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Chapter-III
MATERIALS
AND
METHODS
Materials and Methods Chapter-III
40 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
Chapter-III MATERIALS AND METHODS
This chapter deals with the description of the study area, sample and sampling
techniques, method of data collection, variables and their measurements, and statistical
analysis for data processing and interpretation. This has been divided into five sections as
below:
3.1. Description of the study area
3.2. Sample and sampling technique
3.3. Method of data collection
3.4. Variables and their measurements
3.5. Statistical analysis of data
3.1. Description of the study area
3.1.1. Locale of study
Geographically the Bundu is a land locked block located in south-east region of
Ranchi district of Jharkhand state about 42 km away from the district headquarter on
National Highway-33. It lies on the undulated surface of Chhotanagpur plateau between
23011’- 23018’ North latitude and 85035’- 85058’ East longitude at an altitude of 337
meters (1105 feet) above mean sea level. It is bounded on the north-east by the Sonahatu
block, on the north-west by the Namkum block, on the south-east by Tamar and Erki
blocks and on the south-west by Erki block and Khunti blocks. The block is blessed with
all the natural resources and surrounded by mountains and forests. Surya Mandir and
Dassam fall are the main attraction and tourist spots. Dassam fall on Kanchi river has a
drop of about 150 feet caused by the scarp edge of Ranchi plateau.
3.1.2. Demography
According to the Census of India (2001) the block consists of 88 revenue villages
and 11 panchayats with a population of 62509 (31624 males and 30885 females) living in
11495 households and constituting 2.93% of the district population and 0.25% of the
state population. Of the total population 60.74% are schedule tribe, 4.76% are schedule
caste and rest 34.50% belongs to other social groups. The population density, number of
persons per family and sex ratio are 249.07 per sq. km, 5.44 and 978 female/1000 male,
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41 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
respectively. The literates in the block are 23572 (16084 males and 7488 females)
accounting 44.02% of the total population.
Map 3.1.1. Map of the study site Source: jharkhand. gov.in
3.1.3. Sources of livelihoods
Unemployment and under-employment features are inherent in the block causing
low income and miserable life of the households. The work force constituted around
52.08% of the total labour force (53554) in the block. Out of the total work force of
27892 workers (15060 males and 12832 females), 57.82% are main workers and rest
42.18% are marginal workers. The work force is engaged mainly in cultivation (53.14%)
Location of Bundu Block
Bundu Block
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42 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
followed by agriculture labour (33.51%), others (10.35%) and household industry
(3.00%) (Census of India, 2001).
3.1.4. Physiography, geology and soil
The major parts of the block are normally flat with scattered hillocks and frequent
steep gradient due to rolling hills. The general surface of the block is marked by the
presence of Doin- the lowland and Tanr- the upland. The rocky outcrops and ravines are
also common. The vegetative cover of the block comprises widespread distribution of sal,
palas, tamarind, kusum, mango, jackfruit, jamun, ber trees etc. The hilly terrains are
covered by reserved, protected and private protected forests (Zamindari and Khutkatti).
Plateau formation is the most striking topographical feature in the area. The general slope
of the area is moderate towards east. The geological formation is mainly quartz and
granite. Laterite is also present in some area. Soil is sandy loam with shallow to moderate
depths. Soil at some places is mixed with gravel. The hill top is completely devoid of
soil.
3.1.5. Tribal communities
As per Census of India (2001) the total tribal population in the block is 32528,
forming 60.74% of the total population. The main tribal communities in the block are the
Munda, the Oraon, the Lohara etc. They are socially, educationally, economically and
politically backward with accompanying impediments of illiteracy, poverty, malnutrition,
superstitions, addictions, ignorance and exploitation. They have their own ways of life,
traditions, cultural identities and customary modes of living closely intertwined with
nature. Forests are the common thread in all their aspects of life, whether it is birth,
marriage, livelihood or death.
3.1.6. Climate and weather
The block falls under tropical climate with three distinct and well marked seasons,
summer, monsoon and winter. The rainy (June-October), winter (November-February)
and summer (March-June) show marked variation in temperature, rainfall and humidity.
The average annual normal rainfall is 1413.60 mm, which is received during months of
mid-June to mid-September. In this area, the mean minimum temperature is 24°C and
mean maximum temperature is 37.2°C. May is the hottest month and December is the
coldest month of the year.
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43 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.1.7. Land use and cropping pattern
The total land availability in the block is 25097 ha, of which 17.44% is under
forest, 3.59% is under culturable wasteland, 1.29% is under unculturable wasteland,
0.02% is under non-agricultural use, 8.41% is under irrigated cultivable land and rest
69.25% is under un-irrigated cultivable land. Rain fed agriculture using dry land varieties
of paddy form the main land use. Besides dry land paddy, villagers also cultivate maize,
mustard, ragi, groundnut, black gram, green gram, marua, niger, soyabean, arhar, urad,
gunja, surguja etc. The vegetables cultivated in the region include lady’s finger, gourds,
tomato, potato, drumstick, cauliflower, radish, turnip, carrot, chilly etc.
3.1.8. Water resources and irrigation
The principal river flowing through the block is Kanchi and there are 18 other
ephemeral hill streams and rivulets. Perennial springs are met within the more forested
hills. The man-made sources of water in the block are 82 well water, 65 hand pumps, 31
tank water, 2 tube well and 2 tap water. In the block, both the surface and lift irrigation
are in practice. The main sources of surface irrigation are tanks and canals. The main
source of lift irrigation is the tube well. Rainfall is erratic and irrigation facility through
tanks is inadequate. The total irrigated sown area in the block is 2110.49 ha, of which
39.32% is irrigated with government canal, 0.47% with private canal, 23.35% with well,
4.26% tube well, 9.96% with tank, 9.14% with river, 0.38% with lake, 0.12% with
waterfall and rest 13.00% with others.
3.1.9. Forest resources
The forest cover in the block is 4377.50 ha sharing 17.44% of the total
geographical area. The block falls under Bundu Range of Khunti Forest Division with
mostly northern tropical dry deciduous forest (5B/C2) (Champion and Seth, 1968). The
forests include a considerable wealth of land, soil, water, fuel, minerals, natural
vegetation, wild life, water life etc. Forests have multifarious uses and continue to be an
important source of livelihood and means of survival in the block. Forests are the source
of revenue, employment, shelter, housing materials, cloth, ornament, fuel, fodder/
grazing, timber, food, vegetables, medicines, fertilizer, fibre, floss, oilseed, cottage
industries and handicrafts and other Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) besides
playing a vital role in the environmental amelioration. There are possibilities to develop
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44 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
and expand forestry resources for generating additional livelihood opportunities in the
block. The forest of the area is typically multi layered comprising of a top canopy, shrub
layer, lower canopy and lower grass and herb layer. The block has rich forests consists of
trees, shrubs, herbs, lianas etc. (Appendix-III).
Map 3.1.2. Forest resources map of the study site Source: jharkhand. gov.in
The important tree species include Shorea robusta, Mangifera indica, Artocarpus
heterophylus, A. lacoocha, Terminalia belerica, T. arjuna, T. chebula, T. tomemtosa,
Cassia fistula, Ficus bengalensis, F. glomerata, F. religiosa, Semicarpus anacardium,
Anogeissus latifolia, Mallotus philippinensis, Syzygium cumini, Bauhinia veriegata, B.
purpurea, Adina cordifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, Acacia catechu, A. nilotica,
Schliechera oleosa, Madhuca indica, Ougeinia dalbergiodes, Butea monosperma,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Litsaea polyantha, Buchanania lanzan, B. angustifolia,
Boswellia serrata, Bombax ceiba, Albizzia procera, A. lebbeck, Lagerstroemia
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parviflora, Zizyphus jujuba, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pongamia pinnata, Aegle
marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Spondias mangifera, Tamarindus indica, Anthocephalus
cadamba, Cedrela toona, Morus alba, Dalbergia sissoo, Bambusa arudinacea, Careya
arborea, Gmelina arborea, Melia azedarach, Alstonia scholaris etc. The shrub species
available are Annona squamosa, Antidesma diandrum, Indigofera arborea, Alangium
salviifolium, Carissa carandus, Phoenix acaulis, Lantana camara, Clausena excavata,
Emblica officinalis, Zizyphus mauritiana, Carissa opeca, Schrebera swietinoides, Vitex
negundu, Xylosoma longifolium, Wrighita tomentosa, Croton oblongifolius,
Elaeodendron glaucum, Casearia graveolens, Nyctanthes arbortristis etc. The tree
resources have a cultural significance and the tree-man relationship is very striking.
The ground vegetation consists of Curcuma amada, Atylosia scarabaeoides,
Allium spp., Sida cordifolia, Kaempferia rotunda, Imperata arudinaceae, Clerodendron
infortunatum, Apluda varia, Cynodon dactylon, Crotolaria striata, Sida veronicaefolia,
Heteropogon contortus, Mimosa pudica, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Swertia
pulchella, Elaphantopus scaber, Abutilon indicum, Crotolarice striata, Eulaliopsis
binata, Pollinidium angustifolium, Crytolopsis bucharnani, Flemingia chappar, Agave
spp., Argemone mexicana etc. The climbers and lianas found are Melothria heterophylla,
Chonemorpha macrophylla, Barleria spp., Argyria speciosa, Vanda parviflora,
Cryptobpis buchanani, Dioscorea belophylla, Porana paniculata, Gloriosa superba,
Abrus precatorius, Celastrus paniculata, Vitis auriculata, Bauhinia vahlii, Smilex
macrophylla, Asparagas recemosus, Ipomea trudentata, etc.
3.1.10. Livestock
As per eighteenth livestock census (2007) the total livestock population in the
block is 191650, of which 10.67% are bullock, 19.15% are cow, 4.53% are buffaloes,
29.06% are goat, 1.37% are sheep, 2.42% are pigs, 0.58% dog, 30.65% are poultry,
1.49% are duck and 0.07% turkey. The other animals namely, horse, pony and rabbit
jointly account a negligible percentage of the total livestock population in the block i.e.
0.01%. The tribal people rear the livestock for animal products such as milk, ghee, meat,
dung, manure etc. ploughing, religious sacrifices, entertainment, propitiation of gods and
celebrations. The residents of the block lead their livestock for open grazing in the forests
in vicinity of the villages.
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46 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.1.11. Infrastructure
Bundu block has 66 primary schools, 21 middle schools and one inter college.
The citizens avail health facilities of 2 ayurvedic hospital and one health center. There are
8 post offices, 5 agricultural credit societies, several grameen banks and one branch of the
State Bank of India. There is one animal husbandry centre to look after the livestock in
the block. The block is linked with 12 private bus services and one national highway
(N.H.-33 between Ranchi and Jamshedpur) passing through Bundu which connect the
district head quarter. It has telephone and electricity connections and receives power for
domestic use. The block has one regular market, 2 cinema hall/ video hall, 2 sports clubs
and one stadium/ auditorium. It has access to both news papers and magazines.
3.2. Sample and sampling technique
3.2. 1. Selection of sample villages
The present study has been conducted in purposively selected Bundu block of
Ranchi district in Jharkhand. Nine sample villages out of the total eighty eight villages of
the Bundu block, having around 10% sampling intensity were selected using simple
random sampling technique for household survey. The sample villages selected
comprised Korda, Jojoda, Husirhatu, Banaburu, Nehalgara, Ghagrabera, Hesapiri,
Roredih and Kuchidih. The summary of sample selection process is given in the flow
chart as detailed in the Figure 3.2.1.
3.2. 2. Brief profile of the sample villages
The sample villages have considerable percentages of forest areas ranging
between 11.83 to 42.81%. The average land area under cultivation is 53.06% of the total
geographical area in the villages. Majority (75.74%-100%) of the population in the
villages are dominated by schedule tribes with an average sex ratio of 1028.22. The
literacy rate is very low varying between 24.52 to 44.87%. Average size of land holding
per household was found to be 1.89 ha. The percentage of main workers was 43.48 to
61.71%. The total livestock population ranged from 660 to 1752. A brief demographic
profile of the sample villages has been given in the Table 3.2.1. The sample villages have
a very low infrastructure development. The educational, medical, social, economic,
agricultural, irrigation, communication and transportation facilities in the sample villages
are very poor. The infrastructure profile of sample villages is presented in Table 3.2.2.
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47 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
Purposive selection
State Jharkhand
District Ranchi
Block Bundu
Random selection
Villages Korda, Jojoda, Husirhatu, Banaburu, Nehalgara,
(10%) Ghagrabera, Hesapiri, Roredih and Kuchidih
Stratified random selection
Respondents Marginal Small Medium Large
(20%) Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer
(77) (43) (29) (15)
Total (164)
Fig. 3.2.1. Sampling procedure
Table 3.2.1.a. Demographic profile of the sample villages Particulars Villages
Korda Jojoda Husirhatu Banaburu Nehalgara Hesapiri Roredih Kuchidih Ghagrabera A. Land use (ha) Village area 617.58 185.40 497.63 322.49 143.33 308.23 195.59 211.67 397.02 Forest 264.37 21.93 242.84 65.56 31.03 54.20 24.48 44.79 70.30 Cultivable waste 115.85 22.56 15.58 19.99 24.41 16.39 20.26 39.25 33.22 Other uses 27.48 23.10 25.77 21.36 15.07 22.22 20.74 26.43 42.12 Net sown 209.88 117.81 213.44 215.58 72.82 215.42 130.11 101.20 251.38 Irrigated 11.18 18.06 11.89 77.12 2.02 3.90 1.25 10.73 35.34 Un-irrigated 198.70 99.75 201.55 138.46 70.80 211.52 128.86 90.47 216.04 B. Human Population (no.) Households 196 60 110 122 63 83 34 77 71 Total population 973 305 629 682 360 431 161 378 467 Male 400 125 292 294 148 183 62 156 202 Female 424 138 264 279 143 190 76 154 208 Children 149 42 73 109 69 58 23 68 57 C. Sex ratio ST 1080 1104 897 973 893 1000 1277 1000 1030 SC - - - 821 - - - - - Others 973 - 1091 1056 1308 1778 1067 920 - All 1060 1104 904 949 966 1038 1226 987 1030 D. Literacy (no.) Total 241 118 248 239 77 146 55 76 180 Male 190 74 172 173 57 95 33 55 126 Female 51 44 76 66 20 51 22 21 54
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48 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
Table 3.2.1.b. Demographic profile of the sample villages Particulars Villages
Korda Jojoda Husirhatu Banaburu Nehalgara Hesapiri Roredih Kuchidih Ghagrabera E. Caste structure (no.) ST 678 263 533 434 231 348 107 262 410 SC - - - 102 - - - - - Others 146 - 23 37 60 25 31 48 - F. Land holding (households) Landless 17 2 2 5 5 - - 5 - Marginal 102 24 52 45 29 28 10 34 22 Small 44 18 24 36 17 26 9 24 18 Medium 25 10 22 28 9 18 8 9 16 Large 8 6 10 8 3 11 7 5 15 G. Employment status (no.) Total workers 481 158 252 313 142 224 60 171 253 Main 319 111 121 296 65 131 28 104 140 Marginal 162 47 131 17 77 93 32 67 113 Non-workers 343 105 304 260 149 149 78 139 157 H. Livestock population (no.) Bullock 209 115 152 193 83 127 40 65 105 Cow 232 219 309 204 153 287 49 114 95 Buffalo 78 39 43 63 32 44 17 40 36 Goat 554 129 381 444 135 370 116 206 184 Sheep 45 13 26 29 14 18 9 17 16 Pigs 68 18 43 47 18 26 13 24 30 Poultry 711 263 491 524 289 399 147 367 355 Duck 39 20 22 31 16 24 15 19 18 Turkey 4 - - 2 - 2 - 1 - Source: Census of India (2001) and Livestock census (2007).
Table 3.2.2. Infrastructure profile of the sample villages Particulars Villages
Korda Jojoda Husirhatu Banaburu Nehalgara Hesapiri Roredih Kuchidih Ghagrabera A. Basic amenities (no./ distance) Primary school 1 1 1 >10 km 1 1 <5 km 1 1 Middle school <10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km <5 km <5 km <5 km <5 km >10 km Post office <10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km <5 km <5 km <5 km <5 km <10 km Bank <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Hospital <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Primary health centre
<10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km >10 km
Market <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Co-operatives <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Self help groups <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km B. Transportation facilities (no./ distance) Paved road 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 Mud road 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 Foot path 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 Navigable river 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Navigable canal 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Bus service <10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km 1 <5 km <5 km >10 km >10 km C. Drinking water and irrigation facilities (no./ distance) Well 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Water tank - - - - - 1 1 1 1 Hand pump 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - River 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 Canal 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D. Other facilities (no./ distance) Electricity <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Telephone <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Sports club >10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Source: Block Office, Bundu and Jharkhand Space Application Centre (JSAC), Dhurwa, Ranchi.
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49 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.2. 3. Selection of the respondents
Selection of respondents was done by proportionate stratified random sampling
technique based on size of land holding namely, marginal (up to 1.0 ha), small (1.1 to 2.0
ha), medium (2.1 to 4.0 ha) and large (4.1 ha and above) following Haque et. al. (2010).
The sample size consisted of 20% of the total number of the households comprising all
categories of the land holders. Household heads were treated as respondents. Village-
wise distribution of respondents belonging to different farmer’s group is presented in
Table 3.2.3.
Table 3.2.3. Village-wise distribution of the respondents belonging to different farmer’s group Sl. No.
Village Farmer’s group Total Marginal Small Medium Large
1. Korda 24 (31.17)
09 (20.93)
05 (17.24)
02 (13.33)
40 (24.39)
2. Jojoda 05 (6.49)
03 (6.97)
02 (6.90)
01 (6.67)
11 (6.71)
3. Husirhatu 11 (14.29)
05 (11.63)
04 (13.79)
02 (13.33)
22 (13.41)
4. Banaburu 10 (12.99)
07 (16.28)
06 (20.69)
02 (13.33)
25 (15.24)
5. Nehalgarha 07 (9.09)
03 (6.98)
02 (6.90)
01 (6.67)
13 (7.93)
6. Hesapiri 06 (7.79)
05 (11.63)
03 (10.34)
02 (13.33)
16 (9.76)
7. Roredih 02 (2.60)
02 (4.65)
02 (6.90)
01 (6.67)
07 (4.27)
8. Kuchidih 08 (10.39)
05 (11.63)
02 (6.90)
01 (6.67)
16 (9.76)
9. Ghagrabera 04 (5.19)
04 (9.30)
03 (10.34)
03 (20.00)
14 (8.53)
10. Total 77 (100.00)
43 (100.00)
29 (100.00)
15 (100.00)
164 (100.00)
Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages
3.3. Methods of data collection
In order to achieve the research objectives, the present study included both
qualitative and quantitative methods. Data were collected by using both secondary
sources and primary field survey. Secondary sources included literature from various
journals, research reports, forest department records, village records, internet, previous
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50 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
researches, annual reports and other related documents of different governmental and
non-governmental agencies. Primary sources included structured interviews with selected
respondents, direct observation and participatory rapid rural appraisal. The primary data
were collected at individual/ household and village level, whereas the secondary data
were collected for block, village and household/ individual level.
3.3.1. Structured interview
The primary data have been collected by the personal interviews of the
respondents through well structured pre-tested interview schedules at both the village and
household level.
3.3.1.1. Interview schedule preparation
Interview schedules for both village as well as respondent survey were prepared
on the basis of earlier works, reconnaissance survey of the study area, discussion with the
local peoples and consultation with the experts based on the research objectives
(Appendix-I & II). The village schedule prepared included village level informations: a)
location and physiography, b) anthropological aspects, c) demography, d) agricultural
aspects, e) livestock population, f) status of forest, g) ecological aspects, h) need profile,
i) land utilization pattern, j) land distribution pattern, k) natural and manmade resources
(tapped and un-tapped), l) man power potential and employment status, m) economic
infrastructure, n) basic amenities, and o) specific problems.
The respondent schedule structured comprised household level informations: a)
socio-personal and economic characteristics viz., i) age, ii) education, iii) social
participation, iv) family composition, v) size of land holding, vi) main occupation, vii)
housing status, viii) farm power, ix) farm implements, x) livestock possession, xi)
material possession, xii) income from forestry, and xiii) gross annual income, b)
psychological characteristics: i) level of aspiration, ii) knowledge about forestry
practices, iii) adoption of forestry practices, iv) attitude towards forestry; c)
communication characteristics: i) use of information sources, and ii) extension contact; d)
situational characteristics: i) employment status, ii) migration status, and iii) utilization of
forest resources, e) livelihood assets status of the respondent based on different capitals;
f) forest based tribal livelihoods; i) livelihood importance of forest resources, ii)
livelihood generation from forest based employment, iii) contribution of forests resources
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51 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
to total livelihoods, iv) encouraging factors of forest based livelihood and v) discouraging
factors of forest based livelihood.
These variables were consisted of few questions/ items/ statements/ levels/
indicators/ ranges/ ratios/ labels/ orders etc. with suitable assignment of scores to
perceptions/ responses as per standard methods/ tests/ indices/ scales of Supe and Singh
(1969), Venkataramaiah (1990), Sreenath and Veerabhadraiah (1993), Ray et. al. (1996),
Kumar (2001), Singha and Talukdar (2002), Sharma (2005), Pandey (2005), Nagesha and
Gangadharappa (2006), Singha et. al. (2006) and Thakur and Sharma (2009). The data,
thus, generated through these multi-disciplinary approaches were used to provide
suggestions for bringing back the waste and barren lands to production and to determine
the feasibility of locale-specific forest based eco-friendly livelihood strategies evolved for
poverty alleviation and ecological stability.
3.3.1.2. Interview schedule pre-testing
The schedule was pre-tested in non-sample village among 15 randomly selected
respondents for necessary modifications.
3.3.1.3. Rapport building
A good response depends to a great extent on good rapport building by researcher
with respondents. The respondents were contacted and the purpose of the study was
explained to them. This helped a lot in getting sincere and honest views from the
respondents.
3.3.2. Direct observation
The qualitative analysis was done on the basis of personal observation and
interaction with the respondents. This technique helped the investigator to have first hand
on-the-scenes contact with the respondents, see the behaviour in natural situation and
study the situation based features of conduct.
3.3.3. Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal (PRRA)
The Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal (PRRA) tools (Mukherjee, 1993) were
used as an alternative framework for data collection and analysis. Being participatory and
rapid in nature, these techniques are useful to focus attention on people, their livelihood
and their inter-relationship with socio-economic and ecological factors. The tools of the
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52 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
PRRA method included in the study are semi-structure interview with key informants and
focus group discussion.
3.3.3.1. Semi-structure interview
Using the checklist questions, the valuable key informants viz., NTFPs vendors,
forest product processors, saw millers, wood workers, wage labourers, foresters, old
people, leaders, school teachers and other forestry workers were interviewed for
information collection on socio-personal, economic, psychological, ecological and
situational attributes, existing livelihood assets status, livelihood generation from forest
based employment, encouraging and discouraging factors of forest based livelihood and
their effectiveness/ seriousness in the study area.
3.3.3.2. Focus group discussion
This method is appropriate for discussing the research topic in details. A small
group of people who are knowledgeable or who are interested in the research topic are
invited to participate in the focus group discussion. A good comprehensive recording of
what is being said and observed in the focus group discussion was done by the note-
maker of the team. Informations collected with the help of focus group discussions
proved beneficial because it saved villagers valuable time and researcher’s cost/ time. For
the perception analysis tool it was of great help. Focus group discussion was conducted
with 6-12 members at a time present in the meeting and an answer received from any
member got reviewed/ verified by other members present in the same group. Focus group
discussions helped to cross check and validate the data generated. The selected tools and
techniques were used to facilitate later analysis of the collected data.
3.4. Variables and their measurements
In order to have precise investigation on forest based tribal livelihood, the
selection of variables was made after an exhaustive review of available relevant
literatures, reconnaissance survey of the study area, intensive discussions with local
peoples, forest officials, extension scientists and other experts and also valuable
information collected by various organizations. The variables were measured by asking
specific questions. Several scales, indices or tests were developed using the techniques
adopted in previous studies (Supe and Singh, 1969; Venkataramaiah, 1990; Sreenath and
Veerabhadraiah, 1993; Ray et. al., 1996; Kumar, 2001; Singha and Talukdar, 2002;
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53 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
Sharma, 2005; Pandey, 2005; Nagesha and Gangadharappa, 2006; Singha et. al., 2006;
Thakur and Sharma, 2009). The following independent, dependent and additional
variables were finalized for the present investigation.
I. Independent variables
A. Socio-personal characteristics
1. Age
2. Education
3. Social participation
4. Family composition
B. Economic characteristics
1. Size of land holding
2. Main occupation
3. Housing status
4. Farm power
5. Farm implements
6. Livestock possession
7. Material possession
8. Income from forestry
9. Gross annual income
C. Psychological characteristics
1. Level of aspiration
2. Knowledge about forestry practices
3. Adoption of forestry practices
4. Attitude towards forestry
D. Communication characteristics
1. Use of information sources
2. Extension contact
E. Situational variables
1. Employment status
2. Migration status
3. Utilization of forest resources
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54 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
II. Dependent variable
1. Livelihood assets status
III. Assessment of forest based tribal livelihoods
1. Livelihood importance of forest resources
2. Livelihood generation from forest based employment
3. Contribution of forest resources to the total livelihoods
4. Encouraging factors of forest based livelihood
5. Discouraging factors of forest based livelihood
3.4.1. Measurement of independent variables
The independent variables were measured either using the indices or tests already
developed by the social scientists with little modification or schedules structured for the
purpose. The independent variables viz., age, education, social participation, size of land
holding, occupation, family composition, housing status, farm power, farm implements,
livestock possession and material possession were measured on the basis of “Socio-
economic status scale” developed by Venkataramaiah (1990). These variables were
quantified as follows.
3.4.1.1. Age
Approximate age of the respondents was recorded in terms of their chronological
age on the date of interview. The respondents were classified in three age groups namely,
young (up to 30 years), middle (31 to 50 years) and old (51 and above).
3.4.1.2. Education
Education has been operationalized as the academic qualification of the
individual. The respondents were categorized into seven educational levels and scored as
follows:
Category Score Illiterate 0 Below primary 1 Primary 2 Middle 3 High school 4 Intermediate 5 Graduate & above 6
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55 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.4.1.3. Social participation
It refers to the degree to which the respondents involved themselves in formal
organizations either as member or its office bearer. To measure the social participation of
the respondents the categories and scoring system were as follows:
Category Score
No membership 0
Membership of 1 organization 1
Membership of more than 1 organization 2
Office bearer of organization 3
Public leader 4
3.4.1.4. Family composition
The family composition of the respondents comprised both family type and
family size. There are mainly two types of families namely, nuclear and joint with scores
1 and 2, respectively. Similarly, based on size, families are classified as small (up to 5
members) and large (above 5 members) with scores 1 and 2, respectively.
3.4.1.5. Size of land holding
On the basis of the size of land holding, the respondents were categorized into
five classes viz., landless (0), marginal (up to 1.0 ha), small (1.1 to 2.0 ha), medium (2.1
to 4.0 ha) and large (4.1 ha and above) with scores 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
3.4.1.6. Main occupation
The occupation in which an individual is engaged for six months or more in a
year is termed as main occupation. Based on occupational pattern the respondents were
grouped into six categories and scores were assigned as follows:
Category Score
Wage labour 1
Caste occupation 2
Cultivation 3
Business 4
Service 5
Any other occupation 6
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56 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.4.1.7. Housing status
The housing status of the respondents included both type and number. The types
of house were no house, hut, katcha, mixed and pucca with their respective scores of 0, 1,
2, 3 and 4. The number of house were 1, 2 and more than 2 with scores 1, 2 and 3,
respectively.
3.4.1.8. Farm power
Farm power refers to the total number of the draught animals possessed by the
respondents. Farm power was categorized into four groups viz., no bullock, 1-2 bullocks,
3-4 bullocks and 5-6 bullocks assigning scores 0, 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
3.4.1.9. Farm implements
In order to measure the farm implement possession of the respondents, all the
important farm implements were listed in the interview schedule with their respective
scores as follows:
Farm implement Score
Wooden plough 1
Sickle 1
Spade 1
Axe 1
Harrow 1
Power tiller 2
Bullock cart 2
Pump set 2
Sprayer 2
Duster 2
Electric motor 2
Tractor 4
Any other 2
Entries were made against the items possessed by the respondents and their
numbers were indicated. The numbers of the items possessed were multiplied with their
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57 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
respective scores and the weighted scores were summed to compute status of the farm
implement possession. Based on summated score the respondents were classified into low
(score below 7), medium (score 7 to 12) and high (score above 12) farm implement
possession.
3.4.1.10. Livestock possession
The livestock possession of the respondents was measured by categorization into
four groups viz., no livestock, up to 5 livestock, 6 to 10 livestock and more than 10
livestock with scores 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
3.4.1.11. Material possession
To measure material possession of the respondents, all the important household
items were listed in the interview schedule with their respective scores in the parentheses
as follows:
Household material Score
Smokeless chulha 1
Stove 1
Sewing machine 1
Watch 1
Radio 1
Cycle 1
Wooden furniture 1
Pressure cooker 1
Improved storage bin 2
Biogas stove 2
Tape recorder 2
Scooter/ motor cycle 3
Any other 2
The items possessed were marked and their numbers were recorded in the
schedule. The numbers of the items possessed were multiplied with their respective
scores and the weighted scores were summed to compute status of the material
possession. The respondents were distributed into low (score below 6), medium (score 6
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58 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
to 10) and high (score above 10) level of material possession based on their summated
score.
3.4.1.12. Income from forestry
The income from forestry refers to the income derived by the people from direct
employment generated by forest and other allied departments, secondary employment in
wood-based and small scale forest-based enterprises and self-employment as collection,
processing and marketing of Non-Timber Forest Produces (NTFPs). It was measured by
evaluating the earnings from these sources and converting them into monetary value
using the scale of Singha and Talukdar (2002). The categorization and scoring procedure
for annual income earned from forestry were as follows:
Category Score
Up to ` 4000/ annum 1
` 4001 to 8000/ annum 2
` 8001 to 16000/ annum 3
Above ` 16000/ annum 4
3.4.1.13. Gross annual income
It is the total annual income received from different sources like agriculture,
horticulture, livestock rearing, forestry, small business, wage labour, rural artisan and
handicrafts and others. It was measured by evaluating the returns from these sources and
converting them into monetary value as per the scale of Singha and Talukdar (2002). The
annual incomes of the respondents were recorded in four categories with the assignment
of scores as follows:
Category Income level Score
Very low income Up to ` 15000/ annum 1
Low income ` 15001 to 30000)/ annum 2
Medium income ` 30001 to 60000/ annum 3
High income Above ` 60000/ annum 4
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59 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.4.1.14. Level of aspiration
According to Muthayya (1971) aspirations are goal-statements concerning future
level of achievement. Hence, aspirations are related to goals which include or can vary on
a number of attributes like income, residence, material possession, equipments etc. The
goals will vary according to socio-economic status and other factors. As aspiration
concern with the future level of possible achievement, it was thought to include this
variable in the study since the tribal are at the lowest rung of the society. Aspirations may
include areas related to education of sons and daughters, type of occupation of their sons,
increase in income, increase in land holding, increase in produce, the type of house,
agricultural implements, possession of furniture, material possession and increase in
livestock on which the aspiration could be measured. Out of these, aspirations regarding
children’s level of education, increase in income, agricultural implements, material
possession and increase in livestock in the near future were taken for this study. The
levels of aspiration of the respondents for these items were assessed using scale of Supe
and Singh (1969) as follows:
(i) Aspiration regarding children’s level of education
The aspiration regarding children’s level of education by the respondents was
measured by recording the level of education they expect to have for their children in the
near future. The levels of education are primary school, middle school, high school,
college and professional and technical with their respective scores of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
(ii) Aspiration regarding increase in income
To study the aspiration of the respondents regarding increase in income, questions
were framed to know what the respondents would like to have his income in the coming
years. The percentage increase in income was categorized in five levels as up to 25%, 26
to 50%, 51 to 75%, 76 to 100% and above 100% and the score assigned to these levels
were 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively.
(iii) Aspiration for agricultural implements
To measure the aspiration of the respondents for agricultural implements, the
items included were wooden plough, harrow, soil inverter, sprayer, electric motor,
thresher, winnowing fan, diesel engine and tractor. On the basis of the approximate
prices, these items were scored 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2 and 6, respectively.
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60 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
(iv) Aspiration for material possession
For knowing the aspiration on material possession by the respondents, the items
included were torch, cart, electrical items, radio, watch, brass utensils, steel utensils, silk
and woolen clothes, silver and gold ornaments. Each item was arbitrarily given one score.
The total score obtained by a respondent was taken into account for further analysis.
(v) Aspiration for increase in livestock
To assess the aspiration of the respondents for increase in livestock, the animals
included were cow, buffaloes, bullock, sheep, goat, pig, poultry and ducks. An arbitrary
score of one was given for each type of animal irrespective of their number that the
respondent would like to possess in the near future.
Calculation of aspiration level
The scores obtained by each of the respondents on the above five items on which
aspiration was ascertained were summed up as follows:
Level of aspiration = ∑ ( El + Ii + Ai + Mp + Lp )
Where, El = Increase in children’s level of education in the next three years
Ii = Increase income in the next three years
Ai = Increase in agricultural implements in the next three years
Mp = Increase in material possession in the next three years
Lp = Increase in livestock in the next three years
3.4.1.15. Knowledge about forestry practices
Knowledge is generally understood as an intimate acquaintance of an individual
with facts. English and English (1961) defined knowledge as “a body of understood
information possessed by an individual or by a culture’. In psychology, knowledge is
often referred to as the totality of cognitive behaviour with reference to physical and
hypothetical object. Rogers and Shoemakers (1971) while describing the model of
innovation decision process, considered knowledge as a function or stage of the decision
making process when the individual is exposed to the existence of an innovation and gain
some understanding of how it functions. Bloom et. al. (1956) viewed knowledge as
“those behaviour and test situations which emphasized the remembering either by
recognition or recall of ideas, material or phenomenon”. According to Coombs (1953) a
standardized knowledge test is “one that has been carefully constructed by experts in
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61 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
light of acceptable objectives or purpose, procedures for administering, scoring and
interpreting scores are specified in detail so that no matter who gives the test or where it
may be given, the results should be comparable and norms and degree of different ages or
status have re-determined.
Knowledge is one of the important components of behaviour and as such play an
important role in covert and overt behaviour of an individual. The variable indicated the
extent of knowledge in respect of forestry practices, the respondents possessed at the time
of interview. A knowledge scale developed by Kumar (2001) was used to determine the
extent of respondent’s knowledge about forestry practices. Ten selected forestry practices
related to major fields such as choice of tree species, afforestation, land and water
management, protection and management of plantation and extraction and sale of forest
produce which formed the knowledge test was incorporated in the interview schedule for
administration to the respondents. Each of the practices was provided with a four point
response categories as no knowledge at all (0), to a little extent (1), to a moderate extent
(2) and to a large extent (3). The summation of scores over all the practices of a particular
respondent indicated his level of knowledge about forestry practices.
3.4.1.16. Adoption of forestry practices
Adoption may be defined as a decision to make full use of an innovation (Rogers
and Shoemakers, 1971). Adoption here refers to the use adoption i.e. not only acceptance
for a technology in principle but its actual application in the field situation. Adoption of
forestry practices was measured with the help of a schedule developed by Nagesha and
Gangadharappa (2006). A set of ten forestry practices related to major fields such as
choice of tree species, afforestation, land and water management, protection and
management of plantation and extraction and sale of forest produce was prepared and
listed in the schedule. The adoption behaviour of practices were recorded as non
adoption, partial adoption and full adoption assigning the scores 0, 1 and 2, respectively.
On the basis of cumulative scores obtained by the respondents they were classified into
three groups of adoption level namely, low, medium and high following quartile
deviation formulae.
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62 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.4.1.17. Attitude towards forestry
The Webster’s new dictionary defines attitude as “a way of acting, feeling or
thinking ones mental disposition, mental set etc.” According to Thurstone (1946) attitude
is the degree of positive or negative effect associated with some psychological object like
symbol, phrase, slogan, person, institution, ideal or ideas towards which people can differ
in varying degrees. Rogers and Shoemakers (1971) viewed attitude as relatively enduring
organization of an individual’s belief about an object that predisposes his action.
According to Krech and Crutchfield (1948), attitude is an enduring organization of
motivational, perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspects of
individual’s world.
The attitude of respondents towards forestry was measured using a scale
developed by Sreenath and Veerabhadraiah (1993). The attitude scale was consisted of
ten especially collected statements from target group, relevant professionals and available
literatures related to the role of forests. The statements were scrutinized and edited as per
criteria set up by Edwards (1969). The respondents were asked to respond to each
statement in terms of their agreement or disagreement on five point continuum viz.,
strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree with their respective
scores of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1. The individual’s total score was determined by summation of
scores on each item, which indicated his or her position on a scale of favourable-
unfavourable attitude toward forestry. The responses are analyzed to predict attitude
behaviour of respondents towards forestry following Likert’s method of summated rating
technique (1932).
3.4.1.18. Use of information sources
The use of information sources of the respondents was assessed by degree of
utilization of information sources among respondents using scale developed by Ray et. al.
(1996). A list of all possible information sources were included in the interview schedule
and utilization responses were recorded in four point continuum namely most often
(daily/ weekly), often (fortnightly/ monthly), sometime (half yearly/ yearly) and never
with scores 3, 2, 1 and 0, respectively. The cumulative scores of the respondents were
utilized for assessment of overall use of information sources as low, medium and high
based on mean (x) and standard deviation (S.D.).
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3.4.1.19. Extension contact
The extension contact was measured following Ray et. al. (1996). To measure the
extension contact of the respondents, all the possible extension agents in the study area
were listed in the schedule. The respondent’s frequency of contacts with the extension
agents were provided with 3-point response categories. The 3-point continuum were
regularly, occasionally and never with scores 2, 1 and 0, respectively. The respondents
were classified into three categories namely, low, medium and high level of overall
extension contact based on mean (x) and standard deviation (S.D.) of individual’s
cumulative scores.
3.4.1.20. Employment status
The various dimensions of the employment status of the respondents investigated
using the scale of Thakur and Sharma (2009) were as follows:
Dimension Category Score
(a) No. of workers in the family 1 1
2 2
3 3
>3 4
(b) Size of employment (Man days/ annum) Up to 200 1
201-300 2
>300 3
(c) Nature of employment Family labour 1
Self employment 2
Casual 3
Temporary 4
Regular 5
The scores obtained by the respondents over these dimensions were analyzed to
work out the man-to-work load (population in working age group and its employment
load) relationship to assess the man/ woman power potential, its utilization and the
possibilities of introducing new employment opportunities.
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64 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.4.1.21. Migration status
To study the magnitude of migration status of the respondents, the information
were collected about the various dimensions following the scale of Sharma (2005) as
follows:
Dimension Category Score
(a) No. of migrants in the family Nil 0
1 1
2 2
>2 3
(b) Migration distance No migration 0
Up to 50 km 1
51 to 100 km 2
Above 100 km 3
(c) Migration period No migration 0
Up to 4 month 1
5-8 months 2
Above 8 months 3
The scores received by the respondents over these dimensions were utilized in the
assessment of the various aspects of migration status based on appropriate indices and
scales.
3.4.1.22. Utilization of forest resources
To get the respondent’s perception towards the utilization of forest resources in
their daily life, ten broad classes of forest products were incorporated in the schedule and
the degree of utilization of these products were measured by a 4-point continuum scale
namely, very frequently (daily/ weekly), frequently (fortnightly/monthly), occasionally
(half yearly/ yearly) and never with their respective scores 3, 2, 1 and 0 as per Singha et.
al. (2006). By summation of the response scores against each of the forest products the
respondent’s cumulative scores were determined, which were utilized later for
assessment of the degree of utilization of forest resources in the respondent’s daily life.
The total rank score for each forest product was obtained by multiplying the frequency of
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responses with their respective scores and adding them. The total rank score was then
divided by the total number of respondents to get mean rank score. The forest products
were then arranged in descending order of utilization on the basis of their mean rank
score from I to X.
3.4.2. Measurement of dependent variable
3.4.2.1. Livelihood assets status
Livelihood can be defined as the capabilities, assets and activities required for a
means of living (Carney, 1998). A livelihood comprises people, their capabilities and
means of living including food, income and assets. Tangible assets are resources and
stores and intangible assets are claims and access. The concept of livelihoods integrates
ecological, economic and social wellbeing of the people. The assessment of existing
livelihood assets status of the respondent was based on information related to five
livelihood capitals namely, physical, natural, financial, human and social. Important
indicators for each of the five capitals were selected and measured using livelihood
assessment scale designed by Pandey (2005) after certain modifications as follows:
(i) Physical capital
Indicator Level of asset possession
(a) Housing No house (0)/ hut (1)/ katcha (2)/ mixed (3)/ pucca (4)
(b) Agricultural land Landless (0)/ marginal (up to 1.0 ha) (1)/ small (1.1 to 2.0 ha)
(2)/ medium (2.1 to 4.0 ha) (3)/ large (> 4.0 ha) (4)
(c) Farm materials
Wooden plough (1)/ sickle (1)/ axe (1) harrow (1)/ spade (1)/
duster (2)/ sprayer (2)/ power tiller (2)/ pump set (2)/ electric
motor (2)/ tractor (4)
(d) Transport vehicle No vehicle (0)/ cycle (1)/ bullock cart (2)/ motor cycle (3)
(e) Domestic items:
Cot (1)/ Chair (1)/ Watch (1)/ Smokeless chulha (1)/ Stove (1)/
Sewing machine (1)/ Pressure cooker (1)/ Radio (1)/ Mobile
phone (2)/ Kitchen utensil (1)/ Storage utensil (1)/ Others (1)
Physical capital is capital created by people themselves. For example, houses,
vehicles, agricultural machinery, communication facilities, transport infrastructure and so
on. The community assets such as buildings, roads, digging wells, tube wells, hand
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pumps and tools provide the security, mobility and capability that allow people to
produce, transform, exchange and consume goods. It is expected that increased earnings
from these facilities can be invested in physical assets including productive assets and
consumable items. The indicators selected to assess physical capital owned by the
respondents were housing, agricultural land, farm materials, transport vehicle and
domestic items. The asset possession of these indicators was assessed by the scoring
procedure as detailed above.
(ii) Natural capital
Indicator Level of asset possession
(a) Use of forest
resources
Browse for livestock (1)/ mulch/ compost (1)/ wooden utensils
(1)/ wooden tools (1)/ grasses for thatching (1)/ weaving fibres
(1)/ wild medicines (1)/ wild fruit wine (1)/ leaves for dona-
pattal making (1)/ wooden furniture (1)/ herbs (1)/ fruit products
(1)/ bamboo products (1)/ Fuel wood (1)/ Construction timber
(1)
(b) Use of water
resources
Drinking (1)/ irrigation (1)/ fishery (1)
(c) Use of land
resources
Field crops (1)/ silvicultural crops (1)/ horticultural crops (1)/
animal husbandry (1)/ fishery (1)/ Lac cultivation (1)/
Sericulture (1)
(d) Use of abiotic
resources
Rock for building, fences, retainer walls etc. (1)/ sand for
building (1)/ clay for pottery (1)/ clay for cosmetic / decoration
(1/) clay for building (1)
(e) Use of animal
resources
Insects (1)/ birds and eggs (1)/ animal meat (1)/ medicine (1)/
leather (1)/ cultural artifacts (1)
Natural capital refers to the forest, land, water, biodiversity and many
environmental services available to people. Conservation of natural capital is one of the
key aims of livelihoods improvement (Belcher, 2005). To achieve this objective tribal
people were given more rights and responsibilities over forest resources to improve the
stock and flow of resources. The indicators of natural capital included were forest, water,
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land, abiotic and animal resources. The ranges of uses of these indicators were assessed
to determine the respondent’s natural capital as given above.
(iii) Financial capital
Financial capital comprises savings, remittances and other cash assets. Financial
capital plays an important role in our economy, it helps us to facilitate the other types of
capital to be owned and traded. The indicators included for assessment of financial
capital comprised wages, savings, remittance/ credits, other cash assets and total income.
These indicators were quantified using the scoring pattern as follows:
Indicator Level of asset possession
(a) Wages Low (< ` 100/ day) (1)/ medium (` 101-200/ day) (2)/ high (> `
200/ day) (3)
(b) Savings No saving (0)/ savings up to ` 10000/ year (1)/ savings> `
10000/ year (2)
(c) Remittance/ credits No remittance/ credits (3)/ remittance/ credits up to ` 10000/
year (2)/ remittance/ credits > ` 10000/ year (1)
(d) Other cash assets No other cash assets (0)/ cash assets up to ` 10000 (1)/ cash
assets > ` 10000 (2)
(e) Total income Very low (Up to ` 15000/ annum) (1)/ low income (` 15001 to
30000)/ annum (2)/ medium income (` 30001 to 60000/ annum)
(3)/ high income (Above ` 60000/ annum) (4)
(iv) Human capital
Indicator Level of asset possession
(a) Education Illiterate (0)/ below primary (1)/ primary (2)/ middle (3)/
high school (4)/ intermediate (5)/ graduate & above (6)
(b) Occupational skill Highly skilled (2)/ poorly skilled (1)/ unskilled (0)
(c) Occupational knowledge Excellent (3)/ good (2)/ poor (1)
(d) Information access Regular (2)/ occasional (1)/ never (0)
(e) Health & nutrition Good (3)/ average (2)/ poor (1)
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Human capital consists of people’s education, knowledge, skills, information,
health and motivation. The human capital was assessed by the indicators namely,
education, occupational skill, occupational knowledge, information access and health &
nutrition using the scoring system as mentioned above.
(v) Social capital
Net worth of individuals can be judged by the networks they belong to. The gain
that individuals have due to belonging to a particular network is the social capital. Social
capital concerns the institutions that help us to maintain and develop human capital in
partnership with others; e.g. families, communities, committees, businesses, trade unions,
schools, self help groups, voluntary organizations, political parties etc. It also includes
networks, groups and trust. The social capital was assessed in terms of co-operation and
involvement of the respondents with various social organizations viz., communal society,
gram sabha, forest protection committee, voluntary organization and political party as no
membership (0)/ member (1)/ office bearer (2).
Calculation of livelihood assets status
The scores obtained on the above five capitals based on selected indicators were
summed up to determine the livelihood assets status of the respondents as follows:
Livelihood assets status = ∑ (Pc + Nc + Fc + Hc + Sc)
where, Pc = cumulative scores of indicators of physical capital
Nc = cumulative scores of indicators of natural capital
Fc = cumulative scores of indicators of financial capital
Hc = cumulative scores of indicators of human capital
Sc = cumulative scores of indicators of social capital
The respondents were classified into three levels of livelihood assets status as
low, medium and high using mean (x) and standard deviation (S.D.).
3.4.3. Assessment of forest based tribal livelihoods
3.4.3.1. Livelihood importance of forest resources
In order to study the livelihood importance of forest resources the informations
regarding range of resources and species available and their utilization pattern to meet
daily livelihood needs has been collected. The data on floral resources included name of
species, family, vernacular name, plant habit, flowering and fruiting period, part used and
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69 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
usage while the enumeration of faunal resources comprised name of species, vernacular
name, part used and usage.
3.4.3.2. Livelihood generation from forest based employment
The various aspects of livelihood generation from forest based direct and
secondary employment explored were type of forestry activities, number of members
employed, size of employment (man days/ year) and income earned. In order to study the
livelihood generation from NTFPs based self-employment the informations on collection,
consumption, employment generation (members employed, man/ days generated),
seasonality of collection and trade, sale and income related to various NTFPs namely,
fuel wood, fodder, timber, food/ fruit, vegetable, fibre/ floss, oilseed, medicine, cottage
industry/ handicrafts and others were collected. The quantification made was in principle
based on indirect estimation supported by intuitive judgment and cross checking with as
many informants as possible. After proper quantification of the informations gathered,
the data were utilized for analysis of the various aspects of livelihood generation from
forest based direct, secondary and self employment.
3.4.3.3. Contribution of forest resources to the total livelihoods To estimate the contribution of forest resources to total livelihoods the informations on
household annual income from all possible off-farm and on-farm sources viz., agriculture,
forest resources, labour, livestock, business/ shop, service and others has been collected.
The data generated were utilized to estimate the proportion of total income streams of
households ascribed to forest resources using percentage.
3.4.3.4. Encouraging factors of forest based livelihoods
A set of twelve important encouraging factors of forest based livelihood were
selected and listed in the schedule and administered to the respondents. The respondents
were asked to rate degree of effectiveness against each of the factors on a four point
continuum viz., most effective, effective, less effective and least effective with scoring
patterns of 3, 2, 1 and 0, respectively. Ranking technique based on mean cumulative
scores was applied to find out the degree of effectiveness of various encouraging factors
of forest based livelihood.
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70 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.4.3.5. Discouraging factors of forest based livelihoods
To study the discouraging factors of forest based livelihood and their degree of
seriousness the interview schedule was provided with a set of twelve factors to which the
respondents were asked to react. The respondents indicated their degree of seriousness in
terms of most serious, serious, less serious and least serious with their respective scores
of 3, 2, 1 and 0. The degree of seriousness of various discouraging factors of forest based
livelihood was worked out by ranking technique based on mean cumulative scores.
3.5. Statistical analysis of data
The observed data were systematically arranged, edited, coded with numerals or
symbols, classified into categories and tabulated for further analysis and meaningful
interpretation. It was based on proper treatment, measurement and scoring techniques.
Most of the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed on MS Excel and Statistical
Package Social Sciences (SPSS) software with the level of significance set at p<0.05. The
results were presented on the tables and figures. The data were analyzed using following
statistical devices as per Snedecor and Cochran (1967).
3.5.1. Frequency
The frequency (f) is used to denote how frequently a response or character
appears in a class or category.
3.5.2. Percentage
Percentages (%) are used in data presentation to simplify and reduce the numbers
in the standard form with base equal to 100.
3.5.3. Mean along with standard error
The mean is computed by the formula:
∑ f.x X =
N where, X = mean of the scores
∑ = summation
f = frequency of the class
x = class value or midpoint of the class interval
N = number of observations
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71 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
The standard error of mean is calculated by the formula:
ơ SEm =
√N ∑f.d2
where, ơ = standard deviation (√ ) of the distribution N
f = frequency of the class
d = deviation of the mid-value of the class from the mean
population
N = number of observations
3.5.4. Normal probability distribution
The respondents were classified into low, medium and high categories based on
different behaviours, characteristics or variables using mean (x) and standard deviation
(ơ) and following normal probability distribution as follows:
Category Score
Low < x – ơ
Medium x – ơ to x + ơ
High > x + ơ
3.5.5. Analysis of variance
The F test is applied using one way analysis of variance to find out the
significance of the mean difference among different land holding groups.
Statistically F value is calculated as follows:
SSb /(k-1) F-ratio =
SSw /(n-k) where, SSb = sum of squares between samples
SSw = sum of squares within samples
k-1 = degree of freedom between samples
n-k = degree of freedom within samples
n = total number of items in all the samples
k = number of samples
(Tj)2 (T) 2 SSb = ∑
nj n
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72 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
(Tj)2
SSw = ∑Xij2 ∑
nj where, Tj = sample total
T = ∑Xij
i = 1, 2, 3, …….treatments
j = 1, 2, 3, …….replications
Critical Difference
Critical Difference (CD) at 5% probability level was calculated to find out any
significant effect of difference between and among the different land holding groups by
the formula:
1 1 CD = √ EMS ( + ) x 5% table value of t on error df
n1 n2 where, EMS = error mean square
n1, n2 = number of scores/ observations in each group
3.5.6. Preference ranking
Ranking is an expression of people’s priority about their thoughts and feelings.
The preference ranking allows the researchers to determine quickly the preferences of
individuals and enables the priorities of different individuals to be easily compared. The
respondent’s responses against each of the item to be prioritized were recorded on a 3 to
5-point rating scale. The mean rank score for each item was obtained by multiplying the
frequencies with their respective weights, adding them up and dividing by the total
number of respondents as follows:
∑ sifi Mean rank score = n where, fi = frequency of the respondents for ith response
si = score of the ith response
i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5
n = total number of respondents
Finally, the items were ranked from high to low based on the mean rank score.
Materials and Methods Chapter-III
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3.5.7. Correlation analysis
Pearson‘s product moment co-efficient of correlation was worked out for
ascertaining the relationship between two variables using the formula:
N∑XY (∑X) ( ∑Y) rxy = √ (N∑X2 (∑X 2) (N∑Y2 (∑Y)2)
where, X and Y= original scores in variables X and Y
N = number of paired scores
∑XY = each X multiplied by its corresponding Y, then summed
∑X = sum of X scores
∑X 2 = each X squared, then summed
(∑X)2 = sum of X scores, squared
∑Y = sum of Y scores
∑Y2 = each Y squared, then summed
(∑Y)2 = sum of Y scores
For testing the significance of r, t value was calculated as:
r t = √N-2 on N-2 degree of freedom
√1-r2
where, r = co-efficient of correlation
N = number of paired scores
3.5.8. Multiple regression analysis
The multiple regression analysis was employed to determine the extent of
contributions of the independent variables to the dependent variable.
The fundamental prediction equation was:
Y = a1 + b1x1 +b2x2 +bnxn +En
where, a = intercept constant
x1 – xn = values of independent variables
b1 – bn = regression coefficients
n = number of independent variables
En = Error term
Materials and Methods Chapter-III
74 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012
3.5.9. Path analysis
The path analysis was carried out to get a clear picture of the direct and indirect
effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. The variables through
which substantial indirect effects are channeled are also found out. The path co-efficient
to measure the influence along the path is calculated as follows:
σyx Pyx =
σy
where, Pyx = path co-efficient for the path X to Y
σyx = standard deviation of Y
= standard deviation of Y due to the influence of X, while
other causes are kept constant