materials for the engineering...

Materials for the Engineering Technician

Raymond A. Higgins s s c (Birm), c. EII~. , FIM Senior Lecturer in Materials Science, The College of Commerce and Technology, West Bromwich; former Chief Metallurgist, Messrs Aston Chain and Hook Co., Ltd, Birmingham; and Examiner in Metallurgy to The Institution of Production Engineers, The City and Guilds of London Institute, The Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes, and The Union of Educational Institutes

HODDER AND STOUGHTON LONDON SYDNEY AUCKLAND TORONTO

Contents

Foreword

Preface

1 Setting the Stage A brief history of materials. Metallic and non-metallic materials. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

The Crystal Structure of Metals States of matter-gas, liquid, and solid. Crystal patterns. Allotrophy. Dendritic solidification. The presence of impurities. Crystal size.

3 Casting Processes Ingot-casting. Continuous casting. Sand-casting. Pressure and gravity die-casting. Centrifugal casting. Shell-moulding. Investment-casting. The full-mouldprocess.

4 Mechanical Testing Fundamental properties-malleability, ductility, toughness. The tensile test. Proof stress. Hardness tests-Brinell, diamond- pyramid, Rockwell, and Shore. Impact tests. Creep. Fatigue. Other tests-Erichsen test, bend tests, compression test.

5 Non-destructive Testing Detection of surface cracks-penetrant and magnetic methods. Detection of internal defects-X-rays, y-rays, and ultra-sonic nethods.

lMechanical Deformation and Recrystallisation of Metals Elastic and plastic properties. Slip. Work-hardening. Annealing and recrystallisation. Grain growth. Principles of cold-working and hot-working processes. Grain-jlow and jibre. Macro- examination of forged structures.

7 The Mechanical Shaping of Metals Hot-working processes. Forging. Drop -forging. Hot-pressing. Hot-rolling. Extrusion. Cold-working processes. Cold-rolling. Drawing. Cold-pressing and deep-drawing. Spinning. Stretch- forming. Coining and embossing. Impact-extrusion. Powder- metallurgy.

v

vii

1

8 Alloys Introduction. Eutectics. Solid solutions. Substitutional and interstitial solid solutions. Intermetallic compounds. Summary of properties.

9 Equilibrium Diagrams Construction of simple equilibrium diagrams. Types of equilibrium diagram-solid solution, eutectic, and partial solubility. Pre- cipitation from solid solutions. Ternary equilibrium diagrams.

10 Practical Microscopy Selection of specimen. Grinding and polishing. Etching. The metallurgical microscope. Use and care of the microscope. The electron microscope.

11 Iron and Steel The manufacture of pig iron. Steel making-the open-hearth and 'oxygen' processes. The composition of steel. The structure of plain-carbon steels. The iron-carbon diagram. The heat- treatment of steel-normalising and annealing.

12 The Heat-treatment of Plain-carbon Steels Principles of hardening. Martensite. The hardening process. Tempering. Mass efSect and hardenability. Ruling section. The

, Jominy test.

13 Alloy Steels General efects of alloying. Constructional steels-nickel steels, chromium steels, nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels, manganese steels. Tool steels and die steels-high-speed steels. Sintered tool materials. Stainless steels. Heat-resisting steels. Summary of efSects of alloying elements.

14 The Surface-hardening of Steels Case-hardening-solid, liquid, and gaseous media. Heat- treatment. Case-hardening steels. Nitriding. Carbonitriding. Flame-hardening. Induction-hardening.

l 15 Cast Iron EfSects of composition on structure. The influence of cooling-rate on structure. 'Growth'. Engineering irons. High-duty irons.

I Spheroidal-graphite irons. Malleable irons. Alloy cast irons.

16 Copper and its Alloys Extraction and properties of copper. Commercial grades. The brasses. Bronzes. Aluminium bronze. Copper-nickel alloys. Other copper alloys.

Contents xi

17 Aluminium and its Alloys 204 Extraction and properties of aluminium. Alloys of aluminium. BS specijication system. Wrought alloys which are not heat- treated. Cast alloys which are not heat-treated. Wrought alloys which are heat-treated. Precipitation-hardening. Cast alloys which are heat-treated.

18 Nickel and its Alloys 220 Extraction of nickel. Uses of nickel. High-temperature resistance alloys. Corrosion-resistant alloys. High-temperature corrosion-resistant alloys. Low-expansion alloys.

19 Other Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys 226 Magnesium-base alloys. Zinc-base die-casting alloys. Lead- antimony alloys. Type-metals. Fusible alloys. Bearing metals.

20 Some Metals of the Space Age 233 Beryllium. Germanium. Hafnium. Niobium (columbium). Tantalum. Titanium. Zirconium. Uranium and plutonium.

The Machinability of Metals 24 1 Chip formation. Methods of improving machinability-the presence of a constituent in the microstructure, heat-treatment, cold-working the material.

:orrosion 246 Chemical corrosion. Electrolytic corrosion. Examples of electrolytic corrosion. The protection of metal surfaces. Painting. Stove-enamelling. Metal coatings. Oxide coatings. Metals which are corrosion-resistant.

23 Plastics 254 Types of plastics. General properties of plastics. Composition and structure. Terms used in polymer technology. Some important plastics. Thermoplastic materials-cellulosics, vinyls, fluorocarbons, polyamides, polyesters, and acrylics. Thermo- setting materials-phenolics, polyesters, polyurethanes, epoxy resins, and silicones. Mechanical properties of plastics. Methods of shaping plastics.

24 Wood and its Products 280 Types of wood. The structure of timber. Moisture-content and seasoning. Preservation of timber. Engineering uses of timber. Laminated wood. Plywood,. blockboard, and particleboard. Fibreboard.

xii Contents

25 Asbestos, Ceramics, and Concrete 29 1 Asbestos and its derivatives. Properties of asbestos. Products containing mainly asbestos. Composite materials containing asbestos. Ceramics. High-temperature ceramics. Tool materials. Cermets. Cement and concrete. Reinforced concrete. Pre- stressed concrete.

26 Methods of Joining Materials 303 Glues andadhesives. Soldering and brazing. Arc-weldingprocesses -metallic-arc, submerged-arc, electro-slag, gas-shielded arc. Plasma-arc welding. Oxy-acetylene welding. Thermit welding. Electron-beam welding. Pressure-welding processes-spot-, seam-, projection-, butt-, and flash-welding. Induction- and friction-welding. Structure of welds. Welding of plastics.

27 The Choice of Materials and Processes 319 Service requirements. Shaping and forming requirements. Economic factors.

Appendices

Index

All All AI1 All

Alu Alu Alu Alu Alu

2 Alu Alu

3S, see acrylo-butadiene styrene :etal resins, 267,268-9 :rylics, 267,268-9 .rylo-butadiene styrene, 124, 266, 268-9 Ihesives, 272-3,274,303-5 lmiralty gunmetal, 1967,198

Age-hardening, 212,214 Aggregate (concrete), 293,299 Air-hardening steels, 152-3,154,316 'Alclad', 252 ' 'kyd resins, 272-3

otropy (of iron), 5 oy cast irons, 1 8 6 8 oying elements, 149, 188; effects, 144, 49,188 oy steels, 149-64 oys, 77-86 )ha brass, 192 mina, 110,160,295,296

Aluminium, 4, 204, 324; electrical conductivity of, 206; in brass, 192-3, 194; in magnesium alloys, 226-7; in steels, 149; production of, 204; properties of, 205,246; specification system for, 207-9, uses of, 206

Aluminium alloys, 206-19; precipitation- hardening of, 212-15; specification ~ystem for, 207-9 ~minium bronze, 198-200 ~minium-copper alloys, 102,212 ~minium-copper-zinc alloys, 212 minium-magnesium alloys, 208-9 minium-magnesium-manganese alloys, 10-1 1 minium-manganese alloys, 208-9 minium-silicon alloys, 210-12

Animal glues, 304 Annealing: after cold-work, 51, 54, 135;

of brass, 55; of steel, 132,133, 135,245; of steel castings, 133 ; solution-annealing, 214

Anodising, 206,253 Antimony, 4, 324; in bearing metals,

230-1; in lead alloys, 228; in solder, 306

Antimony alloys, 228,229 Arc-welding processes, 306 Argon-arc welding, 309 Arsenic; in copper, 203 'Artificial age-hardening', 214

Asbestos, 291; fibre, 261, 292; friction materials, 294; insulation, 293 ; mill- board, 292; paper, 292; properties of, 291; reinforced plastics, 294; textiles, 292

Asbestos-cement products, 293 Atom, 3 Austenite, 125 Austenitic: cast iron, 186-8; manganese

steel, 155; stainless steel, 162 Axles, steel for, 150-1,152-3

Babbitt metals, 230 Bainite, l38 Bakelite, 254,261,270,272-3 Ball-bearing steels, 150-1,170,172 Barium carbonate (in case-hardening), 167 Basic slag, 123 Basic steel-making, 123 . 'Basis' brass, 192-3 Bauxite, 204 Bearing: bronzes, 231, 232, 242; metals,

86, 23@-2; plastics, 232; of sintered alloys, 75

Beetle: common furniture, 285; death- watch, 285

Bend tests, 42 Beryllia, 295-6 Beryllium, 4,202,2334,321,324; bronze,

202 Bessemer process, 63,122,124 Beta brass, 193 'Birmabright', 210-11 Bismuth, 95; alloys, 229 Bismuth-cadmium alloys, 95-7 Blackheart malleable iron, 184 Blast-furnace, 120-2 Blockboard, 288,289 Blow-moulding (of plastics), 278 Body-centred cubic, 5 Boron carbide, 296 'Bostik', 305 Boundary, crystal or grain, 8 Brass, 1914,232; annealing of, 51; cold-

working of, 192; compositions of, 192; effects of alloying elements on, 194; free- cutting, 192-3; high-tensile, 192-3; hot- working of, 193

Brazing, 305,306; fluxes, 306; solders, 306 Bright-annealing, 55,136

332 Index

Bright-drawn steels, 149,245 'Brightray', 222 Brinell test, 30-2; errors arising in, 31 British Standards, 24; for aluminium

alloys, 207-9 Brittleness, 23 ; in steel, 125 Broaches, steel for, 131 Bronze : aluminium bronze, 198-200;

containing lead, 1968, 232; containing zinc, 1968; phosphor bronze, 1968; tin bronze, 1948,242

Bronze-welding, 312 Butt-welding, 314

Cadmium, 4,324; in copper, 190,203 Cadmium-base alloys, 231 Cadmium-bismuth alloys, 95-7 Caesium, l Carbides, 125; precipitation of, 162;

stability of, 151,164 CO2 process, 31 1 Carbon fibre, 262-3.266 Carbon steels: compositions of, 125, 131,

144; hardening of, 13741; heat-treatment of, 129-48; impurities in, 125; properties of, 131 ;structures of, 125-31 ; tempering of, 141-3; uses of, 129, 131, 142

Carbonitriding, 173,176 Carborundum, 296 Carburising, 84, 165; by gaseous media,

168; by liquid media, 167; by solid media, 166; heat-treatment after, 168

Cartridge brass, 192-3 Case-hardening, 165-76; by carbon, 165,

176; by nitrogen, 171,176 Case-hardening steels, 150-1, 152-3, 170,

172; heat-treatment of, 167,168-70 Casein, 255,288,289 Casting: centrifugal, 16; chill-, 10; con-

tinuous, 12; die-, 14; full-mould, 21-2; ingot-, 12; investment-, 18; of magnesium, 226; of plastics, 279; permanent-mould, 16; sand-, 12; shell-mould, 17

Cast iron, 177; alloy, 1868; compositions of, 177; effects of composition on structures of, 178,181,242; effects of cooling rates on, 178; fluid irons, 183; growth of, 181; high-strength, 183; inoculated irons, 184; malleable irons, 177, 184-7; microstructures of, 178; properties of, 43, 177, 242; spheroidal-graphite irons. 177, 184; varieties and uses of, 182-3, 242; welding of, 3 12

Cast structures, 9-ll,12,16

Cathode copper, 190 Cell, simple, 247 Celluloid, 254,261 Cellulose, 254,255,256,260; acetate, 263,

268-9; acetate butyrate, 264; nitrate, 254,260.263.268-9

Cellulosics~ 2634,268-9 Cement, 299-302 Cemented-carbide tools, 75 Cementite, 125 Centrifugal casting, 16 Ceramics, 294; filament-reinforced, 298;

high-temperature, 295; tools, 296 Cermets, 293,2969 'Cerromatrix', 229-30 Charpy test, 35-7 Chemical symbols, 4,324,326 Chill-casting, 10 Chill crystals, 10-1 1 Chills, used in moulds, 181 Chipboard, 289 Chisels, steel for, 144-5,156; tempering of,

142 Choice of materials and processes, 319 'Chromidium', 186 Chromium, 4, 324; in aluminium alloys,

21617; in copper, 202-3; in cast irons, 1868; in 'Nimonic' alloys, 222-3; in resistance alloys, 221 ; in stainless steels, 161-3; in steels, 149,1214,159,164; in temperature-resistant alloys, 223

Chromium-copper, 202-3 Chromium-nickel alloys, 221-2 Chromium steels, 149,150,151,161 Cire perdue process, see Investment-cast-

ing Cladding, 252 Clay, 254,295 Close-packed hexagonal, 5 Coatings on iron, 251 Cobalt, 4, 324; in cemented carbides, 75,

160, 298; in high-speed steels, 159; in 'Nimonic' alloys, 273

Coinage bronze, 1967,198 Coining, 71 Cold-chamber machine, 14-1 6 Cold: -drawing. 65; -heading, 58; -press-

ing, 67 ; -pressure welding, 3 16; -rolling, 65; -welding, 74, 316; -working, 50, 65; -working processes, 5-65-76

Cold-setting plastics, 255 Columbium, see Niobium Columnar crystals, 11 Composite materials, 262-3.2934 Compounds, intermetallic, 85 Compression-moulding, 277

compression tests, 43 Death-watch beetle, 285 Concrete, 12, 299-302; pre-stressed, 300; Deep-drawing, 67; alloys for, 67

reinforced, 300 Deep-etching, 59 conditioning (of timber), 284 Defects, detection of, 44-9 conductivity, electrical: of aluminium, Deformation: effects on properties, 50;

206; of copper, 190,203, 320; of silver, mechanism of, 50 320 Dendrite, 7

~onstructional steels, 143,150 Dendritic growth, 7-1 1 Continuous casting, 12.13 Densities of metals, 324,326 Cooling curves, 5,88 Dental alloy, 229 CO-polymer, 260 Deoxidation, 125; of steel, 125,155 Copper, 4, 189, 324; alloys of, 191; Deoxidisedco~per,191

arsenic in, 203; commercial grades, 191 ; Depth of hardening, 143-89155 of, 191 ; conductivity of, Diagrams, thermal equilibrium, see Equi-

190; impurities in, 190; in cast iron, libriumdiagrams 1868; in steels, 149; in white metals, Diamond~~ramidhardness, 32-3 230-1 ; production of, 189-90; proper- Die-casting, 14-16; alloys for, 16,210,211, ties of, 190-1 ; welding of, 191 218-19.227

Copper-aluminium alloys, 198-200 Dies, steels for, 149,156-60; tempering of, Copper-beryllium alloys, 202 156 Copper-cadmium alloys, 190,203 Diffusion, 84,91,93 Copper-chromium alloys, 202-3 Drawing dies, 66,67; steels for, 66 Copper-nickel alloys, 914,200-1 Drawing processes, 65-7 Copper-tellurium alloys, 203,243 Drills, steels for, 144-5, 159; tempering of, Copper-tin alloys, 1948,231,232,242 142,159 Copper-zinc alloys, 191 Drop-forging, 62 Copper-zinc-nickel alloys, 200-1 Dry-rot, 286 Cored crystals, 79-83.94 Ductility, 23 Cores: metal, 16; sand, 14,16 Duralumin, 212-15, 216-17 ; age-harden- Coring, 79-83,90,94,100,196 ing of, 212, 214-17; shaping of, 212; 'Corronel', 222 solution-treatment of, 21417 Corrosion, 24653; by atmosphere, 246;

by electrolytic action, 161, 246; chemi- 258 cal, 246; of mild steel, 246; of pearlite, ~j~~~~ pins, 15-16, 17 251 ; prevention of, 251-3 Elastic deformation, 24

Corrosion-resistance, 253 Elastic limit, 25 alloys, 161-2, 222, Elastic modulus, see Youngqs modulus

253 Elastomers, 304 Corundum, 296 Electrical-resistance alloys, 221 Cowper stoves, 122,123 Electric-welding processes, 306-15 Cracks, detection of, 44 Electrolyte, 161,248 Crank-shafts, steels for, 150-1,153,172 Electrolyticcorrosion, 161,24651 Creep, 39,275 Electron, 3,118,239,248 Creosote, 286 Electron-beam welding, 312 Critical cooling-rate, 138,139,143, 144 Electron microscope, 117 Critical points (or temperatures), 127 Electroplating, 221,252 Cross-linking, 258,305 Electro-slag welding, 308 Crystal boundaries, 8.9 'Elektron', 226 Crystalline state, 3 Element, l , 3 Crystallisation of metals, 5,7 Elongation (per cent), 28 Cupro-nickel, see Copper-nickel Embossing, 72 Cutlery steel, 161-2 Endurance limit, see Fatigue limit Cyanide case-hardening, 167; advantages 'Engineering stress', definition of, 26

of, 167 Epoxy resins, 272-3,274 Cyanides, precautions in using, 167 Equi-axed crystals, 11

334 Index

Equilibrium diagrams, 87-105; aluminium -copper, 102-3, 213 ; aluminium-silicon, 21 1 ; bismuth-cadmium, 96; construction of, 87-9; copper-beryllium, 202; copper-chromium, 202; copper-nickel, 91-4; copper-tin, 195; copper-zinc, 194; interpretation of, 90-1,93 ; iron-carbon, 126; lead-tin, 98; ternary, 104

Erichsen cupping test, 41 Etching, 11 1 ; macro-sections, 59; micro-

sections, 113 Ethylene, 21,260 Eutectic, 77-9,86,97; point, 78,97 Eutectoid, 127; point, 127 'Evo-stik', 305 Expanded polystyrene, 266 Expansion, thermal, effect of nickel on,

223 Extrusion, 64; dies, steels for, 156;

impact-, 72; of plastics, 276

Face-centred cubic, 5 Fatigue, 39-41 ; fracture, 40-1 ; limit, 40 Faults in welds, 316 Ferrite, l25 Ferrous metals, 2 Fibre, 58-9; carbon, 262-3, 266; in

timber, 283 Fibreboard, 290 Fibre-reinforced plastics, 262 Filament-reinforced cermets, 298 Fillers, 261,307 Fine grain, 10,16,53 Fission, nuclear, 239-40 Flame-hardening, 174,176 Flash-welding, 314 ,-

Flow-lines, 58-61 Flow-turning, 70 Fluorescent tests, 45,47 Fluorocarbons, 266,268-9 Flux: for brazing, 306; for soldering, 306;

for welding, 307 Forging, 62; die steels, 156; effects on

structure, 58 Formaldehyde, 270 Free-cutting: brass, 192-3, 244; bronze,

242, 244; properties, 241-5; stainless steels, 244; steels, 149,243-4

Freezing-point, 3 Friction materials, 294 Friction-welding, 316; of plastics, 318 Full-mould process, 21-2 Fungus (timber), 286 Furnace parts, steels for, 163 Furniture beetle, 285

Fusible alloy, 229 Fusion-welding, 306-1 3

Galvanising, 252 Gamma brass, 193 Gamma rays, 46,47 Gangue, 189 Gas-carburising, 168 ; advantages of, 168 Gas-shielded arc-welding, 309 Gas-welding, 31 1 Gauge length, 24 Gears, steels for, 150-1,152-3, 170 Germanium, 234,235 Gilding metal, 192-3 Glass-fibre, 255,266,271 'Gluelam', 288 Glues, 303-5 Gold, 324 Grain: boundaries, 8, 9; definition of, 10;

effects of alloying elements on, 54; flow, 58; growth, 52-4; size, 16,42

Graphite, l78 Gravity die-casting, 14,16 Grey cast iron, 178,179 Grinding (of micro-sections), 108 'Growth' of cast irons, 181 Growth-rings (timber), 282 Gunmetal, 1967,198

Hadfield steel, 154-5 Hafnium, 234,236 Hall-HCroult process, 204 Hammers, steel for, 145 Hardboard, 290 Hardenability, 143,149 Hardening: flame-, 174; induction-, 175;

of steel, 137-41; 150-60; temperatures for, 144

Hardness, 30; measurement of, 30-5 Hardwood, 280 'Hastelloy', 222 Heartwood, 282 Heat-resisting: alloys, 222-3; cast irons,

186; steels, 163-4 Heat-treatment: for precipitation-harden-

ing, 212, 214; of aluminium bronzes, 199; of beryllium bronzes, 202; df case- hardening steels, 168-70; of nitriding steels, 172; of steels, 129-48, 150-60, 244-5; to improve machinability, 133

Hexagonal close-packed, see Close-packed hexagonal

High-conductivity copper, 191 High-duty cast irons, l83 High-speed steel, 157-60; hardening of,

158-60; secondary hardening of, 160

Index 335

igh-temperature: alloys, 221, 223 ; ceramics, 296,298 igh-tensile brasses, 192-3,194 ooker process, 73

~ o o k e ' s law, 24 Hot-dip metal-coating, 252 Hot-gas welding (of plastics), 317 Hot-pressing, 63 Hot-rolling, 63 Hot-working: of metals, 55-7 Hot-working: die steels, 156; processes,

55-7,62-5 Hounsfield: impact test, 37-8; tensile test,

28 Hyper-eutectoid steels, 129 Hypo-eutectoid steels, 129

Impact-extrusion, 72 Impact tests, 35-8 Impurities: effects of on properties, 9;

segregation of, 9 Inclusions in microstructures, 111 'Inconel', 223 Induction-hardening, 175,176 Induction-welding, 315 Inert-gas welding, 309 Ingot-casting, 10,12 Ingot structures, 10-1 1 Injection-moulding of plastics, 277 Inoculated cast irons, 184 Inorganic cements, 304 Insect pests (in timber), 285-6 Inspection of welds, 44 Insulation board. 290 Interdendritic: porosity, 9; segregation, 9 Intermetallic compounds, 85-6 Internal defects, detection of, 46 Interpretation of equilibrium diagrams,

90-105 Interstitial solid solutions, 84 'Invar', 224,225 Investment-casting, 18 Iron, 4, 120, 324; cast, see Cast iron; in

brass, 194; pig, 122; wrought, 106,122 Izod test, 35-7

Jet-engine alloys, 222-3 Jig-welding of plastics, 318 Joists, steel for, 131, 145 Jorniny test, l46

'K' Monel, 200-1 Knives, steels for, 131, 161 Kroll process, 238

Lacquers, 272-3 Laminated wood, 288 Laminates, 262,266,272-3,283 Laser welding, 31 3 Latent heat of solidification, 3 Lattice, 3, 5,7 L-D process, 124 Lead, 4, 324; alloys of, 98, 228-31; in

brass, 192-3,194,244; in bronze, 196-8, 232,244; in steel, 2434

Lead-antimony alloys, 228-9 Lead-base bearing metals, 230 Lead-tin alloys, 98,305,306 'Ledloy' steels, 243-4 Lever rule, 93 Lighter flints, 235 Lignin, 283 Limiting creep stress, 39 Limit of proportionality, 25 'Linotype', 229 Liquidus, definition of, 90 Lost-wax process, see Investment-casting Lower critical temperature, 127 Low-expansion alloys, 2234,225

Machinability, 133, 182, 186, 194, 203, 241-5

Macro-etching reagents, 59 Macro-sections, preparation of, 59 Magnesia, 295 Magnesia-asbestos products, 293 Magnesium, 4,226,324; alloys of, 226-7;

in aluminium alloys, 208-9; in cast iron, 184

Magnetic-dust tests, 45 Magnification (of microscopes), 116 'Magnurninium', 226 Malleability, definition of, 23 Malleable cast iron, 177,184-7 Manganese, 4, 324; in aluminium alloys,

208-9; in aluminium bronze, 198-9; in brass, 192-3, 194; in cast iron, 178; in magnesium alloys, 226-7; in steels, 125, 149,154-5,164,243-4

'Manganese bronze', 194 Manganese steel, 154-5 Manufacture of: aluminium, 204-5; cop-

per, 189-90; nickel, 220; pig iron, 120; steel, 1224; wrought iron, 122

Martensite, 138 Martensitic: cast iron, 188; steels, 316 Mass effects in steels, 143 Matte, 189,220 'MazaY, 227 Mechanical deformation, 50 Mechanical properties of plastics, 275

Mechanical shaping of metals, 62-76 Mechanical testing, 23-43 Mechanism: of corrosion, 246-51; of

deformation, 50 Meehanite process, 184 Melamine formaldehyde, 271,272-3,289 Mer, 260 Mercury, 229,324 Metallic-arc welding, 307 Methane, 256 Microscope, 114; care of, 117; electron,

117; magnification of, 116; objectives for, ll5;useof, l16

Microscopical examination, 59 Microsections : etching of, 11 1 ; prepara-

tion of, 108-1 1 ; selection of, 106 Microstructures, sketching of, 118 MIG process, 309 Milling cutters, steels for, 159 'Modification' of aluminium-silicon alloys,

210 Modulus, Young's, 25 Moh's scale, 30 Moisture-content of timber, 284 Molybdenum, 4, 324; boride, 298; in cast

iron, 186-8; in heat-resisting steels, 163; in high-speed steels, 159, 160; in nickel alloys, 222-3; in steels, 149,152-3,154, 155,164

Mond process, 220 'Monel' metal, 200-1 Monomer, 260 Moulding of plastics, 2769 Moulds, sand, 12 Mounting of micro-specimens, 107,116 Muntz metal, 192-3

Nails, steel for, 131,145 Naval brass, 192-3,194 NHP mounting compound, 107 Nickel, 4, 220, 324; alloys of, 221-5;

effects of on steel, 54,149,164 ; in aluminium alloys, 215, 218-19; in case- hardening steels, 54; in cast irons, 186- 8; in heat-resisting steels, 164; in 'Nimonic' alloys, 222-3; in stainless steels, 161-2; in steels, 54, 149, 150-4, 164; production of, 220; uses of, 220-1

Nickel-chromium alloys, 221-2 Nickel-chromium-iron alloys, 221-2 Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels,

152-3,154,155 Nickel-chromium steels, 35,149,1534 Nickel-copper alloys, 200-1 Nickel-iron alloys, 2234,225 Nickel-molybdenum alloys, 222-3

Nickel-silvers, 200-1 Nickel steels, 150 'Niclad', 221 'Nicrosilal', 182,186 'Ni-hard*, l86 'Ni-lo', 225 'Nimonic' alloys, 222-3 Niobium, 4,234,2367,324; in steels, 149,

162 ' ~ i - 0 - ~ e l ' , 222 'Ni-resist', 186 'Ni-tensyl', 186 'Nitralloy'steels, 171,172 Nitriding, 171, 176; advantages of, 173;

disadvantages of, 173 Nitriding steels, 172; heat-treatment of,

172 Nitrogen: in case-hardening, 167, 171 ; in

steel, 124 Nodular cast iron, see Spheroidal-graphite

cast iron Non-destructive testing, 24,44 Non-ferrous metals, 2 Normalising, 132,244 Novolak, 270 Nuclear energy, 234,236,237,23940 Nylon, 232,254,267,268-9

Objectives, microscope, 11 5 Oil-less bearings, 74,75 Oils, quenching, 139 Open-hearth process, 122 'Orange-peel' effect, 42,43,53 Ores: of aluminium, 204; of copper, 189;

of iron, 120; of nickel, 220 Oxide coatings, 252 Oxy-acetylene welding, 31 1 Oxygen, in copper, 191 Oxygen processes, steel-making, 124

Pack-carburising, 166 Paints, for corrosion-prevention, 251 Partial solid-solubility, 97-100 Particleboard, 288,289 Pearlite, 128 Pearlitic malleable iron, 187 Penetrant tests, 44 Permanent-mould casting, 16 'Perspex', 267 Petroleum, 256 Phase, definition of, 90,192 Phenol formaldehyde, 17,270,272-3,288,

289 Phenolic plastics, 261,270-1,272-3 Phosphating, 251 Phosphor bronze, 196-7

Index 337

phosphorus: in bronze, 197; in cast iron, 178, in copper, 191 ; in steel, 123, 125; removal in steel-making, 123

pickling, 5457 pierce-Smith converter, 189 pig iron, manufacture of, 122 pipe, in ingots, 12 plane blades, tempering of, 142 Planes, slip-, 50 plasma-arc welding, 31 1 plastic deformation, 25 plastics, 254-79; foams. 266, 272-3, 274;

properties of, 256, 275; shaping of, 275-9; structures and compositions of, 2568; terminology, 258

Plasticiser, 261 Plating, 252 Platinum, 324 Plumber's solder, 87 Plutonium, 234,240 Plywood, 288 Polishing: compounds, 110,111 ; of mic~o-

sections, l l 0 Polyacrylonitrile, 262 Polyamides, 267,268-9 Polyester resins, 271,272-3 Polyesters, 267,268-9 Polyethylene, see Polythene Polyethylene terephthalate, 267 Polymer, 259 Polymerisation, 259,264 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMM), 267,

268-9 Polypropylene, 265,268-9 Polystyrene, 21,266,268-9 Polytetrafluoroethylene (FTFE), 232, 266,

268-9 Polythene, 254,257,258-9,265,268-9 Polyurethanes. 272-3 Polyvinyl acetate, 265 Polyvinyl chloride, 265,268-9 Polyvinyl chloride acetate, 260,265,268-9 Polyvinylidene chloride, 265,268-9 Portland cement, 299 Powder-metallurgy, 12, 74-6, 160, 233,

296 Precipitation: from a solid solution, 100,

214; hardening, 212,214 Preparation of microsections, 107 Preservation of timber, 285 Pressing, 67 Press-tools: steels for, 156; tempering of,

142,156 Pressure die-casting, 14; alloys for, 210,

218-19 Pressure-welding, 31 3-16

Primary: cementite, 129; ferrite, 129 Process annealing, 135 Production costs, 320 Projection-welding, 314 Proof stress, 26 Protection of metal surfaces, 251-3 Proton, 3,239 FTFE, see Polytetrafluoroethylene Punches, steels for, 145,156 Pyrometers, 91

Quench cracks, l38 Quenching: of steels, 137; media, 139

Radiography, 47 Rails, steel for, 131, 145 Rapid cooling, effects on structures of

steels, 138 Rare-earth metals, 226 Razors, steel for, 131,145 Reamers, steels for, 144-5, 159; tempering

of, 142,159 Recrystallisation, 51 ; temperature, 51 Reduction, chemical, 120 Refinement of grain, 150, 164; after case-

hardening, 168-70 Regenerators, 123 Relief of stress, 51 Resins, 254,304 Resistance alloys, 221 Resolution of lenses, 115 Resolving power of lenses, 115 Resorcinol formaldehyde, 288,289 Riser, 13 Rivets, steel for, 131,145 Rockwell hardness, 3 3 4 Rolling, 63; mills, 63 Rose's alloy, 229 Rubber, 254,258,259 Ruling section, 144,154,164 Runner, 13

Sacrificial corrosion, 250,251 Salt baths, 215 Sand-casting, 12 Sapwood, 282 Schoop process, 252 Screwdrivers: steel for, 131 ; tempering of,

142 Screwing-dies : steel for, 145 ; tempering of,

142 Screws, steel for, 131,145 Seam-welding, 314; of plastics, 318 Season cracking, 51 Seasoning of timber, 284

338 Index

Secondary hardening of high-speed steels, 160

Segregation: in castings, 9, 11; in ingots, 10; in welds, 316

Selection of materials, 319,323 Selection of micro-specimens, 106 Selenium, in stainless steels, 244 Service requirements, 320 Shafts, steels for, 152-3,170 Shears: steels for, 144-5, 159; tempering

of, 142 Shell-moulding, 17 Sherardising, 252 Shore scleroscope, 34-5 Shrinkage, 3 ; cavities, 9 'Silal', 182,186 Silicon : in cast iron, 178 ; in steel, 163 Silicon-aluminium alloys, 210-12 Silicon carbide, 296 Silicones, 274-5 Silver, 320,326; solders, 306 Simple cell, 247 Sinks, domestic, steel for, 162 Sintered: bearings, 75, 232; carbides, 75,

160,238; oxides, 160; tools, 75,160,238 Sintering of metals, 74 Sketching microstructures, 118 Slag, 122; inclusions of, 11 1 Slip, 50,85 Slip-bands, SO Slip-planes, 50 Small specimens, mounting of, 107 Smelting of iron, 120 Sodium, in modification process, 210 Softwood, 280 Soldering, 305; fluxes, 306; silver-, 306 Solders, 306 ,- Solidification of metals, 3 Solid solutions, 79-85,86,102,192 Solidus, 90 Solute, 84 Solutions, 79,100-2 Solution-treatment, 102, 214; of alumi-

nium alloys, 214; of beryllium bronze, 202

Solvent, 84 Solvus, 98 Sorbite, 142 Space lattice, 5-6 Specifications: aluminium, 207; British

Standard, 24 Spheroidal-graphite iron, 177,184 Spheroidising, 133,245 Spinning, 69 Spot-welding, 314; of plastics, 318 Spraying, metal, 252

Springs: bronze for, 197; steel for, 145 P Stainless iron, 161 Stainless steels, 161,253 'Standard brass', 192-3 Steel: compositions of, 125, 131, 144;

dead-mild, 124; heat-treatment of, 129- 48; impurities in, 125; manufacture of, 1224; structures of, 125-31; uses of, 129,131,142

Steel castings, annealing of, 133 Steel ingots: pipe in, 12-13; structure of,

11 'Stereotype', 229 Stitch-welding of plastics, 318 Stove-enamelling, 251 Stress, definition, 25 ; relief of, 51 "i Stress-strain diagram, 25,276 ,. Stretch-forming, 70 S

Structural steels, 131,145 Structures of: carbon steels, 125-31 ;

ingots, 11 ; metals, 7; plastics, 256-71 ; timber, 282; welds, 316

Sub-critical anneal, 134,135 Submerged-arc welding, 307 Substitutional solid solution, 83 Sulphur: in cast iron, 178; in steel, 125;

removal in steel-making, 125 Super-polymer, 260 Surface defects, detection of, 44 Surface-hardening of steel, 165-76 Swages, 62

Tantalum, 234,237-8 Taps: steels for, 145, 159; tempering of,

142,159 'Teflon', see Polytetrafluoroethylene Tellurium, in copper, 203,243 Temper-brittleness, 37,152-3,154 Temper carbon, l84 Temper colours, 142 Temperatures: for annealing, 51-3,133-6;

for hardening, 139, 144; for tempering, 142,144

Tempering of hardened steel, 141 Tempering furnaces, 143 Tensile strength, 24 Tensile testing, 24-9 Tensometer, Hounsfield, 28 Ternary equilibrium diagrams, 104 Terylene, 267,268-9 Testing: Brinell, 30; Charpy, 37; com-

pression, 43; creep, 39; Erichsen, 41 ; fatigue, 39; fluorescent, 45; gamma-ray, 47; hardness, 30; impact, 35; Izod, 37; Jominy, 146; magnetic particle, 45; mechanical, 23; penetrant-fluid, 44;

Index 339

Testing-contd. RockweII, 33; tensile, 24; ultra-sonic, 48; Vickers hardness, 37; X-ray, 47

Test-pieces, 28,31,36,38 Thermal equilibrium diagrams, see Equi-

librium diagrams Thermit welding, 312 Thermoplastic, 255,258; materials, 263-9,

304 Thermosetting, 255,258,270,304 Thoria, 295 Thorium, in magnesium alloys, 226-7 1 TIG process, 309

E Timber, 280-90; growth-rings, 282; moisture-content, 282,284; pests and preservation, 285, 286; seasoning, 289; structure of, 282-3 ; uses, 287-8

Tin, 4,326; in brass, 192-3,194; in bronze, 194

Tin-antimony alloys, 230-1 Tin-copper alloys, 194 Tin-lead: alloys, 98,229; solders, 305, 306 Tinman's solder, 87,305,306 Tinning, 252 Titanium, 234,238-9, 326; alloys, 239; in

aluminium alloys, 216-19; in stainless steels, 161, 162; in steels, 149, 161, 162

Titanium carbide, 298 Tool steels, 156-60; hardening of, 156;

tempering of, 156 Toughness, 23 'Tough-pitch' qpper , 191 Transfer-moulding of plastics, 278 Transformation rates, retardation of, 144,

164 Troostite, 142 Tubes, manufacture of, 65,67 Tungsten, 4, 326; in cemented carbides,

75, 160; in high-speed steels, 157-60; in steels, 149,157-60,164

Tungsten carbide, 75,157-60,298 Turbine blades, alloys for, 163,196-7 Type-metal, 229 Tyres, steel for, 131

Ultimate compressive stress, 43 Ultimate tensile stress, see Tensile strength Ultrasonic testing, 48 Upper critical temperature, 127 Uranium, 2,234,239-40,326 Urea formaldehyde, 17, 271, 272-3, 288,

289

Vacant sites, 84 Vacuum-forming of plastics, 279

Vanadium, 4, 326; in cast irons, 186-8; in steels, 149,157-9,164

Vegetable glues, 304 Vickers diamond pyramid hardness, 32-3 Vinyl plastics, 260,264-5,268-9 Volume changes in steel, 5,138 Vulcanisation, 254,258,259 'Vulcanite', 258

Wax patterns, 18 Weld-decay, 162-3, 317; prevention of,

162 Welding: fusion processes, 306-13 ; pres-

sure processes, 313-16 Welding of: alloy steels, 307; aluminium

alloys, 309; beryllium, 313; carbon steels, 307, 312; cast iron, 312; copper and its alloys, 309; plastics, 317-18; stainless steel, 162; uranium, 313; zirconium, 313

Welds, corrosion of, 162 Wet-rot, 286 White cast iron, 178,179,184 Whiteheart malleable iron, 186 White-bearing metals, 230 Widmanstatten structures, 133 Wilm, A., 212 Wire, manufacture of, 65 Wire ropes, steel for, 131, 145 Wohler fatigue test, 39 Wood, 280-90; types of, 280-1; veneers,

262,288; wool, 290; see also Timber Wood's alloy, 229 Woodworking tools: steel for, 145;

tempering of, 142 Work-hardening, 50 Wrought iron, 106,122

X-rays, 5,24,46

'Yale' keys, alloy for, 201 Y-alloy, 215,218-19 'Yellow brass', 192-3 Yield point, 25 Young's modulus of elasticity, 25

Zinc, 4, 326; corrosion of, 249; in aluminium alloys, 216-17; in brass, 191-4; in bronze, 197-8 ; in magnesium alloys, 226-7; protective coatings of, 252

Zinc-base: bearing alloys, 231 ; die-casting alloys, 227-8

'Zircalloy 11', 236 Zirconia, 295,299 Zirconium, 234, 235, 326; in magnesium

alloys, 226-7

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