mayan jungle biodiversity - sabina mastrolonardo · mayan jungle biodiversity 3 1.0 introduction...

Mayan Jungle

Biodiversity

BY: SABINA MASTROLONARDO

ENVR 3000

December 8th 2014

Mayan Jungle Biodiversity

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Table of Contents


TITLE PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 2

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 3

2.0 WHAT IS OPERATION WALLACEA? ............................................................................ 4

Mexico Research Location: the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve .............................................. 5

What is Conservation, Biodiversity and Their Importance? ................................................. 6

Conservation in Calakmul ................................................................................................... 7

3.0 OPERATION WALLACEA’S PRIMARY OBJECTIVES ................................................. 7

The Top Animal Biodiversity Surveys Conducted in Mexico ............................................... 8

Calakmul Research Base Camps .......................................................................................... 9

How Operation Wallacea is Collecting Accurate Biodiversity Data ..................................... 9

Replication, Replication and More Replication ........................................................ 10

Mark-Recapture Sampling ........................................................................................ 10

What May Animal Survey Data be Used For? ................................................................. 11

4.0 The Monitoring Methods of 4 Key Animal Groups and Habitat Surveys ......................... 12

Birds ................................................................................................................................. 12

Bats ................................................................................................................................... 14

Large Mammals ................................................................................................................ 16

Herpetofauna .................................................................................................................... 17

Habitat ............................................................................................................................. 19

5.0 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES AND FEASBILITY .................................................. 21

Bird Survey Suggestions .................................................................................................... 21

Bat Survey Suggestions ..................................................................................................... 22

Mammal Survey Suggestions ............................................................................................ 23

Herpetofauna Survey Suggestions ..................................................................................... 24

Habitat Survey Suggestions ............................................................................................... 25

6.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 27

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 28

FIGURES CITED ................................................................................................................ 29


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Acknowledgements

The data within this written report is all thanks to the help of many people, researches and new friends for

gathering all the research during this past field season and those in previous years. It was with everyone’s great

contribution efforts in the various animal conservation projects that brought the made the data possibly. What a

pleasure it was meeting so many wonderfully interesting people this summer making this an experience of a

lifetime filled with the most memorable moments.

A huge thank you Operation Wallacea for existing! Without this fantastic organizations work, animal

conservation would not be as proactive as it is, nor would my adventure have been able to take place. Thank you

for providing me with all the life experience I will hold onto forever. Keep fighting the good fight.

A big thank you to Dr. Kathy Slater, who was one of the senior scientists overseeing all the research

projects in Mexico. You were so approachable with questions, and your lectures fumed with passion, further

enticing me to work hard at gathering animal data in the field and the importance of it all.

Another huge thank you to Dr. Rick Baydack for making this course, and therefore this report possible to

share all that I learnt and my experience gained in Mexico. Thank you for also always being an amazing professor

and mentor, I couldn’t ask for a better role model.

Thank you to Dean Norman Halden, Clayton H. Riddell Faculty of Earth, Environment, and Resources for

supporting my expedition by providing a monetary contribution from the Faculty Endowment Fund.

Last but certainly not least, thank you to my amazing family and friends for supporting me, and letting me

be adventurous to find my true passion in life and helping make my trip to Mexico happen.


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1.0 Introduction

The following report outlines the animal conservation efforts that were conducted this past summer in

Calakmul, Mexico for the 2014 field season through Operation Wallacea running for a total of eight weeks. I

participated as a research assistant for three weeks beginning on June 16th until July 7th 2014.

In September 2014 the World Wildlife Fund released a report on the current health of the planet discussing

an enormous decline in biodiversity. The Living Planet Report documents the state of the planet, regarding

ecosystems, biodiversity, and pressures on natural resources, tying into what all this means for humans and

wildlife1. The discoveries show that between 1970 and 2010, 52% of the worlds’ biodiversity has been vanished1.

This shows a massive drop in the last 40 years for population sizes of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and

fish. If this is not a clear warning sign or clear enough scientific data collected to make some changes, there is

something wrong with our anthropocentric world. Change is needed and it is time for volunteers, students,

scientists, researches and professors to get into the field and work together on bringing overall biodiversity to a

stable level.

The planet proves to not be all doom and gloom and that there are some positive stories such as the Bengal

tigers in Nepal slowly increasing in their population size because of tougher government restrictions on poaching in

protected areas2. Also the mountain gorillas are increasing too across the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda

and Rwanda2. It is imperative to take action to amend the impacts humans are imposing on the planet, but it is

equally important to promote the success stories. Stories like Operation Wallacea’s are radiating positivity, as they

gather groups of researchers to study in the field and collect biodiversity data to provide a comprehensive view of

the health of our one and only planet.


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Figure 2: Alouatta pigra yucatanensis or the Yucatan black

howler monkey in the upper canopy Figure 1: Left over structure in Mayan Ruins

2.0 What is Operation Wallacea?

Operation Wallacea is an organization funded by tuition fees that run a series of biological and

conservation management research programs in remote locations around the world. The various biodiversity and

conservation management research expeditions are designed with specific wildlife intentions in mind – from

identifying areas needing protection, to implementing and assessing conservation management strategies3.

Information gathered on expeditions continue to support existing and future conservation management plans, in


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addition to having high quality fieldwork data published in papers and peer reviewed journals towards scientific

literature. The surveys accompanied in past years have yielded many peer-reviewed publications, showcasing the

discovery of approximately 30 new vertebrate species, the re-discovery of four supposed extinct species, and over

$2 million dollars levered from funding agencies to allow for the best management practices3. Operation Wallacea

(Opwall) conducts several conservation projects around the globe, one of those brilliantly diverse locations being

the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico.

Mexico Research Location: the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve

Located roughly eight hours northwest of the popular tourist destination of Cancun in the Yucatan

Peninsula is the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, established in 19894. The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico is

a large expanse of tropical forest that is continuous with the Maya Biosphere Reserve in the Petén Province of

Northern Guatemala. Collectively the forest spans over 7.5 million hectares and is known to be the largest section

of tropical forest north of the Amazon4. Unlike the majority of forest in the Yucatan region, in Calakmul there has

not been cutting or elimination of forest for the use of timber

nor has it been burned for agriculture, making it one of the

last remaining virgin forests in Mexico2. There have been

many threats posed over the years which have led to

designating the Reserve as critically threatened. This title

means prompt actions must be taken to continue to protect

and conserve the Reserves overall biodiversity4.

There is such an enormous range of area to cover and

conserve in Calakmul. Having forest connectivity such as

forest corridors are extremely important to ensure gene flow

between animal populations, and they are spread out to

withstand any natural disasters such as forest fires, floods and

hurricanes. For example, if an animal species is isolated in

one area of the Reserve and that region is confronted with a fire, all the animals will likely die, whereas if the

Reserve is connected to other areas of forest, then the animals have a chance of travelling and escaping the fire to

survive. Central American experiences a variation of extreme weather conditions and natural disasters throughout

the year, therefore forest connectivity is extremely important2.


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Figure 3: Ecosystem service wheel that nature provides for free

What is Conservation, Biodiversity and Their Importance?

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development defines conservation as “the

maintenance of biodiversity, including the diversity between species, genetic diversity within species and

maintenance of a variety of habitats and ecosystems”5. Various conservation strategies can include; preservation,

which involves keeping some part of the environment from change, for example, needing fences and protection2.

The approach of reclamation, which restores damaged habitats, also creation, of brand new habitats such as

planting native flowers to help a declining honeybee

population. Lastly conservation strategies need education

and in Opwall’s eyes especially at a local level2. In addition

to the above rankings, well organized management also

plays a very important role in maintaining a particular area.

There is familiarity in the notion that globally

biodiversity is at a decline and is at increased risk of

extinction due to a variety of reasons. These reasons

include; habitat destruction and degradation, environmental

pollution, over-harvesting of wildlife and trees for human

consumption, wildlife diseases, ozone depletion, and so on2.

In order to take the big picture and understand fully what is

happening to global biodiversity, there must be sensible

ways of monitoring it at a smaller level. Specific pressures

currently facing Calakmul include; human population

sizes, forest for agriculture use, hunting pressures of large mammals, water consumption with the already low

availability and ecotourism impacts2. It is impossible to look at all biological diversity at the same time so it must

be broken down into more manageable sections in some way.

Benefits of maintaining biodiversity are necessary because ecosystems are very complex and the loss of a

species can lead to an altered or collapsed ecosystem in other areas. Maintaining ecosystems proves to be of

importance because they are an integral part of human’s daily lives that provide many “ecosystem services” that

Figure 3 represents. Another interpretation of this importance is preserving biodiversity gives the human race

things that they need to survive that natures gives for free. But in life, nothing is free, and you must only take

enough to satisfy man’s needs, not mans greed.


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Figure 4: Montage of various wildlife in Calakmul

Conservation in Calakmul

Opwall’s research in Calakmul began with an extensive project in 2012. This was the projects pilot year

where accommodations were being built and transects throughout the jungle in each camp were being laid out and

prepared for animal surveys to begin2. Year two in 2013 was baseline data and year three of 2014 were both the

monitoring years when data collections were in full force. This upcoming field season of 2015 will be data

collection, reassessments regarding projects still working efficiently and, should all the same techniques for

collecting data be applied or the research of others to be considered. 2015 will also be the year where research is

combined together to apply for funding for sustainable agriculture and ecotourism projects that will help the local

people of Mexico to earn money in a sustainable way2.

3.0 Operation Wallacea’s Primary Objectives

Opwall’s inclusive objectives are determining the abundance, diversity and distribution of flora and fauna

and the key taxonomy groups of wildlife in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve2. The aim is to also monitor changes

to the diversity over time and investigate the habitat preferences of specific species. Furthermore, to identifying the

most important partitioned areas of the jungle for these species to help predict changes to their abundance and

distribution over time based on changes to their habitat2.

The Additional Objectives of The Project Are:

1. To utilize survey data to better understand the habitat preferences and ranging patterns of flagship species

such as jaguar, baird’s tapir and spider monkeys.

2. To utilize survey data to understand the relationship between forest disturbance and the abundance and

diversity of herpetofauna

3. To utilize survey data to identify the most important forest characteristics for maintaining diversity of

resident bird species


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1. Ornithology, the study of birds with over 360 resident species in Calakmul (14 which are endemic)

2. Chiropterology, the study of bats including; frugivorous, insectivorous, nectivorous and carnivorous bats

3. Large mammals including the felids; jaguar, ocelot, puma and margay; peccary, tapirs and deer plus spider monkeys and howler monkeys

4. Herpetology, the study of amphibians and reptiles with around 75 different species such as snakes, frogs, lizards, etc. Last not certainly not least;

5. Habitat surveying which included quantifying carbon storage value of the forests to produce carbon biomass estimates.

The focus of the above chosen groups were on key taxonomy groups, so a decline in any one of them would result in noticeable changes and fluctuations of biodiversity without them.

Figure 5: Agalychnis callidryas or the red-eyed tree frog

Agalychnis callidryas

Figure 6: Artibeus jamaicensis or the jamaican fruit bat

4. To utilize survey data to identify the relationship between forest disturbance and frugivorous bat

abundance and diversity

5. To utilize baseline biodiversity data, forest cover and carbon estimates for funding application to the

REDD+ programme or obtain funding from the Global Environmental Facility

6. To design and implement a forest coverage monitoring protocol for the reserve

7. To design and implement a biodiversity monitoring protocol for the reserve

8. To create and manage a biodiversity database for Calakmul that may be used by all relevant parties to

assist with management of the reserve2.

The Top Animal Biodiversity Surveys Conducted in Mexico:


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Calakmul Research Base Camps

The main research camp for all scientists, staff, students and research assistants was located at Kilometer

20 (KM20) in addition to four other camps spread out around the Reserve which were equally used as research

bases. The other camps included La Mancolona, Hormiguero, Dos Nacinoes and Nadzaca’an. However Nadzaca’an

was closed in the 2014 field season due to water levels being too high to work in. Among each camp were a series

of four trails. These trails ran out east, west, north and south of the camps which

were made in previous years and are known as the transect lines

for conducting surveys. With the massive amount of jungle area

to be studied, the transect method allowed for samples to be

collected in various areas in each camp as a great way to

capture the overall biodiversity of the Reserve.

Each of the four transects within each camp were two

kilometers long. Two transects were created near water bodies

when possibly such as the Mexican aguada’s, defined as a

temporary lake. Through a sampling strategy called line

transects, this has proved to be a successful approach in animal

conservation surveys and main method of Opwall’s studies2.

Transect routes may be used to create ‘pseudo-random’

sampling locations, by following a straight line through a given

strata observing two meters from each side of the line to gather data2.

How Operation Wallacea is Collecting Accurate Biodiversity Data

Survey teams were made up of various academics and volunteers with a shared passion to contribute to

conservation in Mexico. Teams would gather daily extensive biodiversity data for the purpose of organizing

effective sustainable management. Beginning on June 16th 2014, lectures were scheduled daily to provide

background and training regarding the various projects going on and the way they were conducted in Mexico. After

orientation on day one of the jungle experience, all the research volunteers were divided into groups which would

become their surveying group members to conduct studies with twice to three times daily for the time being. All for

the sole purpose of assessing the magnificent diverse wildlife in the jungle, measuring tree ranges for carbon

biomass samples and calculating sustainable buffer zones. Opwall’s initiative to gather accurate biodiversity data

was done by performing replication down transects and by mark-recapture sampling techniques2.


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Figure 7: Nail polish application on bats foot

Replication, Replication and More Replication

When surveying a site, it is highly unlikely to encounter every individual of the species or group of species

that you are aiming to study. Therefore, any data collected is only a start, a small sample of the total population of

each species of interest. The smaller the sample size means a greater chance to see strange results just by chance

that do not give a very good representation of the total population. For example, species will often not be evenly

spread out throughout a study site instead, they may be clumped into areas in groups or of suitable habitats they

prefer. Thus, the outcome of taking only a single sample will give very biased results. When surveying populations,

the goal is to take as many repeat samples as possible in order to get an accurate estimate and to reduce the bias’s

that may result from a low sample size2. Taking multiple samples, running it for a few years, both of these factors

allow for reliability in the data collected and average estimates. Estimated mean values are less affected by outliers

when the sample size is large, this is why replication is critical2. Replication was conducted down each of the four

transects a minimum of four times to ensure accurate data collection.

Mark-Recapture Sampling

Physically marking animals that are captured allows for recognizing individuals from a larger population2.

Instances when mark-recapture sampling can be used are on are small

mammals, bats, mice, rats and amphibians. Markings can include

coloured rings or a band around a leg, clipping fur, clipping ears or

toes, nail varnish painting and marker pens2. To use mark-recapture

sampling the following steps are:

Catch sample individuals from the population, mark them

and release them

Allow marked individuals to mix with general population

Catch a second sample

Recaptures can be marked in patterns to indicate number of recaptures2.

Mark-recapture methods in Calakmul were only used to monitor birds and bats. The animals that were

caught in mist nets were then analysed on site, marked with nail polish and then released. A coloured marking on

the left foot meant the animal had been caught before. Another colour on the same leg meant how many times that

individual had been caught, for example, white = once, yellow = twice. A brighter colour on the right foot

expressed what transect that animal was capture on, for example, red = transect 1, purple = transect 2. The


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markings are not permanent and meant to last only a few months, just long enough for the importance of the field

season data collection, then inviting the population to be open again allowing new individuals to join.

What May Animal Survey Data be Used For?

Animal survey data is used by a whole array of individuals, including scientists, students and governments

but generally it is used by people that want to know how best to manage a particular area and to conserve the

biodiversity existing. To date, the most well-known way that biodiversity survey data is used is for the

classification of species under the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of

Threatened Species2. It is under this system where species are categorized into levels of conservation concern based

on all of the data that is available.

The levels in the system are: • Extinct (EX) • Extinct in the Wild (EW) • Critically Endangered (CR) • Endangered (EN)

• Vulnerable (VU) • Near Threatened (NT) • Least Concern (LC) • Other: Data Deficient (DD)

Although many species have been assessed under the IUCN Red List, there is still a large number of

species that have not been formally classified due to a lack of data, especially in remote locations. These species

currently fall into another category called “Data Deficient (DD)” and yet many other species have not been

assessed at all, placing them into a “Not Evaluated” category2. This is why field work to gather data is constantly

needed in order to categorize additional species and to update the conservation concern of those species that have

been previously documented.

Therefore, one very important use of survey data is to identify which species are of the highest

conservation concern. The IUCN Red List provides a mechanism for doing this on a global scale, but many other

databases exist that assess the conservation status of species on a national or local level2. This collection of

important data allows for people to piece together the complex puzzle of what is actually happening to wildlife

populations around the globe. This is also the heart and soul of biodiversity, by maintaining species abundance and

populations across the extensive jungle of Calakmul.

Data relating to the biological importance of Calakmul is used to levee international funding to assist with

the management of the Reserve. The data gathered each year to date will be used to draft a report using the

Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance standards so the forest can be submitted for funding under the

Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Scheme (REDD+)2. The funding from the

Global Environmental Facility will then be used to protect the jungle by; increasing jungle patrol and providing

sustainable economic development for buffer zone communities so they are less reliant on jungle resources2.


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Figure 8: Collage of bird species caught in mist nets


4.0 The Monitoring Methods of 4 Key Animal Groups and

Habitat Surveys

As mentioned earlier, the emphasis of the selected groups in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve were to

predominantly study the diversity and richness on the key taxonomic groups.

Bird Surveying

Birds are a fascinating species having evolved from the

dinosaurs with some structural adaptions 125 million years

ago2. The importance of the diversity of birds in an ecosystem

is they are a great indicator of the overall ecosystems health.

They provide ecological services such as pollination and seed

dispersion6. Mexico is a country with great bird diversity,

ranking it top ten in the world. It has 360 resident bird species

until January hits when there are over 800 species of birds

because of migration patterns. In Opwall’s past years data

collections there have been around 90 known bird species

observed in mist net surveys and around 70 species identified

in point counts2. Some of the many captivating bird species

include the ocellated turkey, great curassow, chachalacas,

trogons, motmots, hummingbirds, parrots, toucans and many

more.

● ● ●

o Birds were assessed using point counts and mist netting techniques

o Bats were caught with the use of mist netting and echolocation machinery

o Mammal monitoring by recording mammal sightings and mammal tracks encountered along the

jungle transects

o Herpetofauna monitoring conducted with the use of pit traps, diurnal active searches and nocturnal

spotlight surveys along jungle transects

o Habitat survey plots laid out to gather carbon biomass estimates by a range of tree measurements

throughout the camps.

● ● ●


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Figure 9: Mist net


Figure 10: Disentangling bird from mist net


The Methods of Sampling:

1. Mist Nets (to capture lower canopy birds)

2. Point Counts (upper canopy birds)

Mist Netting

Mist netting involved heading down the scheduled

transect that day such as, transect three, finding a good location

where there were long corridors to set up the nets, then mark

down GPS location of where nets were set up. This is so when

returning to transect 3, a different area is surveyed. A set of six

nylon nets were set up parallel to the tree line because of bird

flight patterns wanting to cross from one area over to another2.

Each of the nets were 12 meters in length and two meters in

height. Once all nets were set up, researchers and scientists

stepped away from the various nets to decrease noise and

disturbance by human presence allowed for the birds to go on with their days,

flying about. Checking the nets occurred every 15 to 20 minutes to decrease any

stress a bird may be under if held confined in the net for too long.

Assessing the Birds

Once a bird was caught, the lead ornithologist would very carefully start to

untangle the bird’s wings and feet from the net and then place the bird in a cotton bag

to be weighed, soon after just the weight of the bag in order to subtract the bag weight

to get the total weight of the bird. Then a list of requirements was needed to be filled

out about the individual that was caught. Properties such as, capture time, number of

species caught, species scientific name, sex, weight, molt, fat, bill length, tarsus length,

and body and wing length.

Point Counts

With any survey study you are going to miss out or not include a

section of the total population. With mist netting surveys you are likely only capturing the birds that like to fly in

the lower canopy layer within the jungle2. There are many birds such as toucans that fly near the tops of the upper

canopy layer. Another bias with mist netting is you are expected to capture the small to medium range size of birds.


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Figure 11: Bat recently removed from net


For example, there is an extremely low chance of an eagle flying low and being caught in the nets. This does

however prove to be more an optimistic factor because a strong bird like that would definitely rip the nylon net

apart damaging it for further use.

Point count surveys involved heading down a specific transect and since the entire transect is two

kilometers long, at the first 100 meter mark in the jungle is when you would begin the first point count. This

required a team of at least three or four people to fill all the designated roles. One person to hold up a microphone

to record the bird calls for a ten minute session, then repeated continuously down the transect line ten times to

complete the transect. Another advantage to recording the bird calls is having it on file to later be replayed back at

base camp to double check proper calls were recorded and that other songs were not missed. Another team member

recorded the time of day such as 5:30 AM to ensure all ten minute point count surveys were completed. The other

team members were the lead ornithologists or the bird call experts, where once each ten minute period began they

would start to call out all the different bird species they heard and their best estimate of where abouts they heard it

from such as; 50, 100, 250 meters away.

Bat Surveying

Bats are the only true flying mammal and an

extremely important one to have around because they play a

key role in seed dispersal in the forest (frugivorous bat

species)2. Especially for secondary forest regeneration, bats

are outstanding at this job with their large flying ranges from

50 to 500 kilometers when excreting their waste to the

various places they are flying over. Up to 80% of the

tropical forest plants use fruits as a means of dispersing

seeds and most of the fruits are animal dispersed, as it is in the bats

case2. These fruits have an appetizing and nutritional attraction that

the animal consumes, usually in the form of fruit pulp. Seeds within the fruit are highly nutritious but plants do not

want animals destroying the seeds and are protected through structural and chemical defences. Therefore, most

mammals eat the fruit and then the undigested seeds pass through the gut, excreting the wastes2. Bats are also

pollinators (nectivorous bat species) proving to be very imperative for agriculture and fruit trees such as the

cashew, banana and mango trees2. They are also very important in an ecosystem due to being noble insect

controllers as they consume massive amounts of mosquitos and other bugs (insectivorous bat species). There are

currently over 90 known species of bats found in tropical Mexico and past year’s data through Opwall’s efforts

show 23 different species confirmed to have been captured in mist nets, the Jamaican Fruit Bat being the most


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Figure 12: Bat acting defense with sharp teeth


Figure 13: Bats captured in bags waiting to be processed

foot

abundant in the Yucatan area2. The various species are categorized as either a frugivorous, insectivorous,

nectivorous or as carnivorous bat, such as the endangered Greater False Vampire bat.

Chiropterology or the studying of bats, surveys

under Opwall’s practices were conducted using the same

style nylon nets as the birds. The nylon nets were made

with love and care because they are edible and digestible

for the bats while trying to bite their way out, if so do

ingest some of the net, has no negative effects on them2.

Bats are a nocturnal species, therefore surveys would

begin around nine PM as a practical time to set up the

nets and have fleets of bats beginning to fly into them. To

begin surveying, a total of four or five nets would be placed

in a suitable location along the transect that evening. One key

difference between the bird and bat nets is placement of the nets, because bats follow wider trails such as where

humans walk/hike through so the nets were placed across the transect instead of parallel with the trail. There is also

a slight net size difference as well used for the bats where they were also two meters in height, but instead six

meters in width. Checking back of the nets to see if there were bats caught was also required every 15 to 20

minutes to reduce any further stress the animal may be under.

When bats were caught in the net the lead chiropterologist with heavy duty gloves on would remove each

bat. Animals in the wild carry a handful of diseases and bats are a carrier of rabies. This is why the scientists would

always wear protective clothing, and bats were an animal that

students were unable to personally handle but could still assist

in measurements and identifying the specific species. During

Opwall’s surveys there was also the use of an echolocation

machine in certain camps. There was only one hand held

machine available and it travelled between camps with just one

lead bat scientist. Although bats have relatively good eyesight,

most depend on their superb developed echolocation (or sonar)

system to help navigate and capture insects in the dark. Bats

emit pulses of very high-frequency sound even inaudible to

human ears at a rate of a few to 200 per second2. The echolocater when turned on would then help draw bat species

into the netted areas when the evening starting to get late and bat flying was less frequent, such as midnight when

there were less abundance of bats and fewer being caught.


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Figure 14: Black howler monkey in the trees

Figure 15: ‘Accidental’ possum sighting during a herpetofauna hike

Assessing the Bats

Once a bat was caught and removed from the net, it was carefully placed in a cotton bag to determine its

weight. Other required features of the bat included; capture time, forearm length, wing span, identifying the bat

species, sex, and reproductive status.

Large Mammal Surveying

The large mammals primary focused on in Calakmul were ungulates including baird’s tapir, collared

peccary, white-lipped peccary, red brocket deer and white-tailed deer. Primates were the Yucatan spider monkey

and Yucatan black howler monkey. Additionally the four types of

felids included; jaguars, ocelot, margay and puma. Mammal

surveys were conducted by; recording live mammal sightings,

mammal tracks encountered along the jungle transects and some

data obtained from camera trapping within the jungle too. Large

mammals are also extremely important and do an efficient job of

seed dispersal in the midst of the jungle2. Especially those

mammals such as the jaguar, whose home range patterns go on for

miles, or the monkey who ingests fruit at one tree and passes the

seed on elsewhere.

A slight different about surveying mammals was that

designated transects needing to be completed, must have been

undisturbed by humans one day prior to surveying. The purpose of this sidestepping was to avoid any possible

damaging to the tracks. To begin surveying, if there was a live sighting during a mammal walk, a researcher would

then mark down the number of individuals seen, the distance perpendicular to the transect line and the visibility

score of the sighting as best they could. Furthermore the diurnal mammal surveying began by hiking down the

designated transect while observing the ground below two meters

on each side of the transect line. This worked effectively if there

were four researchers on a survey and two focused on the right

side, and the other two on the left side. The mammal tracking

continued until completion of the two kilometer long transect.


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Figure 16: Assessing a track Figure 17: Mammal track reference sheet

Assessing a Track

When a track was spotted on the ground, the large mammal survey sheet required the width and length of

the track, measuring this first also gave the general size and shape to help identify the animal. Additional items to

note were; GPS location of track, distance along the transect, age of tracks, leaf litter score which can be described

as how deep does the track go in order for it to be no longer visible. Once all data was collected the track was

stomped on and destroyed to avoid any future confusion of re-recording an old track.

Herpetofauna Surveying

Herpetofauna (herps) is the study of reptiles and amphibians collectively. Monitoring of the various species

was done with the use of pit fall traps and funnel traps, diurnal active searches in the day and nocturnal spotlight

surveys along jungle transects in the evenings. In both the reptile and amphibian groups there are a combined

massive diversity of approximately 15, 500 different species2. Although this number is large, both groups are in

fact poorly studied in comparison to the other animal groups and many are also suffering because of their sensitive

ectothermic skin exposed to the environment. Previous year’s data confirmed there were 20 species of amphibians

identified in Calakmul including salamanders, caecilians and 36 species of frogs and toads. For reptiles there were

144 confirmed species found of two species of crocodile, 16 species of turtles, 74 different snakes and 52 different

lizards2.

The importance of having various species of herpetofauna in an ecosystem;

1. Nutrient Cycling


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Figure 18: Pit fall trap

Figure 19: Assessing species with field guide of amphibians and reptiles

2. Insect Control

3. Medicinal Purposes

4. Limb Regrowth Studies

5. Biodiversity Indicators2

The groups of amphibians and reptiles are particularly

diverse allowing them to occupy a number of different

habitats. Having a great diversity of species that have adapted

to a wide range of habitats is often used as a gauge of the

forests well-being. However, they are also particularly delicate to changes in

their environment. The presence of many or only a few herps in an ecosystem is

often used as an indicator of forest health2. Pit fall traps were set up by various scientists prior to the day you would

want to check back. Figure 18 is a great visual of the setup of a pit fall trap. The small drift fences act as barriers to

intercept and guide the various herps into the pitfall trap, or funnel trap, placed directly adjacent to the fence.

Beginning of herp surveys was very similar to mammal surveying in that you would start by hiking down

the transect through the jungle while observing all around two meters on each side of the transect line. This also

worked successfully with team work by dividing the sides evenly to search more efficiently. The herp tracking

continued down the two kilometer long transect until completed, looking to identify any herps spotted and when

they were, the catch-assess-release method was used. Once a herp was spotted, it was anyone’s task to catch it but

it was very important if it was a lizard or a gecko to not grab either of their tails because of a defence mechanism

the animal uses to escape from other predators by dropping half of their

tails2. As students studying conservation, having the animal ‘waste’ its

predation defence by dropping their tail just to assess the animal and then

free them would be unfortunate.

Assessing the Herp

Once a herp was caught and cautiously placed in a bag, then

finding out its overall weight when the weight of the bag alone was

subtracted. The weight alone of the herp helped to identity the exact

species it may be, and the age of whether it was an adult or juvenile.

Also to be noted was the GPS location where spotted, the

distance along the transect, the length of the SVL (snout,

vent length), the LT (length of tail), whether the animal is camouflage or aposematic, the time found and last but

not least, identifying the species scientific name and the number of individuals caught.


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Figure 20: Example of five habitat plots down a transect

Figure 21: Hike through the jungle

Habitat Surveying

Habitat surveys were created and plotted in many areas throughout each camp. They were conducted down

all four transects every 400 meters apart. Each transect line was two kilometres in length making it possible to

create five habitat plots down just one transect. Therefore among each camp a total of 20 habitat plots were created

(4 transects x 5 repetitions = 20).

Surveying began by walking down the designated transect that day up to the 400 meter point. With the help

of a group, a measuring tape, string and spray paint you could then

begin to create the habitat plot by mapping out a large 20x20 meter

square. Within the entire square, there was further division of the area

into four smaller squares within the large area. The main purpose of

habitat surveys were to quantify how much carbon trees are storing.

They also gave information on the abundance of different animal

species and their habitat preferences such as in understory vegetation or

tall fruiting trees2. Habitat surveys may be the most important of all the

surveys because the general concept is that every animal encounter

along a transect (ex. an amphibian captured or tapir track) can be

linked to the nearest habitat plot. Thus providing a series of

habitat variables such as the mean tree height or distance from a water

source, to supplement the animal data to investigate what combinations

of variables are preferred by specific species2. This determines where

certain animals truly want to be, revealing their niches. Also presenting

key habitat preferred areas to protect and conserve2. Supplies required for

habitat surveys were; a measuring tape, string, knife, touch pole, canopy

scope, ruler, clinometer and spray paint.

Habitat surveying further divided into two methods:

1. Carbon biomass survey

2. Forest structure survey

1. Carbon biomass surveying

Carbon biomass surveying began by labelling all of the trees

with a number that were over 15cm in circumference with tape and a

marker. These numbers were later translated into the scientific Mayan

tree species name determined by a knowledgeable Mayan local man. Next bit


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Figure 22: Jungle Habitat

of information to gather was to determine if the tree was dead or alive. If the tree was dead however that would be

noted but it still got measured because of its ability to still store carbon. For all of the trees over 15cm just the

labelling was adequate, for the trees over 30cm however more measurements needed to be done2.

Always a two person job was measuring the angle with a clinometer to determine you could see the top of

the tree canopy. Also the distance from the observer to the tree, both of these measurements determine the overall

height of the tree using trigonometry. If the topography of the land happened to be a hilly region, taking an angle

reading while standing on a gradient then required an additional angle measurement. The angle from the observer

to the base of the tree gave you the precise tree height even while on a slope. An additional barrier is dealing with

slanted trees, this also required the observer to take two distance measurements. One from under the crown of the

tree and one angle from even further back once again to properly measure the height of the trees. It was obligatory

that all angel readings were to be under 70 degrees to get an accurate number and avoid infinite numbers during

final calculations in a spreadsheet. Lastly for carbon biomass surveys, were if trees had fallen on the ground, most

of which are dead, a length of the fallen tree needed to be measured to get the height and see how much carbon was

being stored.

2. Forest structure surveying

During forest structure surveys one person’s job was to count the number of samplings, or trees that were

smaller than 15cm in diameter. This number was counted within each of

the four plots to collect data on the understory vegetation to see the

foliage and density that some species may prefer over large branches and

trees. Following was with the use of a canopy scope (or roughly the

equivalent to a blank cd case cover covered in equal black dots) within

the large plot standing at five different points and looking upwards to

calculate how much canopy cover there is by comparing how much sky

we can see. This is used to help determine the abundance of fruiting trees

in the area which supply large amounts of food to monkeys2. Next was

leaf little depth, also conducted at five different points within the large

square. This was done to find out the composition of the ground, thus

giving us information on what certain animals/herps prefer as habitats.

Lastly for forest structure surveys was using a touch pole to also study

understory vegetation. The touch pole was a three meter pole divided by

black tape six times up the pole by 50cm increments. Walking down the

midline of the plots along the two ten meter strings within the large


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Figure 23: Measuring bird’s bill length

square you would put the touch pole down five times each way. The pole placed on the ground vertically and then

counted the number of touches to the pole that any type of vegetation comes into contact with. The number usually

ranged from zero to ten giving a number on the amount of vegetation present along the three meter height.

5.0 Alternative Approaches and Feasibility

Not every conservation plan, idea and implementation leads to initial success. Ecosystems with their

varying climate, topography, and various flora and fauna within it differ tremendously around the globe. It takes

time and trial and error to reach success, to prove a positive change is being made and proper data is being

recorded. In the following section alternative approaches to animal conservation are presented as suggested

improvements of the way surveys could have been conducted differently, and possibly ‘better’ than Operation

Wallacea’s current methods in Mexico.

Bird Survey Suggestions

Due to the large number of bird species present in the Yucatan region, the number one suggestion for bird

survey improvements would be to have a field manual provided for all ornithologists and researches. Having a

uniform manual for everyone involved in the survey projects would increase time and accuracy. A manual to set up

and disassemble the mist nets would increase time because setting up six, two meter high nylon nets, twice daily

would improve greatly after the second or third try after reading this manual. In opposition to not going off any

manual, just word-of-mouth instruction required much

more time, questions and people on the task. Mist nets

are very time consuming and must be set up without

errors. During Opwall’s bird surveys, much time was lost

explaining how, where and why then necessary. This was

then repeated daily and even weekly when new students

were on bird duty for the day, then weekly when new

student groups and researched were joining and leaving

each of the research camps. In addition, having a uniform manual for

how to assess the birds would also greatly improve the consistency of

the data collected. Various ornithologists around the globe have been

educated at many different institutes where there are different ways and rules of measuring birds. A manual

provided to all research teams would insure that everyone was following the exact same guidelines bringing in

alike information.

Another suggestion to improve surveys in bird populations is active bird nest searching. Nesting is of huge

importance to many bird species, it is who they are and part of their livelihood. Active searches for nests would


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Figure 24: Harp net trap

involve; what kind of nest it may be and the location and height of the nests, to allow determination of what bird

species the nest belongs to. Many nests in a given area, or even few nests both provide insight to where birds may

prefer to be, and where they may find a place they think is safe to raise and care for their young. To ensure success,

important background knowledge on how to identify the birds must be taken before hand. Knowing various bird

characteristics such as; size, coloration, vocalizations, and habitat preferences7. Although Opwall conducted their

field season during eight weeks in the heart of the summer season, active bird nest searching can be problematic

during that season where vegetation is thriving. In the winter season and during non-breeding seasons, when many

leaves from trees have fallen, it is then an easier task to see where old nests were located, and this also reduces

disturbance to active nests7. Searching for nests also takes a lot of patience and often times, choosing to specialize

in finding just a few bird species nests, instead of the entire population, with background knowledge included may

lead to success7.

Bat Survey Suggestions

A harp trap is an alternative device that can be used to capture bats. The hard trap provides an advantage in

that bats are not exposed to a net that requires disentanglement from traps like mist nets and hand nets. The harp

trap acts as a significant tool to obtain information on bat

populations, their movements and conservation management8. The

harp trap can be described as a double layer of very fine vertical

wires are hung from the top of the trap and lead into a collecting

tray. The bats detect the first layer and turn sideways to try to fly

between them. They then straighten up and hit the second layer

and slide down the wires into the collecting tray8. A critical aspect

and what may be a disadvantage of the harp trap is bats need to be

removed from the trays immediately as they can attack each other

while trapped inside2.

As mentioned earlier, during Opwall’s surveys there was one bat

sound detector for use, but travelled to the various camps with one bat scientist. Therefore another suggested

improvement would be having multiple sound detectors during the field season to enhance the amount of bats

flying into the nets. Turning on an echlocator around 11 P.M, when bat foraging slows down, would hopefully

attract in more bat species than there would be flying around without any use of equipment. There is a wide range

of different bat equipment available from detecting to recording and identifying bat species as well. The equipment

chosen can be narrowed down by cost, the range of the frequency calls and its various functions. Currently, the

most widely available bat detectors use heterodyning, a radio signal processing technique where frequencies are


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Figure 25: Inspecting bats wing to human hand similarities

Figure 26: Camera trap attached to tree

created or combined9. It works by picking up the bat calls by an ultrasonic microphone and then mixed with the

output sound of a high frequency oscillator within the bat detector9.

In comparing the harp trap and use of bat detectors, a study was conducted in Brisbane, Australia with a

total of 27 different sites, all sampled twice each. The study

showed that 12 species of bats were recorded by the bat

detectors and four species were captured from the harp traps.

The bat detectors had recorded significantly more species per

site than were captured by hard traps, in each of the three

habitat sites and overall10. Furthermore to add to this

alternative approach is possibly the need for a sound and call

library of sounds for the different bat species to enhance

greater accuracy between all bat scientists and researchers

recording data. Lastly, another minor suggestion is to have

more, or extra, long term/durable nylon nets than currently using. During surveys in Mexico, large bats had the

ability to destroy the nets beyond repair, and bat with large teeth as well for example the P. parnelli species a type

of insectivore bat munches its way through and out of the net2.

Mammal Survey Suggestions

The famous philosophical question is raised in, if an animal is in the

forest, but no one is there to see it, was it really ever there? It is not until

installing some high-tech camera or video equipment in various areas that then

allow wildlife biologists to determine the animals that are present. Large

mammal surveying tends to be the most difficult to reach success because of

the difficulty of seeing wildlife in their terrestrial home ranges. The various

alternative approaches presented to survey mammals could be; the use of sand

traps, camera traps and small mammal trapping.

i. Sand traps

Sand traps can be put together fairly easily, it involve little effort and

supplies such as; sand, a bucket, a rake and bait if necessary11. Sand is spread

out around a two feet wide area, with the bait in middle area and left over the day and night to then check back at to

identify species tracks with a guide book11. Taking photographs or sketching the track is also a good idea for future

clarification.


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Figure 27: Sherman trap

ii. Camera traps

A camera trap, also known as a trail camera can be used in the absence of researches to capture wildlife on

camera. It is usually motion censored, or passive infra-red sensor and activated to snap a photograph with flash

when an animal is detected nearby12. There is little human interference and are no risks or harm posed on wildlife

with these traps set up on trees or other sturdy vegetation available in the field, making them extremely useful and

successful12. Important things to consider is the placement of the camera, you want an area where you are more

likely to see wildlife such as travel routes or a river where they may congregate. Also to place camera where there

are no visual blockades in front or tall grass that sways in the wind, setting off the camera. Overall, for most

medium to large sized mammals, camera traps have proven to be an effective tool for surveying12.

iii. Small mammal trapping

During Opwall’s field season there were no trapping or tracking of small mammals. This raised many

questions by other researches asking why was this not being done to then have a

better estimate of the larger mammal’s food available in the jungle. Most small

mammals are primary consumers, abundant in many ecosystems as they serve

several important ecological roles, for instance representing the primary prey for

many carnivores and other large mammals13.

A popular tool that can be used to capture small animals is the Sherman

trap. The Sherman trap is a box-style animal trap aimed at capturing small

mammals inside with the use of bait, either grains or seeds14. The trap has been

around since 1955 making it the most safe and environmentally friendly method

still being used extensively by researchers in the field. The Sherman trap is also the

industry standard in live animal trapping and research worldwide14. The trap is made

up of eight hinged pieces of sheet metal which permit the trap to be collapsed for

storage or transport15. The trap costs under $30.00 and comes in the folding, or non-folding variations of the trap14.

Herpetofauna Survey Suggestions

An alternative suggestion for improving herpetofauna surveys is performing mark-recapture sampling. This

was not done on herpetofauna in Opwall’s studies and by executing this, it allows for recognition of individuals

among the huge population of reptiles and amphibians in the jungle2. The use of this method of marking and

recapturing could help aid in the decline of herps worldwide to get a further representation of how much is actually

out there. The data collected from mark-recapture methods can be done on snakes and most lizards by making a

small incision under the skin. Also, nail polish can be used to mark a herp on their tail. A disadvantage to marking


25

Figure 28: Funnel trap on end with drift fencing

is it not always an easy and safe task and can pose risks to mark frogs because toe clipping in their case can be

intrusive. A study was conducted testing the effects of toe clipping on frog survival on the blacksmith tree frog

(Hypsiboas faber) and it was found that although variable at times, overall there was little difference in the

recapture probabilities of frogs that had a toe clipping taken16. Also concluded was that frogs having more than one

pad removed, and instead two or three toe pads removed, there was then a slight decrease in their survival for

recapture16.

Each technique brings on its own advantages and disadvantages, and they can also be used in combination

with each other or singularly. Diurnal searches take a significant amount of time and also poses some bias in the

data due to the different skill levels of the observers. Uses of pitfall and

funnel traps have been a popular tool in the field of conservation research. A

suggestion for Opwall to better improve their data would be to bring in much

more pitfall traps, and improve their area in scope. By adding additional traps,

more netting and building a trench beforehand to push soil back would

increase the region where herps can travel to, hopefully being captured. The

pitfall and tunnel traps are not exceedingly complicated, instead they are very

affordable, can be made at home and are easily transported to set up at a

different location.

Another minor suggestion that can go a long way is to limit the

amount of students allowed on a herp walk. For example, there was a

maximum cap of six students with one lead researcher during a daytime or

nighttime walk. Once the field season was in session, some herp walks were

not overly successful, with a four hour hike ending in only a maximum of

ten species identified. Snakes were rarely caught and accounted for, with

their incredible senses to pick up the vibrations from the ground, scurrying away. Therefore, to increase

herpetofauna data collection, this can reach success by reducing human disturbances and noise from hiking with

fewer researchers.

Habitat Survey Suggestions

Habitat surveys in Mexico seem to be on a very good track and to date there are no future

recommendations or approaches needed. Opwall is gathering excess data because the government of Mexico is

currently undecided on their methodology of how they may be selling carbon from trees. In addition to the excess

data in Opwall’s studies, the specific Mayan species name of the trees were not previously included nor were trees

recorded that had a circumferences of under 30 cm.


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Figure 29: Mayan structure within the jungle

In the last few years of Opwall’s data gathering, there has been quite a lot of information ready to go, but

until there is a decision made, this data will once again get carried over and continue to be added to. An objective

out of the habitat surveys and the market for selling

carbon is trying to find a way to help fund local

communities. It is suggested that once plots of land

and trees holding carbon are divided, the local

people will be employed and educated on how and

what to do sustainably with their designated plots of

land.


27

Figure 30: Stargazing while bat surveying

6.0 Conclusion

University students getting an education through various degrees showcase the next leaders of our world.

Will they head in the direction of development, natural resource extraction or marketing? Or will they be

hydrologists, environmental lawyers or wildlife managers, a face for the future of conservation. All professions

involve an array of skills to fulfill the tasks at hand. Operation Wallacea has provided opportunities to many

students to join their program and gain field research skills in remote locations around the world. Opwall provided

knowledge of the tropical forest, exposing students and motivating them to be involved in wildlife conservation.

The practical skills I learnt in Mexico such as animal identification, animal capturing, mist netting, pitfall traps,

forest structure assessments, and much more, will all assist me in other conservation projects I am apart of leading

into my future career path.

The personal experience I took away from this expedition surpasses my expectations in the best way

possible. Never have I been pushed to my extreme limits hiking up hills in a constant sweat, in over 30 degrees in

long sleeve shirts, pants and socks. Residing in the middle of the jungle involved waking up with the birds and

going to sleep with the sounds of the insects. From roughing it up in tents among no other humans, to using a

bucket of water to shower, but all while contributing to important animal conservation in Mexico. From catching

and learning about many species of birds, bats, frogs and reptiles, to observing monkeys playing around in the

upper canopies, to even measuring trees upon trees to gather carbon biomass, and while only getting a little jungle

crazy a few times. It was an exhilarating wildlife research adventure and I wouldn't trade my 3 weeks spent in the

jungle for the world.


28

References

1. – Hoekstra, J. (2014, September 30). The Living Planet Report: Alarming Trends and a Path Forward.

Retrieved from World Wildlife: http://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/science-driven/posts/the-living-planet-

report-alarming-trends-and-a-path-forward

2. – Dr. Kathy Slater, senior research coordinator, personal communications, 2014

3. – Ltd., O. W. (2014). What is Operation Wallacea. Retrieved from Opwall: http://opwall.com/about-

us/what-is-opwall/

4. – Inc., W. (2014, June 21). Calakmul Biosphere Reserve . Retrieved from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calakmul_Biosphere_Reserve

5. – Development, U. N. (1992). United Nations Conference on Environment & Development. Rio de

Janerio: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

6. – Inc., E. S. (2011). Ecological roles of birds. Retrieved from Endangered Species International:

http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/birds4.html

7. – University, C. (2011). How to nestwatch. Retrieved from Nets Watch: http://nestwatch.org/learn/how-to-

nestwatch/how-to-find-nests/

8. – Inc., W. (2014, January 15). Harp trap. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harp_trap

9. – Trust, T. B. (n.d.). Bat Detectors. Retrieved from Bat Conservation Trust:

http://www.bats.org.uk/pages/bat_detectors.html

10. – Hourigan, C., Catterall, C. P., Jones, D., & Rhodes, M. (n.d.). Comparisons of harp trap and bat detector

efficiency for survey bats in an urban landscape. Nathan: University of Queensland.

11. – Lundberg, C. (2002, November). Sand Trap Tracker. Retrieved from Math in Science:

http://mathinscience.info/public/terrestrial_%20ecology/sand_tracker.pdf

12. – Inc., W. (2014, June 4). Camera trap. Retrieved from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_trap

13. – Chapter 5: Small Mammal Monitoring . (n.d.). Retrieved from USDA:

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/programs/snrc/featured_topics/msim/documents/msim_chapter_5_small%20mam

mals_fnl.pdf

14. – H.B. Sherman Traps, I. (2010). Welcome To H.B. Sherman Traps - Home Of The World's Best Live

Animal Traps . Retrieved from Sherman Traps: http://www.shermantraps.com/

15. – Inc., W. (2014, June 26). Sherman trap. Retrieved from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_trap

16. – Guimaraes, M., Correa, D. T., Filho, S. S., Oliveria, T. A., Doherty, P. F., & Sawaya, R. J. (2014, March

24). Contrasting the effects of Toe clipping and PIT tagging on frog survival and recapture probability.

Retrieved from National Center for Biotechnology Information:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4020705

http://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/science-driven/posts/the-living-planet-report-alarming-trends-and-a-path-forward

http://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/science-driven/posts/the-living-planet-report-alarming-trends-and-a-path-forward


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Figures Cited

Figure 1: Left over structure in Mayan Ruins………………………………………………………………….…………………….... 4

Figure 2: Alouatta pigra yucatanensis or the Yucatan black howler monkey in the upper canopy………………………………..…… 4

Figure 3: Ecosystem service wheel that nature provides for free……..……………………………………..……………………….. 6

Figure 4: Montage of various wildlife in Calakmul……………………………………………………….………………………….... 7

Figure 5: Agalychnis callidryas or the red-eyed tree frog ……………………………………………….…………………………….. 8

Figure 6: Artibeus jamaicensis or the jamaican fruit bat…………………………………………….……………………………….. 8

Figure 7: Nail polish application on bats foot………………………………………………………………………………….….... 10

Figure 8: Collage of bird species caught in mist nets……………………………………………..………………………………….. 12

Figure 9: Mist net…………………………………..………………………………………………………….…….………….….. 13

Figure 10: Disentangling bird from mist net……………………………………………………………………….………….…….. 13

Figure 11: Bat recently removed from net………………………………………………………………………..………………….. 14

Figure 12: Bat acting defense with sharp teeth…………………………………………………………………………..………….. 15

Figure 13: Bats captured in bags waiting to be processed ………………………………………………….……………………….. 15

Figure 14: Black howler monkey in the trees………….…………………………………………………………………………….. 16

Figure 15: ‘Accidental’ possum sighting during a herpetofauna hike…………………………………..……….………………….. 16

Figure 16: Assessing a track……………………………………………………………………………………………………..….. 17

Figure 17: Mammal track reference sheet……………………………………………………………………….……...………….. 17

Figure 18: Pit fall trap……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….. 18

Figure 19: Assessing species with field guide of amphibians and reptiles……………………………………………..………..….. 18

Figure 20: Example of five habitat plots down a transect…………………………………………………………………….…….. 19

Figure 21: Hike through the jungle………………………………………………………………………………….……………….. 19

Figure 22: Jungle habitat……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….. 20

Figure 23: Measuring bird’s bill length………………………………………………………………………………………..…….. 21

Figure 24: Harp net trap…………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…….. 22

Figure 25: Inspecting bats wing to human hand similarities………………………………………………………….……..…….. 23

Figure 26: Camera trap attached to tree……………………………………………………….…………………….……..…….. 23


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Figure 27: Sherman trap……………………………………………………….……………….…………………………...…….. 24

Figure 28: Funnel trap on end with drift fencing……………………………………………………….…………….…………….. 25

Figure 29: Mayan structure within the jungle……………………………………………….……..……………….…………….. 26

Figure 30: Stargazing while bat surveying………………………….……………………….……..…………….……………….. 27

mayan jungle biodiversity - sabina mastrolonardo · mayan jungle biodiversity 3 1.0 introduction...

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