surgeon is leading the team and there are several other sets of eyes onthe task at hand. Each year it is estimated that there are between 44,000 and about 90,000 deathsattributable to medical errors in hospitals, alone.37 Never mind the transfusions of mismatched bloodplasma, amputations of the wrong limbs, administration of the wrong anesthesia, or issuance of thewrong prescriptions. It is the medical instruments, sponges, towels, and the like left in patientsbodies following surgery that are hard for laymen to understand.

Contrast Effects

Definition: Individuals do not evaluate a person in isolation. Their reaction to one person is influenced

by other persons they have encountered recently.

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HIGH

ENERGYDRIVE

ACHIEVEMENT COMPETITIVENESS

MINDFULNESS

Example: An interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort perception.Distortions in any given candidates evaluation can occur as a result of his or her place in the interviewschedule.

Projection

Definition: This tendency to attribute ones own characteristics to other people which is calledprojection can distort perceptions made about others.

Example: When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to individualdifferences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are.

Stereotyping

Definition: judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs.

By Hilton & Hipple, 1996, Generalization is not without advantages. It is a means of simplifying acomplex world, and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem, of course, is when weinaccurately stereotype. In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereotypes

based on gender, age, race, ethnicity, and even weight. From a perceptual standpoint, if people expectto see these stereotypes, that is what they will perceive, whether or not they are accurate.

Example: - All Muslims are not terrorists.

Description: You can probably think of many other commonly held beliefs about the characteristics ofpeople belonging to specific groups. Such statements usually take the form: People from group Xpossess characteristic Y. In most cases, the characteristics described tend to be negative.Assumptions of this type are referred to as stereotypesbeliefs that members of specific groups tendto share similar traits and behaviors.Deep down inside many of us know, of course, that not all people belonging to specific groups possessthe negative characteristics with which we associate them. In other words, most of us accept that the

stereotypes we use are at least partially inaccurate.

Q.2 Explain Emotional Intelligence.

Ans. Emotional intelligence simply put is good people skills.

Definition: By Daniel Goleman, 1998 "It is the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those ofothers, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in ourrelationships."

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The roles of emotions and intelligence:

EMOTIONS INTELLIGENCE

Emotional processing

Personality effects

Mood Effects

Nature verses Nurture Intelligence

Types of emotions - Primary Recognition of multiple intelligenceEmotional Categories and continuum Intelligence as cognitive mental ability

Emotional intelligence in a workplace:

1. Golemans approach to EI in the workplace2. Initial supporting evidence

3. Application to leader ship

Golemans approach to EI:

The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions and achieving success in life waswell-accepted in ancient India. A concept of Sthitha-prajna (emotional stability), similar to theconcept of emotional intelligence, can be traced in the second chapter of Srimad Bhagavad-Gita.

Bhagavad-Gita Gita is a specific conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna in a specific situation ofKurukshetra battlefield. Pandavas were fighting against the Kauravas, the cousin brothers to restoretheir kingdom from Kauravas in Kurukshetra. Before the battle started, Arjuna, with deep sorrow andpity, found his close relatives, friends and respected gurus in enemys side. To win the battle he wassupposed to kill those beloved ones. He got confused about his rightful duty. Due to this hriday-durbalata (heart-non-strength), he refused to join the battle. In this context, Lord Krishna who playedthe role as the driver of Arjunas chariot, enlightened him about the eternal truth of life. According to

Lord Krishna, as mentioned in Bhagavad-Gita Gita, Arjuna suffered from indecisiveness resulting fromconfusion and a false sense of insecurity. Lord Krishna advised Arjuna to become Sthitha-prajna (thesteady minded person). He also told that an individual achieved his/her goal only when the mindbecame steady, poised and balanced. Evidently, the concept of Sthitha-prajna (the steady-mindedperson) talked about a unique interdependence between emotion and intelligence for effectivedecision-making which was most essential in excelling in every sphere of life. Gita, as a whole, advisesall to balance between intelligence and emotion.

Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for achieving a balancedpersonality in different stages of life on an inter-generational basis has been depicted in the Vedas. ByDr. Radhakrishnan, The Hindu View of Life opined that the attitude of the Vedas is one of trusttempered by criticism. Trust, because, whatever the older generations hold, may be true, and criticism

because, however, plausible the testimonies of the old views may be, it cannot deny the present of itsright to enquire and sift the evidence. This view aptly points out the need for emotional intelligence ineveryday life to become more emotionally balanced and functional individuals in society.

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By Bhattacharya: Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals cognition of own and othersemotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate theconsequence which in turn result in superior performance and better human relationship. Emotionalintelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes use of his/ her reasoning in theprocess of emotional responses (both positive and negative) in a given situation. So having highemotional intelligence doesnt mean that the person never panics or loses his/ her temper. It doesmean that he / she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive behaviors.The ability to bring out-of-control emotions back into line results in what earlier generations called

emotional maturity.

The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by Goleman(1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences. Personalcompetence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines how wehandle our interpersonal relationships.

Personal competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation. Self-awareness is the ability of an individual to observehim/herself and to recognize a feeling as it happens (Goleman, 1995). The hallmarks of this abilityare self-confidence, self- assessment and openness to positive criticism. Self-regulation is the ability tocontrol emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Trustworthiness,

integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and attitude to accept change are some characteristics of this ability.Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control and by moderatingimpulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people who have this ability are optimistic andcommitted towards organizational as well as individual goals.

Social competence: It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills. Empathy is theability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and to treat people according totheir emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in generating and motivating others.Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with people. People having thisskill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. Social skill is the culmination of allother components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively manage social andwork relationships only when they can understand and control their own emotion and can emphasize

with the feelings of others.

Golemans emotional intelligence model (1995)

The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence states "social and personalcompetencies are vital for a healthy and productive life. Self-awareness, optimism, andempathy can enhance satisfaction and productivity at work and in other aspects of life. Not only

do most of us spend the largest portion of our waking time at work, but our identity, self-esteem, and well-being are strongly affected by our work experiences".

lf-Awareness: Capacity for understanding one's emotions, one's strengths, and one's weaknesses.

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Knowing what we are feeling Using this in decision making Being realistic about our abilities and self confident in grounded way

Self-Management or Self regulation: Capacity for effectively managing one's motives andregulating one's behavior.

Managing our emotions to help us get things done Recovering well from upset Being prepared to wait for results

Social Awareness: Capacity for understanding what others are saying and feeling and why they feeland act as they do.

Relationship Management: Capacity for acting in a way that gets desired results from others andreaches personal goals

Emotional intelligence makes difference in the critical success factors in a career and organizationwhich includes:

Decision making Leadership Strategic and technical breakthroughs Open, honest communication Trusting relationship and team work Customer loyalty Creativity and innovation Motivation Ability and Selection Interpersonal conflict

COMPETENCIES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The Most Widely Recognized: Argues that human competencies like Self Self-Awareness, Self Self-Discipline, Persistence and Empathy are of much greater consequence than IQ in much of life.

Goleman concludes that companies increasingly Opt for EQ training when they realize that it raises job

productivity and customer satisfaction not withstanding

A difference in the IQs of Managers & Staff:

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Goleman describes an emotional competence as a Learned Capability, based on EQ that focuses onqualities such as initiative, empathy, adaptability & persuasiveness and results in outstandingperformance at Work.

A wide range of emotional intelligence competencies consistently distinguished top performers fromAverage ones.

The EQ Competencies that Distinguished Most Powerfully:

Achievement drive [Optimism, Striving to improve performance] The Ability to develop others [Sense Needs/Bolster] Adaptability [managing change/open to new ideas] Influence [Sense emotions in others/Persuasion] Self-confidence [Self aware strengths/weaknesses] Leadership [Inspire others to shared vision]

The only intellectual or cognitive competency [IQ] that distinguished top performers as strongly as anyof these was Analytical Thinking!

According to Goleman, people who rise to the top, of their field area arent just good at their jobs, they

theyre resilient, confident, optimistic etc.

In this sense EQ is explained as the ability to restrain negative feelings, such as anger and self self-doubt, and focus on positive ones, like confidence and congeniality.

To Goleman, Cognitive Skills [IQ] may get you in, the door of a company, but [EQ] helps you thriveonce youre in.

For example, success in sales requires the empathic ability to gauge a customer customers mood andthe s interpersonal skills to decide when and how to pitch a product and when to keep quiet.

Individuals with high EQ have the ability to flourish where others flounder! EQ consists of flexible skills

that can be readily learned! Any step taken in improving EQ is a leap towards realizing goals andincreasing personal efficacy and satisfaction improving EQ happens in a moment! Learning to pause, tothink differently in response to an experience is all that is needed to make significant changes!

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Q.3 A group formation passes through various stages: Explain the various stages ofgroup formation.

Ans:

Group: A group may be defined as a collection of two or more people who work with one anotherregularly to achieve common goals. In a group, members are mutually dependent on one another toachieve common goals, and they interact with one another regularly to pursue those goals. Effectivegroups help organizations accomplish important tasks. In particular, they offer the potential forsynergythe creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. When synergy occurs,groups accomplish more than the total of their members individual capabilities.

Classification of Groups: It can be of two types:

Formal Informal

Formal Group

Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific organizational purpose. Individuals behaviorsin this type of group are aimed at achieving organizational goals. The organization creates such agroup to perform a specific task, which typically involves the use of resources to create a product suchas a report, decision, service, or commodity (Likert, 1961). Though all members contribute to achievegroup goals a leader does exist in this type of group to oversee and direct group members.

Formal groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. They may be full fledged departmentsdivisions or specific work teams created for particular projects of fairly long duration.

Permanent work groups are officially created to perform a specific function on a regular basis. Theycontinue to exist until a decision is made to change or reconfigure the organization for some reason.

Temporary work groups are task groups are specifically created to solve a problem or perform adefined task. They may be dismantled after the assigned task has been accomplished. Examples arethe temporary committees and task forces that exist in an organization. Indeed, in todaysorganizations the use of cross-functional teams or task forces for special problem-solving efforts hasgoner up significantly.

Informal Group

An informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Group of employees

snacking together can be an example of such groups. Informal groups may be sub-categorized as:Command, task, interest, or friendship groups.

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1. Command groups are dictated by the formal organization. The organization hierarchy determines acommand group. It comprises of direct reports to a given manager.

2. Task groupsrepresent those working together to complete a job task. A task groups boundariesare not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships where thesame member may be reporting to two or more authorities at the same time. All command groups arealso task groups, but the reverse may not be true.

3. An interest group consists of people who affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each isconcerned.

The most important models of group development have been cited below.

The Five-Stage Model

1. Forming (Orientation):

In this stage the members are entering the group. The main concern is to facilitate the entry of thegroup members. The individuals entering are concerned with issues such as what the group can offer

them, their needed contribution the similarity in terms of their personal needs, goals and group goals,the acceptable normative and behavioral standards expected for group membership and recognition fordoing the work as a group member.

At this stage, members are:

moderately eager have generally positive expectations have some anxiety about why they are there and what it all means have some anxiety about other members such as who they are and what they arelike

During orientation, the work output is generally low as members are focused on defining the goalsand task, how to approach it, and what skills are needed. The length of this stage will depend onhow clearly the task is defined. Groups with simple tasks will move through orientation quickly, butgroups with complex goals and tasks may spend much longer in this stage.

This is an important stage because it serves to clarify the team's mission and bond team members.Teams that pay attention to building the relationships as well as focusing on the task tend to do betterthan those that skip over relationship building. Teams, after all, are made up of people who must workcooperatively for a successful outcome.

2. Storming (Dissatisfaction):

This is a turbulent phase where individuals try to basically form coalitions and cliques to achieve adesired status within the group. Members also go through the process of identifying to their expectedrole requirements in relation to group requirements. In the process, membership expectations tend toget clarified, and attention shifts toward hurdles coming in the way of attaining group goals.Individuals begin to understand and appreciate each others interpersonal styles, and efforts are madeto find ways to accomplish group goals while also satisfying individual needs.

This stage is characterized by:

argument conflict a dip in morale

It results from differences between initial expectations and the reality of the situation as perceived bythe members. Members may have varying opinions of what the group was to do and how toaccomplish it. Members are also beginning to confront the differences in their personalities and

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values, a condition that is present anytime strangers meet. Members may feel anger or frustrationwith the task or with other members or may even resent the presence of formal leadership.

Generally, the dissatisfaction stage is relatively short. Some groups, however, may become stuck inthis stage and continue to be both demoralized and relatively unproductive. In the worst cases, somegroups never emerge from this stage and, if possible, disband in frustration.

3. Norming (Resolution):

From the norming stage of the group of group development, the group really begins to come togetheras a coordinated unit. At this point, close relationships develop and the group shows cohesiveness.Group members will strive to maintain positive balance at this stage.

This stage in the group's development involves the:

resolving of issues setting up group processes setting of group policies, procedures, and values

increasing production

Members are now resolving differences and clarifying the mission and roles. Members are lessdissatisfied as in the previous stage because they are now learning more about each other andhow they will work together. They are making progress toward their goals. They are developing toolsto help them work better together such as a problem solving process, a code of conduct, a set of teamvalues, and measurement indicators.

Member attitudes are characterized by decreasing animosities toward other members;

feelings of cohesion, mutual respect, harmony, and trust; and a feeling of pleasure inaccomplishing tasks. The work is characterized by slowly increasing production as skills develop. Thegroup is developing into a team.

4. Performing (Production):

The group now becomes capable of dealing with complex tasks and handling internal disagreements innovel ways. The structure is stable, and members are motivated by group goals and are generallysatisfied. The structure is fully functional and accepted at this stage. Group energy makes a transitionfrom members focus on getting to know and understand each other to performing. For permanentwork groups, performing is the last stage in their development.

The team is accomplishing work effectively. Production is high and the climate is positive.Member attitudes are characterized by positive feelings and eagerness to be part of the team.Members are confident about the outcome, enjoy open communication, exhibit high energy, and

disagreement is welcome and handled without emotional conflict.

Although work is being accomplished through all the stages, this stage reflects the work beingaccomplished most effectively.

5. Adjourning (Termination):

A well-integrated group is able to disband, if required, when its work is accomplished, though in itself itmay be a painful process for group members, emotionally. The adjourning stage of group developmentis especially important for the many temporary groups that are rampant in todays workplaces.Members of these groups must be able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight schedule, and thenadjournoften to reconvene later, whenever required.

In the case of temporary teams such as task forces, design teams, and problem solving teams, a fifthstage reflectsthe ending of the process.

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Depending on the team's success in accomplishing its task and how strongly the members havebonded, this stage may reflect either a sense of loss or relief. When a team ends, time should bespent addressing how it should be done to properly recognize the team's accomplishments.

ConclusionAs you ponder the problems your team may be experiencing, consider what stage of development theteam may be in. It may help you in working toward a solution.

Groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Sometimes several stages go onsimultaneously, as when groups are storming and performing. Groups may at times regress to earlierstages. Another problem is that it ignores organizational context. For instance, a study of a cockpitcrew in an airliner found that, within ten minutes, three strangers assigned to fly together for the firsttime had become a high-performing group. The rigid organizational context provides the rules, taskdefinitions, information, and resources required for the group to perform, effectively.

External Conditions Imposed on the Group

All work groups are part of larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work inisolation. It is therefore influenced by mainly external factors which include organizational strategy,authority structures, rules and regulations, access to resources, physical work conditions andorganizational culture and performance systems and reward structures. Robbins (2004) outlines therole of these factors as follows:

The strategy will influence the power of various work groups which will determine the resourcesthat the organizations top management is willing to allocate to it for performing its tasks.

Organizations have authority structures that define who reports to whom, who makes decisions,and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to make.

Organizations create rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions, and other forms of formalregulations to standardize employee behavior.

The more formal regulations that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more thebehavior of work group members will be consistent and predictable.

The presence or absence of resources such as money, time, raw materials, and equipmentwhich are allocated to the group by the organizationhave a large bearing on the groupsbehavior.

The performance evaluation and reward system. Group members behavior will be influenced byhow the organization evaluates performance and what behaviors are rewarded.

Every organization has an unwritten culture that defines standards of acceptable andunacceptable behavior for employees. Members of work groups have to accept the standardsimplied in the organizations dominant culture if they are to remain in good standing.

The physical work setting creates both barriers and opportunities for work group interaction.

Q.4 Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either byself or by the subordinates. The essence of power is to control over the behavior of others:Explain what are the various bases of Power?

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Ans: By French & Raven, 1962 Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individualwants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior ofothers. Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources arecalled position power and personal power, respectively. Power also refers to a capacity that A has toinfluence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with As wishes. The greater Bs dependenceon A, the greater is As power in the relationship. Therefore according to Robbins, 2003 power is afunction of dependency.

Contrasting Leadership and Power

In an organizational context leadership and power are related to each others. Power is used by leadersas a means to attain group goals. In other words, power is a means of facilitating their achievement ofgoals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational requirements. Whatare differences between leadership and power? The first is in the area of goal compatibility which is asfollows:

Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence whereas leadership requires somecongruence between the goals of the leader and the followers.

The second factor is related to the direction of influence:

Whereas leadership focuses on the downward influence on ones followers, power does not minimizethe importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Evidence of the same is gained from insightsinto research on power that has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics for gainingcompliance.

Bases of Power: Power can be categorized into two types:

Formal

Informal

Formal Power:

It is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from eitherones ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individualdue to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. For example, a manager maythreaten to withhold a pay raise, or to transfer, demote, or even recommend the firing of a subordinatewho does not act as desired. Such coercive poweris the extent to which a manager can deny desiredrewards or administer punishments to control other people. The availability of coercive power alsovaries across organizations. The presence of unions and organizational policies on employee treatmentcan weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be categorized into four types which areas follows:

1. Coercive Power:

The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat ofapplication, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration throughrestriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In anorganization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend, demoteanother assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed.

2. Reward Power:

The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward poweris the extent to which a manager canuse extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include money,promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to rewards,

success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the skills of themanager.

3. Legitimate Power:

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The third base of position power is legitimate power, or formal authority .It stems from the extent towhich a manager can use subordinates internalized values or beliefs that the boss has a right ofcommand to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal authority to approveor deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or overtimework. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because subordinatesbelieve it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command.The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates. Thus this typeof power has the following elements:

It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy. Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers. Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It encompasses

the acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

4. Information Power:

This type of power is derived from access to and control over information. When people have neededinformation, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers have access to data thatsubordinates do not have). Normally the higher the level, the more information would be accessed bymanagers.

Personal Power

Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individuals position. . Three basesof personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and reference.

Expert power is the ability to control another persons behavior by virtue of possessing knowledge,experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisorpossessing expert power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be done or how it isto be done than does the subordinate. Expert power is relative, not absolute. However the table mayturn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than his/ her boss. In this age of

technology driven environments, the second proposition holds true in many occasions where the bossis dependent heavily on the juniors for technologically oriented support.

Rational persuasion is the ability to control anothers behavior, since, through the individuals efforts;the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. Rationalpersuasion involves both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing how specificactions will achieve these outcomes.

Referent power is the ability to control anothers behavior because the person wants to identify withthe power source. For example, because the subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore triesto do things the way the boss wants them done. In a sense, the subordinate attempts to avoid doinganything that would interfere with the pleasing bosssubordinate relationship. Followership is not

based on what the subordinate will get for specific actions or specific levels of performance, but onwhat the individual representsa path toward lucrative future prospects.

Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individuals personality andinterpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.

Dependency: The Key to Power

The General Dependency Equation is as follows:

The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When an individual

possess anything that others require but that which alone the individual controls, he / she canmake others dependent and, therefore, gain power over them.

Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.

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This is one of the reasons why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one. Italso explains why individuals in general aspire to financial independence.

Three factors are responsible for dependency. They are as follows:

Importance

To create dependency, the things you control must be perceived as being important. Organizationsactively seek to avoid uncertainty and hence, those individuals or groups who can absorb anorganizations uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.

Scarcity

A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. For example, low-ranking membersin an organization who have important knowledge unavailable to high-ranking members gain powerover the high-ranking members. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is lowrelative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more attractivethan can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Thus scarcity in supply ofcertain types of skilled people can give them power to bargain over compensations and other benefits.

Non-substitutability

The more power that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over thatresource provides.

Power Tactics

Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is achallenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The mostcommon strategies involve the following (Kipinis et. Al, 1984):

ReasonUse of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas FriendlinessUse of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly CoalitionGetting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request BargainingUse of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors AssertivenessUse of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance Higher authorityGaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests SanctionsUse of organizationally derived rewards and punishments

Depending on the situational factors, individuals tend to use the above strategies accordingly to thesuitability and the likelihood of the success to be achieved by employing the same. The managersrelative power impacts the selection of tactics in two ways.

First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be inpositions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power.

Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with lesspower.

Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies.

The managers objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. Theobjectives may be as follows:

When seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness. When they are in need to make superiors accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason.

Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors.

Empowerment

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Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required tomake decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover, today, managers in progressiveorganizations are expected to be competent at empowering the people with whom they work. Ratherthan concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the traditional pyramid of organizations,this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter and more collegial structures.

The concept of empowerment is part of the decentralized structures which are found in todayscorporations. Corporate staff is being cut back; layers of management are being eliminated; thenumber of employees is being reduced as the volume of work increases. The trend clearly is towardscreating leaner and more responsive organizations which are flexible and capable of taking fasterdecisions with minimum bottlenecks created out of power struggles, typical of bureaucratic tallstructures. Hence, empowerment is a key foundation of the increasingly popular self-managing workteams and other creative worker involvement groups.

For the empowerment process to set in and become institutionalized, power in the organization will bechanged. The following are important context:

Changing Position Power: When an organization attempts to move power down the hierarchy, it mustalso alter the existing pattern of position power. Changing this pattern raises some important issues

Can empowered individuals give rewards and sanctions based on task accomplishment? Has their new right to act been legitimized with formal authority?

Thus in empowerment the basic issues which should be addressed are:

Training people in lower ranks how to function in the new empowered position. Using or unleashingpower correctly is also an issue and most importantly the authority, responsibility and theaccountability process should be clearly outlined so as not to upset organizational power equations.

Power in Groups: Coalitions

Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their power individually. If they fail todo so, then the alternative is to form a coalitionan informal group bound together by the activepursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this maybe difficult, risky, costly, or impossible.

In such an event, efforts are directed towards forming a coalition of two or more outs who, bycoming together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves. Successfulcoalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achievetheir target issue, and quickly disappear disintegrate.

There are a couple of predictions about coalition formation. They are as follows:

First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size. Decision-making inorganizations does not end just with selection from among a set of alternatives, but require tobe implemented. The implementation of a commitment to the decision is as important as thedecision. It is essential for coalitions within organizations to seek a broad constituency andthere may be expansion in coalition to help in consensus building

Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization. Morecoalitions are likely being created where there is a great deal of task and resourceinterdependence. In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and lesscoalition formation activity where subunits are largely self-contained or resources are in plenty.

Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers perform. Ingeneral, the more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions willform.

Politics: Power in Action

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Politics is defined as those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in theorganization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages anddisadvantages within the organization.

Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by theorganization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non-sanctioned means and the art of creativecompromise among competing interests. The above definition clearly points out the following:

a. Political behavior fall outside the ambit of ones specified job requirements.

b. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes employed for decision-making.

c. It includes a variety of political behaviors such as, withholding vital information from decisionmakers, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc.

In this context, it is necessary to make a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate powerdimensions within organizational contexts.

The Legitimate-Illegitimate Dimension may be explained in terms of the following (Farrell & Peterson,

1988):

Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politicscomplaining to your supervisor,bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc.

Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage,whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc.

The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimateforms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extremesanction.

There are two quite different schools of thought found existing in the analysis of literature onorganizational politics.

The first tradition builds on Machiavellis philosophy and defines politics in terms of self-interest andthe use of non-sanctioned means. In this tradition, organizational politics may be formally defined asthe management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctionedends through non-sanctioned influence means. Managers are often considered political when they seektheir own goals or use means that are not currently authorized by the organization or that push legallimits. By Pfeffer, 1981 where there is uncertainty or ambiguity, it is often extremely difficult to tellwhether a manager is being political in this self-serving sense.

The second tradition treats politics as a necessary function resulting from differences in the self-interests of individuals. Here, organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative compromise amongcompeting interests. In a heterogeneous society, individuals will disagree as to whose self-interests are

most valuable and whose concerns should, therefore, be bounded by collective interests. Politics comeinto play as individuals need to develop compromises, avoid confrontation, and co-exist together. Thesame holds true in organizations, where individuals join, work, and stay together because of their self-interests being served. It is equally important to remember that the goals of the organization and theacceptable means are established by organizationally powerful individuals in negotiation with others.Thus, organizational politics is also the use of power to develop socially acceptable ends and meansthat balance individual and collective interests.

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Q.5 Explain Organizational Development process

Ans.: ByRamanarayan, Rao, and Singh 1998 organization development (OD) is a planned approach toimprove employee and organizational effectiveness by conscious interventions in those processes andstructures that have an immediate bearing on the human aspect of the organization. OD is anorganization-wide planned effort, managed from the top, to increase organizational effectiveness and

health through planned interventions in the organizational processes, using behavioral scienceknowledge.

Characteristics of Organization Development:

Behavioral science base Normative approach to organizational change Deliberate intervention in the organization- Normative deductive strategy Systems approach to change Using action-research model Use of external consultant

History of Organization Development:

The concept of OD has emerged from four steps. They are described below:

Laboratory training background

This is popularly known as T-group or Sensitivity Training conducted in the National TrainingLaboratory. In this training, a small unstructured group of participants, unknown to each other, learntabout issues such as interpersonal relations, personal growth, leadership and group dynamics fromtheir own interactions. The experiment concluded:

Feedback about group interaction was a rich learning experience. The process of group-building had potential for learning that could be transferred to back-home

situation.

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Action-research/survey-feedback background

It was observed that a collaborative effort between the organizational members and the scientists wasrequired to gather data about an organizations functioning to analyze the causes of problems, and todevise and implement solutions. Further work in this area was conducted by Likert (1967) and Mann(1962). Data was required to assess the degree of effectiveness of those solutions. This approach,today, is as one of the most important methods for OD interventions in organizations.

Participative management background

Following the beliefs proposed by the two stems discussed earlier, Likert (1967) proposed anotherframework to enhance organizational effectiveness. This framework proposed organizations as havingone of the four types of management systems:

Exploitive authoritative system (system 1) which exhibits an autocratic top-down approach toleadership.

Benevolent authoritative system (system 2) which is more paternalistic than system 1. Consultative system (system 3) which is characterized by increased employee interaction, open

communication and decision-making.

Participative group (system 4) which nurtures high degree of employee involvement,participation and open work culture.

Using system management, through a survey-feedback process, Likert experimented with severalinterventions. The open culture and employee involvement facilitated the implementation process ofthe solutions provided for the problems.

Quality of work life (QWL) background

Based on the research of Eric Trist et al. at the Tavistcock Institute of Human Relations in London, thisapproach looked both at technical and human sides of organizations and how they are interrelated.QWL programs, in general, require joint participation by union and management in the process of

work-designing, which consequently result into high level of task variety, appropriate feedback andemployee discretion. The most distinguishing feature of QWL program is the development of self-managing work groups which consist of multi-skilled workers.

Process of Organization Development

A typical OD process can be divided into the following phases:

Problem identification: The first step in OD process involves understanding and identification of theexisting and potential problems in the organization. The awareness of the problem includes knowledgeof the possible organizational problems of growth, human satisfaction, the usage of human resourceand organizational effectiveness.

Data collection: Having understood the exact problem in this phase, the relevant data is collectedthrough personal interviews, observations and questionnaires.

Diagnosis: OD efforts begin with diagnosis of the current situation. Usually, it is not limited to a singleproblem. Rather a number of factors like attitudes, assumptions, available resources and managementpractice are taken into account in this phase. According to Rao and Hari Krishna (2002), four steps inorganizational diagnosis can be identified:

Structural analysis: Determines how the different parts of the organization are functioning in termsof laid down goals.

Processes analysis: Process implies the manner in which events take place in a sequence. It refers tothe pattern of decision-making, communication, group dynamics and conflict management patternswithin organizations to help in the process of attainment of organizational goals.

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Function analysis: This includes strategic variables, performance variables, results, achievementsand final outcomes.

Domain analysis: Domain refers to the area of the organization for organizational diagnosis.

Planning and implementation: After diagnosing the problem, the next phase of OD, with the ODinterventions, involves the planning and implementation part of the change process.

Evaluation and feedback: Any OD activity is incomplete without proper feedback. Feedback is aprocess of relaying evaluations to the client group by means of specific report or interaction.

OD Interventions:

OD intervention refers to an activity that is carried on in an organization with the help of an internal orexternal OD consultant for achieving a given goal or objective (Prasad 1970). Broadly, ODinterventions can be categorized as under:

Human process interventions Techno-structural interventions Human resource interventions Strategic interventions

Human Process Interventions

These interventions are aimed at the social processes occurring within organizations. Some of theimportant human process interventions are discussed below.

T-groups:

T-groups are designed to provide members with experiential learning about group dynamics,leadership and interpersonal relationships. The basic T-group training or sensitivity training is tochange the standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals by using psychological techniques andprograms. Sensitivity training involves group confession where the individuals problems become theproblems of the group, which in turn tries to find a solution. After critiquing others and being critiqued,doubt is introduced into the mind of each individual as to whose standards are really proper. Theobjectives of T-group training are:

Increased understanding, insight and self-awareness about ones own and others behavior andits impact on self and others.

Better understanding about the group and inter-group processes (facilitating and inhibitinggroup function).

Increased diagnostic skills. Increased ability to transfer learning into action.

Process consultation

It has been defined as a set of activities on the part of the consultant that helped the client toperceive, understand and act upon the process of events that occur in the clients environment in orderto improve the situation as defined by the client (Schein 1987: 11).

It deals primarily with five important group processes:

Communication. The functional roles of group members. The ways in which the group solves problems and makes decisions. The development and growth of group norms.

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The use of leadership and authority.

Third party interventions

It focuses on interpersonal or inter-group conflicts. Conflicts can arise from two sources:

Substantive issues like work methods, pay rates and conditions of employment.

Interpersonal issues such as differences in personality, task orientations, perceptions amonggroup members, completion over scarce resources.

Team building

It is an effective approach to develop and nurture a team culture in an organization, which helps thegroup members to enhance their interpersonal and problem-solving skills. It also helps group membersto develop a higher level of motivation to carry out the group decisions by overcoming specificproblems like apathy, general lack of interest among members, loss of productivity, increasingcomplaints within the group, confusion about assignments, low participation in meetings, lack ofinnovation and initiation, increasing complaints from those outside the group about the quality,timeliness, effectiveness of services and products, etc. This intervention can be used for the following

types of teams:

Groups reporting to the same supervisor, manager/executive. Groups involving people with common organizational goals. Temporary group formed to perform a specific, one-time task. Groups consisting of people whose work roles are interdependent. Groups whose members have no formal links in the organization, but whose collective purpose

is to achieve task they can achieve as individuals.

Depending on the types of teams, there are a number of factors that affect the outcome of

a specific team-building activity:

The length of time allocated to the activity. The teams willingness to look at the way in which it operates. The length of time the team has been working together. The permanence of the teams.

Techno-structural Interventions

Due to increasing global competition and rapid technological and environmental changes, theorganizations are forced to move away traditional bureaucratic structures (functional, self containedand matrix structure) to more flexible structures (process-based and network-based structures). Thisinvolves streamlining of workflows through structural adjustments by breaking down functionalbarriers. In this context, the techno-structural interventions help the organizations in structuralredesigning aiming at reorganizing organizational structure, the alternative methods of organizing workactivities and integrating people in a better way.

Human Resource Interventions

These are concerned with methods of managing people in a more effective and efficient way whileushering in the change process in an organization. These interventions are traditionally associated withthe human resource management function and are increasingly becoming an integral part of thechange management activities, for example, dealing with setting performance goals for groups andindividuals, performance appraisal and reward management. Activities such as career planning,managing work-force diversity, managing employee wellness also come under this category.

Strategic Interventions

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These interventions focus on organizing the resources of the organization to gain a competitive edge inthe market. These generally adopt the top-down management of change approach and require athorough and in-depth environmental scanning and awareness. The basic philosophy of this approachlies in developing core competencies or getting access to larger market share and technology, hithertoabsent in the organization, through alliances with other organizations possessing the same. On theother hand, interventions such as organizational culture change programme and organizationallearning helps organizations to gain the internal capacity to institute their change management processsuccessfully through continuous awareness, self-renewal and learning. Thus, the thrust in this process

is mainly on identifying the external sources of change and developing internal capabilities to addressthem.

Abad Ahmed (1972) has proposed six steps in an OD process:

1. Motivation for change

The motivation for change emerges from pressures, external or internal, felt by the top managementor the new strategic decisions of top management.

2. Data collection, problem identification and diagnosis

Throughout the OD programme, especially at the outset, these activities should be acted upon throughinterviews, surveys and meetings. Both, top management, other organizational members and ODspecialist take active part in these activities.

3. Planning strategy for change

At this stage, the diagnosis of problem is transformed into a proper action plan. Specific goals are setand the specific approaches for attaining these goals are also specified sequentially.

4. Intervening in the system

It aims to resolve difficulties, remove hurdles and give momentum to increase the effectiveness of theorganization (Dwivedi 2001). Here the OD specialists, and/or the top management take active part inthe process. Some examples of these interventions are: job enlargement, process consultation andother laboratory methods, which have been discussed earlier in this chapter.

5. Reinforcement and follow-up

A possibility of regression to the earlier behavioural pattern does exist if adequate care is not taken toadapt mechanisms for reinforcement and follow-up of the planned change. Establishing task force,project teams and temporary systems in the organization can be created to perform the responsibilityto implement and monitor the plans defined in the OD programme.

6. Monitoring and evaluation

A need for careful monitoring to get feedback regarding the effectiveness of the OD programme isalways felt. In this respect, appraisal of the change efforts, comparative analysis of control groups, preand post-intervention assessments are some of the methods to get the feedback in this regard.

Role of OD Consultant

According to Maheswari (1979), the role of an OD consultant is of a guru (teacher) who needs topossess the knowledge, wisdom and sensitivity vis--vis the problems of an organization. On the basisof his wisdom, he may advise the client (organization) to implement certain changes. However, it has

to be remembered that effective implementation of the advices are sole responsibility of the client. Theconsultant intends to advise the client to take appropriate actions, convinces the client for the requiredchanges and helps it to modify the mindset. OD consultants, in Indian organizations, generally face thefollowing difficulties (Dwivedi 2001):

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The perception of the entrepreneurs about OD The owners of the organization, in India, feel threatenedthat their power would be reduced if the OD interventions are applied, and it would be difficult todiscipline people. They also feel uncomfortable in discussing about their operational methods with theirmanagers or consultants. Moreover, they generally do not trust consultants fully.

Role of the OD consultants there is confusion about the role of the OD consultant. It is commonlybelieved that the role of the OD consultant is to diagnose all organizational problems, suggest propersolutions, put these all in a report and leave it to the management to take actions on it.

Q .6.Write short note on Stress Management

Ans.: Stress has been defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which causemental or bodily tension. In the modern day life stress is a part and parcel of our lives. At the same

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time, it should not exceed the capacity of an individual to handle it. If it exceeds in proportion to apersons abilities to cope with it, it would cause mental and physical imbalance in the person.Therefore, a major challenge for every one today is to make stress work for you as a productive forcerather than as a deterrent which can cause imbalance in an individual.

Types of Stress:

Stress can manifest itself in a number of ways depending upon the suddenness of an even to be dealtwith and types of stressors to be handled by an individual.

Physical This happens when the body as a whole suffers due to stressful situation. There are manysymptoms like, headaches, tension in the neck, forehead, and shoulder muscles. Long periods of stresscan cause other serious symptoms like digestive problems, excessive sweating, heart ailments, strokesand hair loss as well.

Emotional These responses are due to stress affecting the mind and include, anxiety, anger,depression, irritability, frustration, over-reaction to everyday problems, memory loss and a lack ofconcentration for any task.

Psychological Long-term stress can cause psychological problems in some individuals. Symptomsmay include social isolation, phobias, compulsive behaviors, eating disorders and night terrors.

Stress may be classified into two types: positive stress (Eustress) and negative stress (Distress).Moderate and manageable levels of stress for a reasonable period of time can be handled by the bodythrough mobilization of resources and is accompanied by positive emotions, such as, enjoyment,satisfaction, excitement and so on. This beneficial element in stress has been defined by Selye (1974)as Eustress (EU- meaning good). However, an overload of stress resulting from a situation of eitherover arousal or under arousal for long periods of time causes the following: first an unpleasant feeling,followed by physical damage, fatigue and in extreme cases, even death of an individual. This has beentermed by Selye as distress.

Potential Sources of Stress

While environmental factors are forces outside the organization, which may act as potential sources ofstress due to uncertainties and threats that they create for any organization and its members, factorswithin organization can also act as potential source of stress. Together or singly they may create atense and volatile working environment which can cause stress for organizational members becausethe inability of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources.

The following may be seen to be the potential sources of stress:

Environmental factors:o Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in an organization.

o Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties.o Political uncertainties can be stress inducing.o Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make an employees skills

and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.

Organizational factors:

o Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time period, work overload, a

demanding and insensitive boss, and unpleasant coworkers are a few examples.o Task demands are factors related to a persons job. They include the design of the

individuals job (autonomy, task variety, degree of automation), working conditions, andthe physical work layout.

o Role demands relate to pressures that are a function of the role an individual plays in an

organization.

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b. Role overload is experienced when the employee is expected to do more than time permits.

c. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly understood.

Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees. Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the degree of

rules and regulations, and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack of participation in

decisions might be potential sources of stress.

Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organizations senior executives.CEOs, by virtue of their managerial styles create an organizational culture which reflects tension, fear,and anxiety. They overemphasize tight control, hire and fire policies which keep organizationalmembers on hot seat and create stress among them.

Individual factors:o These are factors in the employees personal life. Primarily, these factors are family

issues, personal economic problems, and inherent personality characteristics.o Broken families, wrecked marriages and other family issues may create stress at

workplace as well.

o Economic problems created by individuals overextending their financial resources.Spending more than earnings stretches financial positions, create debt situation leadingto stress among individuals.

o A significant individual factor influencing stress is a persons basic dispositional nature. Over-

suspicious anger and hostility increases a persons stress and risk for heart disease. Theseindividuals with high level of mistrust for others also cause stress for themselves.

Stressors are additivestress builds up.

Individual Differences-

Five individual difference variables moderate the relationship between potential stressors and

experienced stress:

a. Perception: Moderates the relationship between a potential stress condition and an employeesreaction to it. Stress potential doesnt lie in objective conditions; it lies in an employees interpretationof those conditions.

b. Job experience: The evidence indicates that experience on the job tends to be negatively relatedto work stress.

First is the idea of selective withdrawal. Voluntary turnover is more probable among people whoexperience more stress.

Second, people eventually develop coping mechanisms to deal with stress. Collegial relationships with coworkers or supervisors can buffer the impact of stress.

c. Locus of control: Those with an internal locus of control believe they control their own destiny.Internals perceive their jobs to be less stressful than do externals.

Internals are likely to believe that they can have a significant effect on the results. Those with an external locus believe their lives are controlled by outside forces. Externals are more likely to be passive and feel helpless.

d. Self-efficacy: The confidence in ones own abilities appears to decrease stress.

e. Hostility: People, who are quick to anger, maintain a persistently hostile outlook, and project acynical mistrust of others are more likely to experience stress in situations.

Consequences of Stress

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Stress shows itself in three waysphysiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms.

Physiological symptoms:o Most of the early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms due to the

fact that specialists in the health and medical sciences researched the topic.o Physiological symptoms have the least direct relevance to students of OB.

Psychological symptoms:o

Job-related stress can cause job-related dissatisfaction.o Job dissatisfaction is the simplest and most obvious psychological effect of stress

(Robbins, 2003).o Multiple and conflicting demandslack of clarity as to the incumbents duties, authority,

and responsibilitiesincrease stress and dissatisfaction.o The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and

dissatisfaction. Behavioral symptoms:

o Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, absence, and

turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption ofalcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders.

Managing Stress:

High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to reduced employeeperformance and, thus, require action by management.

Individual approaches:

Effective individual strategies include implementing time management techniques, increasingphysical exercise, relaxation training, and expanding the social support network.

Practicing time management principles also leaves as an important element in managing stress,such as:

a. making daily lists of activities to be accomplished.

b. prioritizing activities by importance and urgency.

c. scheduling activities according to the priorities set.

d. knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of your job during the highpart of your cycle when you are most alert and productive.

Non-competitive physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with excessivestress levels.

Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques, such as,meditation, hypnosis, and biofeedback. Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an outlet for excessive stress.

Organizational approaches: Strategies that management might want to consider include:

Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to right person-job-fit therebyreducing chances of non-performance and stress level.

Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs can help in aligning the individuals andjob effectively and reduce stress.

Training in stress management techniques can be helpful. Increased employee involvement improves motivation, morale, commitment, and leads

to better role integration and reduction in stress. Improved organizational communication helps in creating transparency in organizations

and reduces confusion, thereby decreasing stress level at work.

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A Suggested Framework for Stress Management

As there is a positive side to stress and provides, drive, excitement and motivation for individuals topush themselves to achieve more in their lives in the fulfillment of their set goals, there is norequirement to eliminate stress form ones life. Managing stress should be given importance ratherthan elimination. The goal should be to find the optimal level of stress that can be handled effectivelyby an individual which will motivate the person and not overwhelm and distress an individual.

How can one find out what is optimal stress for an individual?

There is no single level of stress that is optimal for all people. We are all motivated or distressed bydifferent levels of stimulations in a given situation. Age, mental strength, upbringing and culturalfactors can be important elements that my influence our abilities to handle stress. Researches haveshown the following regarding our capabilities to handle stress:

1. The person who enjoys arbitrating disputes and moves from job site to job site would bestressed in a job which was stable and routine, whereas the person who thrives under stableconditions would very likely be stressed on a job where duties were highly varied.

2. Our personal stress requirements and the amount which we can handle before we succumb to

stress changes with age.3. It has also been found that many illnesses are related to unrelieved stress. If one isexperiencing stress symptoms, one has gone beyond the optimal stress level; then it isnecessary to reduce the stress in the individuals life and/or improve the ability to manage it.

How Can One Manage Stress Better?

Identifying unrelieved stress and being aware of its effect on an individuals life is insufficient forreducing its harmful effects. Just as there are many sources of stress, there are many possibilities forits management. There are two choices in this regard- either change the source of stress and / changeyour reaction to it.

What is the path for doing so?

1. Become aware of the stressors and the emotional and physical reactions.

Notice what causes distress. Ignoring them is not a solution. Listing out all the events that causedistress is important. What does an individual tell himself/ herself about the meaning of these events?Determining how the body responds to the stress. Does the individual become nervous or physicallyupset? If so, in what specific ways?

2. Recognizing what can be changed.

Is it possible to change the stressors by avoiding or eliminating them completely? Can their intensitybe reduced? Is it possible to shorten an individuals exposure to stress? Can one devote the time andenergy necessary to make a change (for example, goal setting, time management techniques may beused)?

3. Reduce the intensity of the emotional reactions to stress.

The stress reaction is triggered by our perception of danger: physical danger and/or emotional danger.

Are we viewing your stressors in exaggerated terms and/or taking a difficult situation and making it adisaster? Are we trying to please everyone? Are we overreacting and viewing things as absolutelycritical and urgent? Do we feel you must always prevail in every situation? Work at adopting moremoderate views; try to see the stress as something you can cope with rather than something thatoverpowers us is a solution for reducing stress, internally.

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4. Learning to moderate our physical reactions to stress.

Slow, deep breathing will bring your heart rate and respiration back to normal. Relaxation techniquescan reduce muscle tension. Electronic biofeedback can help you gain voluntary control over such thingsas muscle tension; heart rate, and blood pressure. Medications, when needed and prescribed by adoctor can help in moderating the physical reactions. However, these alone cannot do the job. Learningto moderate these reactions on our own is a desirable solution in the long run.

5. Build our physical reserves.

Exercising for cardiovascular fitness three to four times a week (moderate, prolonged rhythmicexercise is best, such as walking, swimming, cycling, or jogging). Eating well-balanced and nutritiousmeals are a must. Maintaining the ideal weight is essential. Avoiding nicotine, excessive caffeine, andother stimulants can be a great help in reducing stress. Mixing leisure with work and taking breaksfrom routine work can relax and reduce stress in a person. Getting adequate sleep is of utmostimportance. Being consistent with the sleep schedule helps in reducing stress to a large extent.

6. Maintaining our emotional reserves.

Developing some mutually supportive friendships and stable relationships help in sharing bottled-upemotions and reduce stress. Pursuing realistic goals which are meaningful to, rather than goals othershave for set for us which we do not identify with can help in reducing stress. Expecting somefrustrations, failures, and sorrows as apart of life can make us gear up mentally in handling stressfulsituations rather than succumb to them.

Crisis Management:

It Is the systematic attempt to avoid organizational crises or to manage those crises events that dooccur (Pearson & Clair, 1998).

Three elements are common to most definitions of crisis: (a) a threat to the organization, (b) the

element of surprise, and (c) a short decision time (Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998)

There are four types of organizational crises: Sudden Crises, such as fires, explosions, naturaldisasters, workplace violence, etc; Irrespective of the size of an organization affected, the mainbenefits of crisis management would encompass the following:

1. Ability to assess the situation from inside and outside the organization as all stakeholdersmight perceive it.

2. Techniques to direct actions to contain the likely or perceived damage spread.

3. A more effective way to rapidly trigger that part of business continuity management.4. Better organizational resilience for all stakeholders.

5. Compliance with regulatory and ethical requirements, e.g. corporate social responsibility.6. Much better management of serious incidents or any incident that could become serious.7. Improved staff awareness of their roles and expectations within the organization.8. Increased ability, confidence and morale within the organization.9. Protected and often enhanced reputation a much reduced risk of post event litigation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_responsibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_responsibility