cjLT/QAL lTua/f l , n4<)t j r oKiT;r iJ/1 tq?JTc oLdNi+Lil r"t , pE6ov-, cN 7(4.1

Cultural Criticismand

Wutbering Heigbts

WHAT IS CULTURAL CRITICISMI

.^,,In:t-0.-*, think of wJren you rhink of culrurc) Thc opcla orD3rct? A pcrtormance ofa Mozan symphony ar Uncoln Ccntir, or ar(cnrorandt show rt thc Mcrropolnan Muscum ofAnt Do(s the phrrsc'-cunuml cvenf'.conjurc up irnigc, ofyoung peoptc in ieans and T_

::r'T or

,or peoplc in iheir sixties dresscd r","r"ttyi ti.t*i p.opr. t o,-'culture'and rhink ..High Culrurc." Crns.quenflK mosr D€ool..whcn thcy ir$r hear ofcutrural criricism, asume i, *ouU U rnlr. io._

11lfl, lt,', *r, to*alisrn. rhey suspecr it woutd be ..hi8hbroq,,rn norn sublect and stvl€.

Norhing could be tunhcr from rhc rrurh. ln

4t6

(oft cn political) reasons nl1 a ccrrrin_kind olagsrhgic_p-.94!Sr_j49.cvalucd than othcn.

--=Ii;not surprising, then, thar in rn afticle on ..Thc Necd for Cu!tunl Studics." four groundbrcrking cutr ra.l crirics have writrcn rhit"Cult u ral Srud ics should . . . abrndon ihe goal ofgiving srud(n ts accessro rhrt whrch repres.ntr a culrurc." Instcad, rhesc critics qo on ro ar_guc, rt should show worls in refcrcnce ro orhcr works, ecJnom;c con_lextsr or bro.d social discoirsca (abour childbinh, women's cducation.rural dec.ly, ctL.) wirhin whosc conrexts rhc work mikes,cnsc. fcrluDsmost impo(ant! crirics doing cirltunl studies should cor.rnter thc prc'v-

1gf!n culturc (and tncrctore as rhc novels rhat bcsrfto bc more descriprivc and less -tnan rihng cutturrt Droducts and

vltlT ls colfln^L cili tctil|?

alcnr notion drat cuhurc is sornc wholcncss thir hns llrcady bccnformcd. Ctrlturc, radi€r, is really a sct of intcractivc wbua, al'rc a ,growing and changing, and cultum.l aritics should be present- and evenfuture-oriented. Clrltu.al critia should be "resisting int€llecluals," andcultumt studies should bc "an cmancipatory project" (Giroux 478-80).

The pangnphs above arc p€pper.d with words likc oppt , tittnttr,d.fly,at;tt, eombat, dtshtlrrr, nnA. inciryoty'. what such words sug-g€st - and quitc accu.ately - is that x numbcr of cultuml critics viewtlremselvcs in politicrJ. even oppositional r (erms-. Not only are culturalcriricslilcly to t,rkc on rhe lirera4;;on ;-hile;itring polnicat readingsof popular 6lms, but they arc also lik€ly ro rakc on rhe instilution ofthc univcrsity, for tlrar is whcrc thc old definirions of crhure as HighCulturc (and as somethiirg formcd and finishcd and canonizcd) havcbeen mos( vigorously prcs€rvcd, defcndcd, and reinforced.

' Cultunl cridcs have. been especially criticd of the departmentalstructur€ ofunivcrsities, for thatstrulturc, pcrhrps rrorc rhan anythingclsc, has kept thc study ofthe "arts" mo.c or less disrinct from thcsrudy ofhistory, not to nrenrion from rhc srudy ofsrch tbings as televi-

l.sion, film, advcnising, journalismj popular pholograplly, folklorc, cur-

I rcnt alhirs, shoptalk, and gossip. By doilg so, thc d€partmental srmc-

Iturc of universities has reassened the high/low cuhurc distincrion,I implyinB drat ail rhe lattrr subjccrs arc bcsi lcfr ro historians, sociolo-I gists, drropologisrs, linguists, and communicrtion thcorisrs. Bur suctr'a suggcslion, cultural critics would argue, kceps us from secing rhc acs-thctics of an advertiscment as well a! thc propagndisric elemcnrs of awork of litcrature. For thcsc rcasons. cukurd cririca havc mixed andmatchcd thc most revealing analyticd procedurcs developcd in a varietyofdisciplincs, unabashedly jettisonilg thc rcsr. For rhcsc rcasons, too,thcy hnve formcd - and cncoungcd,odrcr scholrrs ro form - nctvorksothcr dran and outsidc ofrhosc cnfprced dcpartmenrally.

Somc initially loosc intcrdisciplinary nctworks bavc, over rimer so-lidified ro become Cuhural Srudies progranls aDd majors, complcte wirh

I courscs on comics and survcyr ofsoeps. As rhis has hrpp.ncd. a sjgn;6-I cant ifsubtlc danger hr, uiren. Culcr.rnl cnrics, Rjchard rohnson has

I wamcd, n)ust strivc dil;gcndy ro kecp cultunl studics from bccomingI a disciplinc unto irself- onc in rvhich srudents encounrrr c&roons as aI canon and beliefin thc imponance ofsuch popularforms ar an..onho-. dory" (39). Thc only principles rhar critics doing culruml srudi.s cln i

doctrinally espousc. Johnson suggess. arc rhe rwo drat havslrus hr/bccn inrroduccd: nrnrc\ ' . thc pr irrr i l ' l r t l : i -"crrhurc 'hx bccn an-. i i -

n , , egalirariar:" concepr, a "tool" of 'corrdesccnsion." an.l thc bcliefrhar

' .-)U

,/i a new " nterascp|nrry (and somerimcs ano-discaplinary),,approachi I to rrr.culturc Ghar is, to thc forms in which curtu.c a"tujiy rivci n"*y

I illl:'1;1".- '*, n''rory and an and mcdir are so comprex rnd inter-

Johnson, ironically, playctt a major part iD dre insritutionalizationofcultunl stud;es. Togciher with SruarrHa[ and Richard Hoggrn, hedelelopcd the Ccntre tor Contempoiary Cuhural Studics, founded byHoegrn rnd HJI . Birminghrn Univcsiry. in Engtrnd. in 196a. Thcfacr rhar rhe Ccnrrc u rs forrndcd rn rhc mid- lo60sls h.rrdJy surpr is ing;culrurai (n ' ic;m. bdcd a i r i \ on r cnfrquc oteh, i . r drf i r r i r ions ofcut_rur. .spolc poucrful ly to,rnd gincJ grcrt cnergy lnd suppon rrom rdecrdc ol srudcnr unrcsr ind revolr. The ficr rhJr rhc firrr (entcr forculluml stLrdics w.5 foundcd h England, in Eumpc,

's cqually unsur_

p.iring. Although thc Unitcd Strrcs has prcbably conUburea morcthan iny orhcr nrdo 6 rft flcdia drrough wh;ch cuhurc currendylivcs, critics in Eu.ope, dns,ing upon rhc-idear of borh Manist aninon-Marxist rhcorisrs, first aniculatcd rhc nccd for somethine likc whatwc nolv cJl l culrunl oir ic ism or cutrurrt studics. Lrdccd. r ; ih is div.Europcrn crirc arc more invotvcd rlr3n Amcncin\ nor nnlv in rhc an;l_ysis of popul.rr_cuhural lorn:s rnrt products but rtso irr-rhr jJulysis_olnumrn sLrbtcclrvIry or conscio cness ar a form or producr of culrurc.( 'subiccrivitics,n i;t;,." ,,,s.";. irc ,.rrodu(cA. noisrvefl lrd-jF. . . obiecrs ofinquiry" incvitibty rclate,i io ..soci.rt pracrices," whcthcrthose involve_ fictory mles, supcrmarkct behavioi paacms, readinghrbirs. adwai,.mcnrs wrrcbcrt. myths pc.p.rntc.t.

", trngurge. mi

otnrr <,gn\ io whrch pcoptc arc exposed [44_a5].)Among thr: early conrinental crirics Dow scen as forcrunners of

pre.scnt-dav culrural crir;cs wcrc rhose bctonging ro thc,4r,rrr schoot,so-callcd bccausc ofrhc name of the jrlurnal tbat Marc Bloctr and Luci€nftbvre launchcd, jn Ffan cq in |92gi,Annabs: Ironnb, Sacilte.t. Cbiti-tatirr$. -lhe Annal$ school criti.s graady influcDccd lat€r rhinkers likeMichel Foucauh, wbo, in turn, intluenc€d oth€r,4'r'rlrrr thinkeG suchas Rryer Chanicr, JrcAucs Ravcl, Fnngois Furct, and Robcn Damton.Both 6rct- and sccond,gcncnrion ,4 rrarr school critics w:rn asainst thcdevclopnrcnr of "ropics" of srudy by cuhuml cntics-untcst thoscsamc critics arc bcnr on'ttcvelopingl . . [a] scnse ofcohesion or inr€r-rci ion L rw.cn rof i (s" (FJ or ol . Ar thc srmc l im., i l rercsred rs rheyrrc in , . ,1, ." i . , , , ,4D,a#, \chool ry ir ics h.rvc wanrcd rgainst sccing rhe"riruals n,l ,nlrcr l;nns ofsymbolic rction,' rs .,cxp.csslingl x ccntnl,

l r \ WH.{T IS CULTUR^L CRITICISM?

cohe.ent, communal meaning." Thcy havc reminded us thit rexts aFfcct rjiffcrcnt rcadcn "in vrrying and individuJ wr)a" (Hunr l3-14).

Michei rourauk'is a;rorhersirong conrinenral influencc on presenr,day culrunlcri'icism - rnd pcrh,rps rlr strongcsrinllucncc on Amcriclnculrutal criticism ind rhe socrllcd "new historicism-" .:rr inrcrdisc;r,li.nary form of historical criricism wli;sc?tolution hx oftcn panllciedthar ofculnrnl criticrsrn. Influcnced by carly,{zzrr,r critiG and con-temporary Mlrxists (bui neiiher an,4rrdb criric nor a M.rnisr him-selQ, Foucauh sou,rht tor;"ay."lrurcfi;ffi r;owericITonS-'D-

ano some Anrnkt schoot cntlcst he rctused to seePowcr as something exercised by a dominant over a subscrvient class.Indeed, hc cmphasized that power is not just rapzrrn power: a tool ofconspiracy by one individual or institution againsr another. Powcr,rrther, is a whole complcx of forccs; it is that which produces what

4t9

Thrs cven a ryrrnnicrl aristocral dots not simply wield powcr, forhc is empowcrcd by "discouncs" - rcccpted ways ofthinking, writing,and speiking-and pncticcs that amounr to powcr. Foucauk tricd roview all things, Iiom punishmcnt to sexuality, in rerms of the widcstpossiblc varicry ofdiscounes. As a rcsult, hc trrccd rhc "gencatogy" oftopics hc studicd through tcxts that morc rnditional hiitorians and lit-crary criticswould havc ovc.looked, Iooking at (in Lynn Hunt's wo.ds)"memoirs of devianrs, diarics, political trcatiscs, architectunl bluc-prints, coun fc(ords, docro6' repons - appllying] consist€nt principlctof analysis in scrrch of moments of reversal in discours., in scarch ofevents as loci of the conflict where social pncriccs werc tnnsformcd"(H'rnt 39). Foucrult re.ded nor only to build inrcrdisciplinary bridgcsourarso, In Ine processt ro bnng Into ihc srudy oi cutrure rhc hrstoncsofrvomcn, homosexuals, and minondes" - groups scldom srudied bytho.lc inter€sted in culture wirh a capital C (Hunt 45).

Of th€ British influenccs on cultunl srudies rnd criticism as it irtodan sevcral have dready been mcntioned. Of thosc who hrve not,two crrly forcrunncn sbnd our. One ofrhesc, thc Marxist €ritic E. PThompson! rcvolutiott_izld-sgdy of th€ industrial rcvolution by writingabout irs impro on human airirudei. evcn conscioLllness. He showedhow r shared cultural view. ioicificalHrrroiwfiet corx6fiElifan orjust price, influcnccd crowd lichrvior !n,l causcd such things as thc foodriots and rick bumings of the ninetccnth ccntury. Th€ orh€r, cv€ngreater early British influefce on contcmponry cultunl criricism a.ndculrurrl srudies was rhe lare Riyrnond Williams. 19 workslike'fh. IntgRtnlurbn nd C4h,fr eu.l tuinj: I78f lQ50, Wtlltuns d.monslratcd

420

.. -.- .r i5!( r. crcC ar ' rrnrhjd bd: nther' a livin8an j chanBing

r.. :.. :r rfl: '.dg

5a c:llatflbrwls ih'dcvcloPnrmt ol acom-

'iil;,i-,."-, -trom

hc oftcn bo,h arsued and svmpathrzed'

Williams vie{,cd cuhurc in rtlrrion to ideologics' whrt lrc tcrmcd tnc

"rcsidurl," "domioant," or "cmerglng" wrys ol ucung tnc worro

hcld by clras(s or individuaLr holding powcr in e gren socTt qr9uP' bl:

unlikc'Thompson and Richerd Ho*an' hc rvoidcd cmphasrzng ro"s'

J"** -J.ri* 'rytt -

dixussinfthocc forccs mosr powe rfllly shap-

ine and chinginq cuhurc. And' unlikc cenain con ncnial Mrrxats' ne

.o_utd nevcr ic-thc cultural "suPcrstructurc" ls being a morc or less

itrot" i;t O..ti"n" "frn.

.conomic'ba!c " Williamis tcndcncy was

i. i*t" ".

*"0r. "

o"optc. on how thcy expcrience conditions they

6nd themsclvcs'in .md crcativcly respond to those condirions In tnElr

,..J ora.,i..t. A believcr in thc resilicncy of the individual' hc Pro-1"..a'" Uoau of.i,i.i". norable for wlut Hall has rallcd is "human-

i:m" (63).

*J"iii. *t* -r'.

a.vcloPcd thcm- is al5o nccessary hcn of Par-

dfllar impoftancc to thc €volution ofctrltural critr(ism 're

tnc worxs

"i wd,.i'*"i"-it, Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althuscr, and Mikhail

Bakhtin.B]dtin was a Russian, later a Soviet' critic so oriSintl in his thinking

and wide-nncinq in his influcn(e rhrt somc wou-ld say hc was ncvcr a

Mard5t at e[: H: vicwcd lanBurgc - esPecirly lilcrary tcxts -rn tcrms

of discourscs and dialogurs ,.tnt z discourscs wiihin a novel wnikn

i" " "*"* '"

n"t, dinstrncc' rhc nirralivc mry includc :n official'

lccirimatc distourst. plus anothcr infittntcd by chrllcng'ng.(ommmts

-i.u.n t,"*. In a 1929 book on Dostoyclsky and a rv4u sruoy

tub.his pnd Hit Wo ' Bakhtin €dmined what he calls "PolyPnontc_nou.t". ca.tt .tt"o.ta."a by a multiplicity of voiccs or discourscs ln

i*i.v.*tv ,ft. ita.p.ndcnt srarr'rs of a given charrcter is markcd by

.i. alir..."t "f li. i,. hcr hnguagc from that of rhc nrrntor' Ohc

I"J,oit 'oi.", .o", .- in facibJe dialogue ) ln works by R'bclais'

.f JtJ "*a*.. -i

i'i*ir arc difliculr to scPararc entirelv from rlc '- . F =--ii.^--L) M,-n6 i( in, {nsc- thc-ba€K-

As is clcar from thc ParegrrPhs above' the emcrgen(" 1nl ":"t"ti?l

dcvclopmcnt of pnf,sr thougD Marxhm isi in e $nsc'

grouni to thc brck$rirxf6f6ost.culrural crit ki\ rl9!91dcvclopmcnt of

eround to thc brck'[6nrxlflmost.culr@ critkism' l$lgry:lslt-

iorry culnrral critics<onsidcr.rhcmschcs Mrrxisr-Tll *-Yjl -llj:i,i-.i'el' ri"'"'itir*- rnd i." mosr sienincant pT:t:':i,::,T"1''

;;*"J|[ui;* in thh volumc' some mention of M'ri(in ideas-

421vrlTAT IS CIILTLIRAI' CRITIdSN]

*$*:[*N**u*['tffi-iidtl*rlilt

t fr"", .."":agli['11--tli"i*fi [.**'ni.t:riT5l*firq**$W'qil':.-$iqdtt$*$trtf:;l:'.xru*$s**u*ffi*''fr,s*m-ffi ***l;f ;+:i**,it'tru;*#*+tqn*l*t*fl-',,'''""';*,ar'..*l[i,*:utsg*;rt*{'';;,'t*tffi'*ff-lfJAg:*'i*lt**;mi*F;*-

. t

422

vast majorirl ofpcoplc ns deludcd zombics, thc victims or crcaru.cs ofideology" Q00).

Of rhosc Mxrxisrs who, aftcr Gramsci, cxplorcd rhc compler rela-t ionqhip bcr$cen h'c ru!( r t ld

'dcot, 'gy. rhc Frcnch Mrnist Lu;s Al-

thu*e' also h,rd I si$rifi .:nr impacr on culrunl cr ir i.ism. Unlikc cr,m_sci. Alhusscr rcodcd to \cc idcolo{L i,Lcon t rol of DcoDtc. rnd not viccver"i. Hc ersucd rhrt rhc mrin A;;crion orii;rosi.i, tfl-a,.iit-sociery's exisring rclations of production, and thar that 6:nction is evencarried outin mosr litcra.y rcxB, ahhough lircraturc is relativcly autono-mous f iom orlrcr "so( iai formrr ions. 'Drvc Llrnq h$ c\Dhincd Al-rhuscls porr ion by sr l ing rhrr rhe . .enscmble oi trabirs. monl i r ies,and opinions" thar can be found in dny work ofliteraturc rend to.,cn-surc rhJr rhc work force tand rbosc rcsponsibtc for rc-producinq rhcmin thc f imi ly, lchool, etc.) rrc mrinraincd in the;r posir ion ofsubirdina.don ro rhe dominrnr ctass" (9t).

- In many wiys, rrrough, alihu*cr i,.. good rn cxcmplc ofwhcrc

Marxism and cuhural criticism pan i{ays as hc is ofwhcrc cuttunl criti.cism is indebred to Marxists anA thci; ideas. For althoush Althusser didargue rhar lircmrurc is rclarivcly auronomous- morc-indcpcndcnt ofideology

'h3n. sry. Church. prcss, or Srxrc - lr mcanr by titcnture nor

jusr lirerature in rhc nrFow scnsc but somcthins cven narrower. Hcmeant Good Litcrrrurc - ccnrinly not thc poputr-r forms rhrt prc",:nr-day cultural critics rvould wrot to set besiic tottoy and Joyce, Etiorxnd Brecht. Tlrose populrr 6crions. Alrhusscr assumed, were merepackh.rcs designed ,howcvcr unconscio,rdy) ro L?ry rhe bagaBc ofrorturc \ rdcolory. mcre brood m,rc5 dcsrined ro reproduce ir.

Thus. while culrrrnl cririci h.vc cmbraced ,gr, Alrhusseis norionthat works otlircnrure reflcct certain idcological formarions jrrl his no-rion rhit, at thc same rimc, litenry works may b€ fclarively distanr liomor cvcn reshtanr ro idcology, they hav€ rcject€d rhe mnow limits withinwhich Airhusscr 3nd orhcr Manisrs hav. defined tirerarure. in ..Man-ism and Populrr Fiction" (1986), Toiy Bennett uses ..Monty pyrhon'sFllngCircus" and anorhcr Brhhb rclevhion show, ,,Nor th;9 o'ctockNcws," to argue rhar the Alrhusseriah notion thar all forms ofpopularculrurc dr ro be in(lLrded "imong lJl rhosfl many m.reriaj formswhich ideology rakcs . . . under capiralism" is .timply not truc.', The"crrjrc fi€ld" of "popular fiction',":which Bcnnctt takcj ro includcfilrns and television shows as qell as 6ooks - is said ro b€ .,repletc wirhinsmnces" ofwo!1. rh.r do wha( Bennc cJts rhe . .work. ' o i . .distanc-ing." Thrr is. rhcy h:rvc rhc cffcci ofscprnring rhc cud;cncr from. nornbinding rh. .ruJ'c f. ro. prn ri ling ;deologies /249).

Ahhongh thcrc arc Manist culturil critics (Bcnnctt himsclf is one,carying on through his writings what may be dcscribcd os a lovct'squarr€l with Marxism), most culnrral critii:s are not Marxists in arysrrict scnse. Anne Bcezcr, in writing ebout such things.s advenilemcntsand women's migazines, contesrs the "Althusscrian vielv of ideologyas the construction of th€ suhjcct" (qtd. in Punrcr 103). That is to say'she givcs both the media shc is concemed with and thcrr audicnces morccrcdit than Althusserian Marxists presumably would. Whcr€as thcymight argu€ thar such media make pcople rvhat they rrc, she points outthat thc samc magzines that may, admittcdly, tell womcn how toplcasc their men may, at the samc time, ofer hbcrrting advic€ to womcnabout how to frcserve ihcir ind€pendcnce by not getting ioo scnousromantically. And, shc suggests, miny advcnis€ments advenisc their

L status as ads, just as many pcoplc who view or rcad them see advcrtisingas advertising, and interpret it accordingly.

Thc conrplcx ind subtlc sori ofanslysis that Beezer has brought tobear on womcn's magrzines and advcnisemcnts has bc€n focuscd onpaperback romancc novcls by Tanir Modleski and lanicc Radwly, inIrrirv trtth d V.n!'ancc (1982)

^ d Rradirv thc Bo,,taie. (1984), resp..-

tively. Radway, a fcminist cultunl critic who us€s but finally cxcecdsManist criticrl discouRc, poinrs our that many womcn who re.d ro-mances do so in ordcr to carvc out a timc and sPace that is wholly theirown, not to bc intrudcd upon by their husbands or childrcn. Also,R-:dway argucs, such novels ;nay cnd in maniag€' but the manidgc isusually berwccn a feisty and indePendenr hcroinc and a powcrful manshe his "tamcd," that G, madc sensitivc and .aring. And why do s5lmrny strch storics involvc such heroincs and end is thcy do) B€cauic, IRad$ay demon'rrrrcs ihrough Painsraking rcsearch ;nto PublishilLlhouscs, booksto.r\, rnd rcad;ng cornmunitics, thcir consumc6 M'rthem to bc drat wry. Th€y don't buy-or, if they buy, thcy don'trecommend * rormnca in which, for€xamPlc' a h€roin€ is raPed; thus'in timc, f€wer and fewcr such plots find their way onto the l"ckr by thcsupermarket chcckout.

Radway's reading is typical of feminisr culturd criticism in that it

423

is plrrlral- but nor cxclusively about opprcsion. Thc subiccrivitics ofwomen may be "produccd" by romances - that is,govemed by what rhcy rcrd - but rhe s:me womcn allo govem. to somci*r.nt, .tt"t gets *Ait"n or pmduced. rhus Joing "arirunl work" otrhcir own. niihcr rhan sccinf all forms of popular cukurc rs manifcsra--tions of idcology, soon to bc rcmanifcstcd in thc minds of victimizada dicnccs, non-Mrnisr cultural critics tend to s.c a sometim€s dis_

421

/hcartcning but ahvays dynamic syncrgy bcrwecn culturil forms and rh€tculturc's cqDrulss-

--MfiToovey does th;s in Th. pnFr LadJ a,'d ,h. WonaL Witr(1984), a book nr which shc rra€es tlre cvolution off.natc ..propricty.,'Poovcy closcly connccts thc proprierics taught by cighteenth-centurywomcn who wrotc conduct maouelsr ladics, magazines, and evconovds with patriarchal norions of womcn and mcn's ltrp4l. (Sinccpropcny \ra3 inhcritcd, an unfaithful woman could thrcaren thc disDc.sirion ofa man's inheritancc by giving bi(h to chitdren who wcre nothis. Thercforc, writings by womcn rhat reinforccd proprietie alsoshored llp rhc proprieEry strrus quo.) finJly, though, i'oovey alsoshows ihat some ot rhc womcn writcrs who rcinforccd DroDrictics andwerc s.cn rs "rcxrbook nropcr trdics" in faq ..croscd thi bordcrs ofthat limitcd domain" (40). They may havc writtcn storics showing thcau&ciry, for womcn, of trying to lcad an imaginarivc, lct alonc rude-cious, lifc bcyond thc bounds of domestic propricty. But thcy did soimaginrtively and audaciously.

/---In rhe esrey dr.it fouows, cultuml critic Nancy Armstrong bcgins by

/ o-tng lormal$r predeccssors who havc sugggrcd th^r Wgth.l;tgI ft grF, morc thrn mosr work) sprang kom a ..mind uncontaminarcd

I by pol(ical conccrns." Sinc€, as a culrur:l criric, Arms.rong cannorI bclicvc that cnl tcxt can bc indcpendcnt of culrunl contcxsl includ-

I ing polirics, shc scrs out to show thar thc novcl in facr represcnrs or| rc-prcscnrs a numbcr of rhingr rhar wcrc going on in mi;-Victorian\ culturc. she thcr€by suggcsts, implicirly, rhrr no work-no marrcr\ how runl irs scrting or',romanric" its rh€mes - can br divorced from

\bc sodcry $hosc power skuctureiLs"s shaped by and shepcd.Evcn W" diflB H.bha, Almsrrong gocs on to shoq is dbing ..cul-

rurar workr I tacr we qm comc to rEalizc only oncc wc bccomc awrrcof"rhc matcrials ofthc 1830s and l84os our ofwhich Emily Bronremadc rhar novel and wirh which ir rhereforc caricd on a rclrtionshio',(429). Whcreae critiG hevc rndidonally poinred our rh. selG€ndor;dnrture ofrhc novd's Chincst-box narntivc stnrcturc Ghcrcby jusdg,ingthc view rhat thc novel is somchow apart from hislory), Armtrongr€minds rrs thar "cvcryonc in thc novci crosscs at lcast onc thresholdwith violcnce and ravishcs sacrcd ground,' (,429). Shc implicitty calsinto qucstion thc view ofa novcl and novclist gcnenlly thbughi ofassomchow s.parate liom .'social history" by showinEWtthtrirr, H.bh$to bc abour rhc im possibility of inviotatc apanness--about th"-ultiri"rcvulncnbiliry of all selfrncloscd phcc!, physical and othcrwisc,

wD,\r rs cul-lurt,\l- (:llrJrcrsl\t

in runl ADDalechi

-tfri.i "r tnrci at in another way. though. Locksr'ood i\ i version ot ycr

new rypc of individ;J finr appearing in rhc, ntidr)ineicenth

'. Hc is a great deal likc a Phot(4raPhrr' Panicul ly rhe photog

who "offer€d thc vicwcr a countryside that w'5 rcmot€. cxooc'

" (It wa5 'iduring Emily Brontd's rclativclyexplains, the very yca$ "rvhen folklore bc-

42'

Wnthdiaa H.i4h6, hke rts chJractcrs. ts. 'c(ordrng

io Arnstrong' i \kind ofintcrtper. For onc thinE. it bridEcs toundrrics sct (bv Culrurc Iwith e caDhrl a) b€rwecn Lircnrurc ( th 3 c.tpital L) rnd Iolklorc' rhe l,srudy ofwhich b.$n in t-he mid-t840s -jusr before wurhnig H'bhB Iwrswritten. l-ook;d.ri in thi!way. rhe novelir the rccounrof' fo[Jor- Iist. l-orkwood, ofwhat he found in a rtmotc Jrer of YorlGhire' much lirs the frrt" books writtcn in thc .ccond lralfof rlrc nv'nriedr anrury Ioffer vcrbl iccounts ofthc lrrgcty vcrbalhi'rory rhrt I lolklorisr lcarncd j

briefcarnc enonnously Populrr," t}at "an incrcxing-nurnbcr of amateur

ofcreat Britair to docu-Dhotofaphcrs went oul ;nto the rcmotc rreas ot Grcat BnErn to oocu-

incnt 'the

tandscapc. curroms. ?nd PeoPlc. in mudt rhe samc way-and

oresumablv for much thc same r€asdns that folklorists had" [44I])'i-ockwaod', aftcr all. gives us whrt he c"lls."pictures" oflcm::jryifi "l#.p,",#rn,ffi qm"1$;s'f |:.::g5,'i"'1"",i"arJ,".-r,,;ia-;;laamii"#pi'.roeo*a;wi;lidm Hcnrv Fox Talbot.

Armstione foltows thc tcad of nanv r cu h unl criri c in s"ing WuLh-

rtina Hiahr ibtt onc ofmany manifcsia onsorcxprcrsions lsomc of

rhc'm "ionlitcn.y," somc would sry "low" or "uncuhurcd") ofcul-

turrl work, However, slrc is most inteicdng and odginal in showing

Wuthcring HcWn to bc part ofa culnrre cyclc of responscs; rcsponding

a ohotoo'rohi (includinq ot Yorkslr rrc hborcrs)' ir is rleo shown to havc

inhrncd othorosrphs - nor ncces.rrity hisrorically 3ccnratc ones. but

wio woula crpcct it tot u'uthoiv HtiBhE i', after ill, .I novcl' and arc

folklorc rnd p'hotogaphs noi to somc extenr 6crions' too. Produ(cdby r cukurci And is rire culturc h\elf not thc Producr of ideolqgy -awav (not t , way) ofsccing the rvorld?

'Armstrone'i ot"v coni.urllv asks-somctime' cxPlicidy. but iusras ofren implicilly - qucst:ons such.rs thcsc And. likc to manyorh<r

works of cultural criticism, it lsks morc questions than it answcn lt

does so in Dan becau,rc it knows thrt rhe ans\'crs $c must come uP

with arc nd more tr. rnswc^ rltu Btonre's rdeulogv was rlr rvay of

sccinc the wodd. Our answers, rathcr, willbc thosc ofour cultunl mo-

mcnt: And they will do our culturc\ wofk.

420

CULTURAL CRITICISMIA SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

G€ncral Introductions to :Cultural Criticism and Culturil Studiej

Brrnftinecr. Ilrrick. Cnnt\ kotPti,ttt: C tunl Stttdit itt Bita.in and,4zitz. New York: Rnurleiise, l9t0

Dcs.n. Philippe, Priscilla tarlhur.t Fcrguson, rnd Wendy Griswold."Edirois' lnrroduction: Minon, Frrmcs,.rnd Demons: Rtflcc-rions on thr S.riolow of Lirentlrc." I-imtuft antr 9xitl Pt 'ft7.. Fd. Dcsrn. F"rsiison, rnd Griswold. ChicaEo: U ofchicagoq 1989. 1-10.

&glcion. Trrry. "Two Approdches ;n thc Srriology ofLitenture "Critial Isq i,t 14 11988)t 469-76

Giroux. Henrv. D.rr id Shumwry. PrulSmnh, rnd rrmcs Sosnoski."Th,: N(id for Cuhuml Sii,dicsr tusisri,r* lnrclhciurh anJOppositionat Public SPhctcs.'1 tutho

'b -n''iclt' 64.2 (lg84\l

472-86.Gunn, Gitcs. Th. Aft ft of Cntici',r'

'nd the Gink'n of O'lhttt Ncw

York: Oxford UP, 1987.H.ll, Stuart. "Cultunl Studics: Two Pradigns." I'ft!$a, Cttltun md

$citrJ. 2 (1980): 57J2.Humm. fctcr. PJllI \irarnt. Jnd lcrcr widdo$sorr, cds Poprh," Fi-

ilnt: E|a\t ;n L ;druft a,1!t HL@a. New York: Mcthucn. 1986S.c ((proallv the inrroducuon by'Humm. Siigarrt. inJ widdow-,on.,na rony ttcnn"n . cs'ry. 'Mi.xism and noful.tr Fic-

Hunt, Lynn, ed. Trtc Nar C'lt ml Hkt0,!:6t95. Bcrkclcyr U ofcrii-fornia P, 1989.

Johnson, Richard. "What ls Cultunl Studies Any\{ayl" ln Suhl Ttst:'l't'@ry/C'tltlt z/Illrol tJ 16 (I986-84r 38-80

Ptuter, locl. "The Amcricanizxtion ofculturaL Strdics." The -fah

Ja"nEI af cn*tn 4 \r99t\ t99-229.nuntcr, Drrid,cd. Inhwtuttio" nAn nWryCn. al Studb Nee

Yorl : I -orrrm:n. 1986. Stc cspecul lv lunrcr 's " Inrroductron:Culture rn? Chrnec." Tonv D',nn ! "m. Evolur ion ofCuhunlStudic<." ,rnd rhei*av entitlcd "Mcthod\ for Culrunl SrudiesStudcnis" by Anne Biczcr, leen Grimshe% and Manin Brrker'

Cultural Studics;Som€ Ea.ly British ExanPles

HogCiari, Richrf.l. .?,r'lt, t4 Earh othcr.2 vols. London: chaito'1970.

vll^T rs cuLTUnlL CrlTlClSMt 427

Tba Uw of Liamt\: Charyig Pattmt in bqlbh M^tt Cl/.lttttr'Boston: Beecon, 1961.

Thompson, E. P. 'lhz Makig of thc EryInh Worhi'1t Clan N'.w Yorkl

P;nthcon, 1977.

-, wittiant u4otit Bn nunth b Bwohttionary' New York: Pan-

rhcon,1977,Williams, Raymond. C, htn a d S@i'ry: 1780-1950 Ncw York:

Harp€r, 1958.

-. Th. Lorg Brrolaabz. New York: Columbia UP' 196l'

Cultural Studi6:Continctrtal and Marxist Iflflucncc{

Althusser, Iruis. Ibr,'!ftrr. Trans. Ben Brewster. Ncw York: Pan_

thcon, 1969.Altlruss!( l-oui!, and Etiennc R^libtt. Ftadiry &pital Trans Bcn

Brewsrcr. Ncw York: hntheon, l9-.

Brkhr;n, Milhiil Ttu Dia@n l"wikatio,': e"f-Byt H:Ili*,*lHolquist Trans. Crryl Emerson. Aust'n: U oi lcxa r' rvbr'

-, nalctat aut n;s ltzard. Cambridge' Mass.r MIT P' 1968'

Bcniimin. waher. l uniratitttt Ed with Jn inroduciion by Hinnah'Arcnit.

Tnns H Zohn Ncw York: Ha(oun' 1968

B€nnett, Tony. "Marxism and Popular Ficdon " Hunrm, Sdgrnt, dd

Widdowson 237-65.ttrucault. Michel Dfrrp,:,, E'd P"n;'h: Th' Bith oftb' Prio't -frans'

Alan Shetidrn. Nc; York: Panthcon, l9Z'

-. n. H*tatJ of s.r'!!'r,ry' Vol. r. Tnns. Rob€n Hurlcy Ncw

York: Pantheon, 1978.Gnmsci. Antonio &i..ti r frun th. Pt;ton Nottbtr,tu E/ Quint;n

Hoire rnd Geotrrcy Nowcll Smirh New Yorkr InrcmationaluI" l97l .

Modcm Culturxl siudies:Sclccted British and Ar$ericatt ExamPlcs

Armstronq, Nrncy 'ri,"

ard Don2ttir Fndtn: A Politi&l Hiturf of th'

No!,r|. New York: Oxford Ul, ,987

Coth- Roben. and Philip Dodd,.ds. E,gti'h'k": Polhns afld C'tlitfr'188& 1920. t rrndo; Croom Helm' 198o.

Modleqki, Trnh ln;'A D;th d Vng'snu: Ma$-Pnt d hnta'i6 fortl'Iown. :F..andcn, Coan r Archon' 1982

428

Poovcy, Mary. Thz Pnpr bd1 ard thz Worran lryiw: ldto@t 6t Srybin thc Wolk 0f Mdt, Wo tbrva$f, Mdtf St.llq, afln Jew A t-tr. Chicago: U ofChicego P, 1984,

-, Un".n Dtuh?"'.n: Thc ld.ohryi&l Work of Mrr h Mid,yn6ir$ Entland. Chicago: U ofchicago I, 1988.

kdway, Janicc. toadig thc Rontt ttt: Wona\ PLtriarxh\, antr. PWhlLitdf,tlt x. Ch^pd Htl| U of Nonh Carolim P, 1984.

Cultur.l Studic of II rlthcrirrf IIc;Shtt

Arrnstrong Nancy. "Emily Brontn h and Out of }{cr'firne ." G.nft15 (1982)t 243-64.

t:rrrcl, tohn P. "tuading thc Tcxt ofcommunity in WrtheiryHcbht'" ELH s6 \r989)t r73-2o8.

t,., AnitA. Othcr lvorr"n: 'rh. Wtiti B of Chs, Ran, nnd G.udrt,1832--1898. Princctonr P.inc€ion UP, 1991.

A CULTURAL CRITICAL PERSPECTTVEON T1/L4ITIE&AIG,EIEIG}ITs

NANCY ARMSTRONG

Imperialist Nostalgia andWrrtb*irrg HsbhB

Wathcriht H.bha wes hewn in a wild woikshop, with simpletools, out of homely materials.

-CHAN-oI| sRoNTE, 1850 I'fth( to Wrthti,tr H.Wa

Nostalgia is a panicularly appropriate cmotion to invoke in es-tablishing onc's innoccncc ard at thc same timc talk about whatonc has dcsrroycd. Don't most people feel nostalgic about child-hood memorics) Aren't these memories genuinely innoccnt) In-dr-ed, much of impdrlist nostalgia's forcc residcs ;n irs associn-tion wirh (indecd, is disguisc a:) morc genuincly in ocent

. tcnder recollcctions ofwhat is at oncc an carlicr cpoch and aprcvious phasc of life.

-RINATO toSALDo. "Ihp.d.list NGqlgi."

NINCI AnI$TXONC 429

Emily BroDtt prcstnts a panicularly inleresting challenge to cultunl

criticism. to thi words othcr sister Charlotle, Emily was "s$onger th'n

a man. simDter rhan a child, hcr narure stood donc" (19) Child' vilgin'

man, by narure rcclu.iuc and Physicaly on thc lergc of dyins Emily

wrote with "a secrct power and firel' that, hct sistcr tclls us, camc

strictlv from within. Most scholaa and critics havc accePted this viclv

llorc so tlran any Romantic pocm,lthey have asstmed, t4$hd;'l4

Ilrnla comes ro us ar the producr ofr mind detached from hisrory md

uniontaminated bv ootitical conccms Thcy a5 much as ask, "WhaI is

there to historicizc ln a novel so rcmovcd fiom the business of the

world? What can such a.n ccccntric document tell us sbout the culnrrc

with which it evidcntlY had so l;ttlc intefcou6el" "Nothing"'the liter-

ary cnric tends ro aniwer, nner qu.stioning rhe fr'r tl.,at.Wt'thdtv

H.irrfi tclls us onlv rbout irs own intcrnrl operations 'nd

(hose ol tne

mi;d from which it sPmng Bur for rhc culrunl hi'toriJn rhis is iusr

thc son of tcxt thrt cxemPlifies thc syrnbolic Prictic€s most esscntral to

rhc ao€ial soup lhat produccd rnd/or rcceivcd ir'

To sho'* thar su.it a te\t is doing a ccnain kind of cuhural work

rcouires sDecial strateqies of proof whose success dcpends on rwo hc-

t.o. Fi..t. one h"s tJh"vc a ieet for thosc details within a tert that crJr

comc only from its mrtcrial sunoLrndings Such details hale thc powcr

to dissolvc rhe fnmc distinguithing wbat is ";ntidr" r novel lik€ W"ll-

.rinn Hciahtt frcm th. m"r.tirl" "itltc

I830s 'nd

1840s out ofwhich

tm"ilv Biontt madc th;r novel rnd with whi(| it thrrefore (sicd on a

relationship. Second, one h3s to decide exxctly horv to link these mate_

rirls toeether as a ficld of information, a discoursc, or a cultural tert (as

I am uine thcse te'ns, rhcv mcan much rhe $me thirrP This decision

hinges ori locating the prirrciples of overdcrermination Taken iiom

freich ohilosophir Louis Althusser, overdetcrminarion re$mblcs lhc

loeic rhat in piycho.rnalytic theory links rhe disParare maierials of a

diam into a singlc cohcrent mesrrge. or wish.r The logic I havc in mind

Lrices thc kind;f wish ihat we e).Pnss rhrcugh drerms back to thc

culrural marerirls throueh which we condt'ci socnl rclauonsnrPs n

th.sc messaees secm to iome &om th€ very c€ntcr ofour s€lves, I bc_

licve, h is bJcausc the mcssrges in queidon constitute truth - divinc or

natur.-l - that one has to;ccept in ordet to b€long to r Particular cul-

ture at r sDecific moment in time.t navJ atreaay cdled atrcntion to tbc scif-cnclosure of ltttthcritg

rr'Dn Ahhuscr. "Cortndktion and O!(det.nination: Noks for rn Invotig'-

rion." I'n4aB. t s. scn B€s$. (NAv vo+: VinEgc, 1970) 10I

a84

important question thc novcl raiscs, the one thing abour which weought ro be ablc to makc a dccision, md yer a thing about which thcnovcl forbids the rcadcr to makc a dccision, ln this-Wathdirg H.bhaiustifies bcirg crlhd rn 'uncanny" r"*r !l!g_IE!'j.l_forru!qr_tg]f:!"

"!-!!y!!4!brU,!!brh is rhc coQ{q\ingblilq_

rhc o!'rn d{ \grlcrhipgflLrich secm5 familirr and which onc ftels ouBhito hivc becn kcor 5ecrel. nor lea5r beeusc ii is imDossiblc ro rcto have becn kept secret, nor least ber:usc ii fimposiblc to iclfwhetner tnerc r( d]\ se.rer rl 3I hidden m rhc dcDrhs. or whcrhcr thct

IMarxist Criticism

andWuthering Heights

w.+t .Fu$ration of that cxpectat\on, W tbd g H.ighn rs a spccial casc of theintcrt)vining of two forrns of repctition.

WHAT IS MARXIST CRITICISM!

To bc a modcrn Marxist lirc€ry criric, it is not ncce*sary to bc apolitical rcvolutionary. Nor is it neccssary to likc only thosc litcnryworks with a ndical social vision -or ro dislikc book thdi rcDrcs.ntor cvcn rehforce. rniddle<lars, capita.lisr world-vicw. I' is ncicxary,however, to adopt what most studenB of litcraturc would considcr eredical dcfinition ofthc purpose and tunction oflitenry criticism.

Morc traditional forms ofcriticism, according to thc Marxist criticPicrre Macherev. "set . . . out to delivcr thc tcxt ftom its own silcnccsttv coai(lns rt rrto Evrns uD rt5 tru€. lrtcnt. or hdclcn mcamns, ,' hcvr-frbrv. howev... nnn-Mrnrsi cnnc$m ''nrruql.3l

'rs own drscoursc bc-

{hc unonny in litrdiurc is fimly oppoed by Fftud ro diu*iorc in E.l lif. whi.haF unennv. Nc!cnh.l6, thclndnny, boft in liknturc sd in liG, ir d.fiftd by rrcuda "nothing ds thf a hiddcn, f.nilia. rhiry rh* ha undc'Eon. rcpBion .nd rhcn.nc|8cd fom n." sigmund FErd. "T!.'Uronny'" (1919),AMd PaFt,ly lN.wvork:B6ic,1959)399.This&mil iar th isEis, inth.dcfnnionfronS.hcl l ingvhichFnld.r.rlh not just rthi.g hidd.n which Erptar6, bnr "smerhing which olghr b hN.t€cn kcpt ion..alcd but whi.li hrs ncvcdhclsscon,c tolishr" (394).Ifit oudt ro h.!cbccn kcpiniddcn n oughtalm ro b. brcnghr ro light, or!r 1ny ntc thcrc is. conpukionrobinsit b lighi,crcn lfonlyindisguised fodr. FRud d€rcfoi. connft$ tuunonnyvith th. rcp.ftion<ompulsion, nd Wi./ldbofu,Ae$'A.

2111

wcen the readcr and thc tcxt" lord in Bcnnctt 10n. Mdist citiconrrast. do nor attcmpr to discovcr}iddcn mcaninplo icxii. Or.

oducr to be understood in b.ordl, a liter:ry work iqj4t viewe is a Droducr ofwork land hcncc

of ihe realm of orod sumDtion wc call cconomics). Scc-

Quitc t}c conrrrry: the retarionship rhar rhe M.nist. crit;c Tcrrv Ea_glcton oudin s in C'&,r',, and ItuotUN 097q b<N.en rhe soarin; cost:1Y* T ,h:.|''n,.."..Iih cenrury, rhe growrtr of tcnding libmrici, rhcpracncc or publ$hrng ..rhree_dccker.. novcls (so rh.t three bonowerscouro Dc rcrdrng rhc semc book ar rhc sxmc rin,c), and rhc changing,rrhrr ofthose novcls_is highly complcr in its own way. Bur rlre clmf

ll:l,Y ?q.l:l hnds B-not rhat ofrhc dcepty buricd mexning ofrhc

rcxr..rqthcr, rr rs rher ofthe complcx wcb ofsocial Jnd econoriic rcla_D tionship,s rhar were prerequisite rJthc work.s producrion. M.rrrisr criri-crsm dors not scek ro be, in Eaqlcron.s rvords, .3! j jSgg_fu{q]sJlja_

@,rcrnnot know rrsclf.!(' man't$r thq." c..aid-oF of irs mrking (insc;Ea;lrr-iary=-Eri;i--Pour rvhrch ir is nece{q;ty sitenr., {43).

/J,*,!U!crdsgl9gy, thar is, thc ncrwork oft

.. As everyon6 6e1y.. ,he originJ Marxisr was nonc orhcr lhan KartMirx, tnc nrncrcenrh"cenrury German philosophcr bcsr knowrr for

' writing Lht l6?iht, thc seminal work oi thc commun$r moveficnt.Whar cwryonc doesn\ know is that Man was also rhe first Maqisrlitenry criric (much as Sigmund Freud, who psychorrr.rtyzcd E. T. A.rtonman s suprmrrurai ralc ..Thc S.lndmar.,, wrs the first Freudianl::f'y I":?

Dunns rh( 1830s Marx wrulr criricai cssrys on wrirers\such as cocthc and shrk(spc.xc (who<e tmsjc vki"";a;;;#h";;j;:,rnrcgrar,on he prr's.d).r, The hci.th:r Manist literary criricism brgrn wrrh Man himself ishardly surptuing, givcn Mrn.s cducation

"ni .rrty in,"r.r*, 1.iin.i

i_l-t!i.bs"* "t tt'; y'tcnity of Bonn, Man rvmtc lirenry imitar;ons,n|s own po.try, a t$lcd novel. and a tsagmcnt ofa rrrgic dnma (Orh-

?lJ!T:l-l1S ,: contcmplativc and potiticaj philosophy. EvenT_"J l:9.,:n.dd.l Flgch in.l843 rnd betsn co rbonting on workss\cn es t,h. ccr,trrl IdtoIEt and Th. Annmtkt tvlAt fun. I$zn main_rarneo.a *e(n mrcrcsr rn trrcnry writcrs and their works. Hc and Eneelsargucd aDout rhc portry of Heinrich Heinc, admired Hermann F;[-gmth (a pocl cndcal of thc Germt aristocracy), and f.rsltcd rhe plav-wdghr Ferdin.ind r$seflc for writing abour a re-a.,i""",y liigi'iiiii"rcas:nrs war rathcr than about more prugrcssiuc arpets oi Gcrmann$rcry.

vrnl N lRxrsl cftftrr:lst\t?

{i.""" "i,r'.'"r"i.""r,ifK,i".,?.,,ii i"r-;il";i ;#ilfi:J reality in tcrms ota gcnenl sociat theory. Economics, they :rrgued, pro-I vidcs rhe "b*e" or "infmsinrcrurc" of sociery. bur fiom rhrr LxcJ emcr8cs r ' \upcrrrructure" con\isringottaw. potit ics. phi losopby. rct i .Lgon'.*d."t . .

. Marx latcl admiticd rhat thc rctariooship bctwecn base and super-strot bc relecr(d by rn jmmcdiarc chanee-n?tr'ii-d'ijifeEmE. In-Tr;-Ea;868ffi *

"fiaaafinwfijbs2r. 6.ia-"- uo-fi ,HiF;fi;Ethc somiiimes

a

and

" _. I,t1il 1nd Engcl<. dnwiog upon rt,c philo\orhc, ccorg withclm

l\ Encdrich Hegei's rheonc' rbour rhe dhtcciicrtsynrhcss ofiJc.rs out ofI thes.s and antitheses. bclievcd th a revolutionrry chss $Er (pitringj middledars capitalistr against a proterrriar. anrithcrical ctass) wouli;. Iead cvcnrually ro thc synrhcsis of i ncw social .rnd cconomic ordcr.

rcmrined basic and rhc connection bcween cconomrc ano supcrsuuc-li tunl clcmcnts ofso€icy was rcaflirmcd. Ccntnl ro Mxrrisn and Marx-I ist literary criticism wrs and is thc foUowine ..matendist" insiehr: con-

I is9-Yjjl9!+bqg8h such 'hinss ".,'i."nn", u. p-a'.Ia. i"-fr"i

i l!:jgu-ura of soc;at Efrinin cconimia;;d,G;,;-ii i;.arhe,--. triil-imosrlm@-.

388

I Placing their fa;dr not i!) thc idcalisr Hcgclien dialcctic but, rathcr, in

I what they caLled "dialectic.l matcrialism," they lookcd for a seculrr and

I marcrial salvltion of humanity-onc in, nor bcyond, history-via rcv-

I oludon and not r i r div inc intcnenno,r. And rhcy bcl ieved that thc

I communisr sociery cventually estrblished would be one caPAblc ofPro-I ducing ncrv forms ofconsciousncss;and bcliclind thcrcforc, ultimatcly,' grert an.

Thc rcvolurjoD anr;cip:ucd by,Mad and Engcls did not occur in

I thcir ccnrury, lct alonc lifctimc. whcn it finally did takc placc, it didn't

I happcn in drc phces wherc Man( and Engels frad tho$ght it might be

I successtul: thcUnitcdStatcs, Grcat Brirain, and Gcrmany, It hrpPcned,

I nthcr, in 1917 Russia, a couotry ldng ruled by despotic cza$, but also

I cnlightened by the rvorks orpowcrtul nov.lists and plifvrights, includ-', ing Chekhov, Pushkin, Tolsroy, and Dostoy€vsky.

Perhaps bccaus€ ofits significant litenry tndition, R[ssia producedr rcvolutionadcs likc Nikolai Lcnin, who shrrcd not only Man's intcrcst

I in litcrarurc bur rlso his bel;efin l;terature's ultimrtc ;mponance. ButI it w:s nor wnhout

"omc hcsirrdon rhfl tenin endorsed rl,r significance

I of tcxB written during thc rcign of drc czir!. Wcll bcforc l9r7 hc had

\ questioned whrt the relationsh;p sbould be between a society undergo-;ing a revolution and the great old litenture ofits bourgeois past.

knin xttcmpted to aDswcr thit question in a scries of essays onTolstoy that he wrotc berween l90B lnd 1911. Tolstoy- thc authorof War arul Peacc and Aw Knfilirw -wat ?n imponant' nincteenth_cenrury Russian writci whosc vicws ha.dly accordcd with thosc ofyoungMandsr revolutioni.ies. Continuing i'tcrest in a writcr likc Tols-toy may be justified, knin reasoned, givcn thc primitive and unenlight-encd cconomic order of thc socicqy that produced him. Sincc supcr-smrcturc usually lags behiad basc (and is therefore usually zor

6 primitive), the attitudcs of a Totstoy look r€latively progressive whcnviewcd in light of the unenlightened, capitilist society out of wbich

Moreovcr, Lcnin also reaioned, the writings of ihe Srcat Russianrcrlisrs woutd larz to sufrce, at llast in the sbort run- l-enin lookcdforurJ. in cs.rys ll. Prrry Organizat;on and Prfty Lircnrurc," rothe day in whi& nc* anistic forms would bc produccd by Progrcssiv€wrircrs with revolutionary political views and agendas. But he also kn€wthar a $cat prolctarian literiturc wrs unlikely to cvolve unril a thot_oughly literate proletariat had brcn produced by thc €ducationalsystem,

I-cnin was hardty the only rcvolutionary leadcr involved in setting

VHAT rS |t|AnXrST CRrrrCtSM? 389

up th€ ncw Soviet strte who took a strong intcr€st in litctary rnatters.In 1924 kon Trotsky publishcd a book callcd lttt?t tt and tuxtutb\which is still acknowledgcd a! a classic of Matdst litcnry criticism.

T.otsky wonied about the direction in which Marxist aeithctic the-ory seemed to bc going. H€ responded skcprically to grouPs like ProlcFkult, which opposcd tolcrancc to*"rd prc- and oonrcvolurionarywriten, and which called for the cstablishment of a new, Pmletarianculturc. Trotsky warncd of thc danger of culturrl stcnfiry and dskcdunpopularity by pointing out that th€rc is no ncccssary conncction bc-tween the quxlity ofa lit€nry work and the qualitl of its author's Poli-tics.

In 1927, Trotsky lost a powcr struggle with Iosef Stalin, who be-licvcd, amongother things, that wdte6 should b€ "engineels ofhumansouls." Aftcr Trotsky\ cxpulsion f.om rhc Sovict Union, views hcld bygroups like Proletkult and the Irft Front ofAn (LED, and by thcoristssuch as Nikohi Bukharin and A. A. Zhdanov, bccnm€ morc prcvalcnt.Spcaking at the first Congress ofthc Union ofsoviet Writc6 in 1934,the Sovict author Maxim Gorky callcd for wriring that would "makclabor thc Drin.iDal hcro of our books." Ir was at rhat stm€ writc6'congress that "socialist realism," an an form glorirying workcn and thcrcvolutionary Srate, was mide Communisi pany Policy and thc olici.llhcrrry form of the USSL

Of those critics active in thc USSR after thc cxPulsion of'l'rotskyand rhe unfiomrnate triumph ofstalin, two critics stand out. One, Mik-hril Bakhtin, ha5 had his grcatcst impact on non-Ma.{ist criticism; hisinnucn€c is discussed in "what I! Culrural Criricisml" in this volurnc(p. 415). The odrcr slne and subtle critic who mfraged to survivc Sta-lin's dictatorship and his reprcssivc Polici€s was Georg Luk{cs. A Hun-qari.$ who had b.suD his c,rrccras an ";deJist" criric, Lukacs hrd con-icned ro Mrnism in l9l9; rcnounced his cartier. Hcgetjm work

$hoftly thereaftcri visited Moscow in 1930-1931; and finally emignredto thc USSR in 1933, iust onc year beforc the first Coogrcss ofthcUnion ofSovict Writcrs mct.

Luk cs wls far lcss narrow in his views than th€ most stndcnt Stalin-ist Sovi€t criricr ofthc 1930s and 19405. He dislikcd much socialistr€alism and .ppreciarcd prcrcvotutionary, rea.listic novels that broed-

I Iy reflcctcd cuhurel "totalitics" - and wcre PoPulated whh charictcrs

l rcprcsenting humrn "typcs" ofthe author's Placc and timc. (Lukdcs

lwas panicularly fond of thc historical c$rasscs Paint€d by the carly-

'' ninetecnthientury novclist Sir Waltcr Scoit ) Bur like his morc rigidand censorious contemporaries, he drcw thc line at acccPting nonrevG

39t)

- f.rhaps b.ciusc Luldcs war rhc bcsr ofrt)c Sovicr commuDists wriFrng Manisr criricjsm in the 1930s rnd 1940s, non"sovicr Mrnisrs ren_dcd ro dcvctop thch idtrs by pubticty opposing rh"sc ofluf{cs. ccr-

I: ""j:i-ll" ,"."-::T nrdolr Brcch( counrcrcd Luki6 by rrsuins

thar tr oughr ro be vi€wcd a5 r fictd of producrio;,;;,":";A;,,.?or--contcnt." Bd.chr a.lso cnricizcd Luktcs for his rrtcmpr ro cnshrinercatism ar rhe <xpcnsc not onty oforhcr ,.isnrs'. b", J;;;f;.;;;;;orama, borh ofwhrch_had bten laBcly igno,cd by Luklcs.' Evcn more ourspokcn was Brcchr.i chical ch#pion wairer senir-min. a cerman Mrrxisr,who, in rhc ls30s, rrirctcd ih*...;";";;;

| ,..rr--.. nisr $-.k5 tikc lar.s j,r.rc's U,lyr p:

"^rCcmncdI

movcm.l-, ft r.xprcqsionisrn an Symbolism, prcrrr,,:g work wi,h".3r:.: !, rvcr more {].-t?dcni, experimental work :haracrerizcd" 'idnly t) -irrr.."

with i_ukicr::J ,no6r r'ecnl and tolemnt critic from rhc carty t930su'rril w<[ inro rhe .196&. rhe Solier tiremry sccnc dcgrncrarcil ro rhcpomt rhar rhc workr of grcrr wrircrs tikc Fmnz Kafka wcrc no toneerrcad, cfther &cruse rhcy wcrc vicwed es deorjcnt, formal expcrimcits1_bccausc rhcy "cngnccrcd souts" in ..nonprogrcssiuc..

dircctions.),n:aauy sandoncd works wcrc gcn(rajjy ones in which rnistry tarqedrar D_ehrnd rhc Ioltrcs (no matrcr how bad rhe politics !vcrc).

- - Forrunitcty for rhc.M$(isr cnricJ moveminr. potiticJty rrdicaj

crncs rr8idz rhc S'ovicr Union rver< frce ofirs nanorq consrriciine ooli_cics md, con{cqucnrly. xbtc fruirfuly ro devck)p rh" tt,i"ki";;i"r"i;.l]nScls, rnLi Trorrky. Ii was rhcsc non-Sovict Manists who kc r Mrnisicritici rhcory rlivr rnd usetut in discussing alt trrjt .f ti,..,;", ;i;.;across rhe cntjrc h'srorical sDecrrum.

,nd.rndirionrl Ut.rary forms conveying a stutdg,i"g .."r".. "f;i;;D<nJemrn prarscd Dadarm .lnd, more imponant. new firrms ofan ush_cred

'n by thc agc ot mechanical reprod uction. Thosc torrns _ includine

rrmoend.n|m _ oflcrcd hopc. he fclr, for libcnrion from capiralist cuirurc, lor rhcy wcrc roo ncw ro br p.ln of irs srutr iq,indy nru jisr;c tl"di_

. But ofall thc anti-Lukicsians outside the ussRwho made a contri_bution ro the developmcnt of Mrrxist literary criticism, the most im_ponant was probably Th€odor Adomo. Le.d11. r,.''m, i,.;".i "i ilt"; ;'l;r;,":^fl :::1,'litr'I"?,ff ',::n|5 oogmatc rcjccrion of nonreiisr modcm tircmture end for his belief':.inc qnmag of contcnr over form. An does nor cqual sciencc-Aoomo Ins6ied, Hc went on to rrgue for an's rutonomy irom 6mp;;_

vll,{t ts iilin\ts't (lltflctsst? 39r

cal forms ofkoou4cdgc; and tn ruggcsr rhrt tb: inrcrior monologu-r oimodemist works (by Bcckctr and l,rouir) .cllccr thc fa$ of modernalicnation in a way thit Marnist criticism ought to 6nd conpe ing.

In addition to turning aginst Lukla and his overly constrictivccanon, Marxists outsidc thc Sovict Unirjn were able to takc advantascof insights generated by noD-Mrrxist criricrl rheories bcing dcvclopidin Dost-Wo.ld War II EuroDe. Onc ofthe movcmcnts that came to bcof intercst to non-sovict Marxisrs was sFucturrlism. a scientific ao-proach to ihe srudy of humankind whosc proponenrs bcli€vcd rhrr aIelements ofculture, including litcrarurc; could bc undcntood as pansofa system ofsigns. Using modcrn linguist;cs as a model, srructuraiistslikc Claudc Lcvi-Stmuss broke rhc mvths ofvarious culrufcs down inro"myrhemcs" itr rn rttc rpr to show rhir thcrc arc srrxctur.l corcspon-dences or homologics bcwccn rhc myrhicd clcDrcnrs produccd by vrr-ious human communitics across tim'i. i

Ofrhc Europcrn strucnrralist Minisrs, onc ofrhc nrost inflocnriwas Lucicn Goldmanr, a RDmxni$ critic living in Prris. Goldmanncombined structunlist principlcs with Man's basc-supcrstructuremodel in order to show how ccoDomir: determines rhc mcntal sirnc-turcs of social groups, which arc rcflccted in literary rcxrs. Goldmannrcjcctcd thc idca of ixlividud human gcnius, choosing ro scc works,instead, as the "collectivc" products of "rrflrs-individual" mcntalstnrcturcs. In carly studics, lvh as Tha Hiddn Gad (1955), hc rchrcdscventeenrh-century French.cxrs (such:rs Raci,rc's Phidn) @ the ldeol-ogy oftans€nism. In htcr works, bcapplicd Mrrx's birse-superskucruremodcl cvcn morc strictly, dcKribirg a rclarionship bcrwccn cconomicconditions arrd tcxts unmcdiatcd by an inrcrven;ng, collectivc con-

ln spite of his rigidity and perhaps becausc of his aiinitics witbsrructuralism, Goldmann canrc ro beseeh in tbc I960s as the DroDorcntofa kind of rvatercd.down. 'hunranirr" MJrxbnr. Hc wx cirainlyviewed that w.ry by rhc Frcurh Mrni:r Lours Alrh ss(r. . r di ,crplc n' ,1 ofllvi-Striuss and st.ucrumlisrn bur nrhcr ofrhe pqclroanalytic theorisrfrcqucs hcan and ofrhc Italian communist Antonio Grilmsci, finousfo. his wririn8s about ideology ind "hegcmony." (Grarnsci used thelatter word to rcfer to thc pcwnsive, web,ike $rtenr ofassumptions andvilues that shapes thc way thins look, what rhey mcan, and thereforcwhrt rcality ri for thc nmjorky ofpcoplc rvirh;n a cuhurc.)

Like Gnmsci, Althusscr vicwcd litctary rvorks primarily in rfms oftheir relatioDship ro idcology, thc ftrncion oflvhich, he argued, is to(rc)produce the cxkrirrg rclarions ofprorluction in a dv€n societt. Divc

)92

I-aing, in his book on Trt MarristTh.or! of An \t978), has atternprcdto exphin rhis paniculrr insight oFAlrhusser's by saying that idcologies,through rhe "rntcmblc of habiis, moraiiries. and opinions" rhar canbc found in rny lircrrry (cxr. "ensure rhar rhc worl-force (and ihoscresponsiblc for rc-producing rh.m in the fanily, school, ctc.) arc mNin-taincd in thcir position ofsubordinarion to thc dominanr clast,, (91),This is nor to say rhar Althuss€r lhought of thc masscs a$ a bninlessmultimde following only the dictates ofthc prevailhg id€ology: Althus-ser fouowed Gran<ci ;n sug€sriog thar cv€n working<lass peoptc havcsome heedorn ru srruBle againsr ideology and ch.mgc hisrory. Nor is irto say that Afthusser saw ideology as being a cohcrent, consistcnt force.In facr, he saw it as bcing riven v/ith contradictions that worts oflitcrr-ture somedmes cxpos€ and even widen. Thus Althusser follow€d Marxand Gnmsci in believing that although lir€raturc must bc sccn in t rrrliotro ideology, ir - like all social forms - has somc dcgree of autonomy.

Althusscr's followen included Pierrc Machcrcy, who in A Thcry ofLitsnry h&kti! 11966\ dcveloped Althusscr's conccpt of rhe relation-ship bcwccn lircnture and idcolos'. A r€alistic novclist, hc argucd,attempts to producc a unified, coh.rent rexr, but insrcad cnds up pro.ducrng a rvor L . ontaining hp,es. omissions, gaps. This happcns biciuscwithin idcology rhcre are subjccts thar cannor bc covcred, things tharcannot bc said, contradicrory vi€ws that arcn'r rccognizcd as contndic-rory. (Ihe cririct chalcnge, in rhisycase, is to supply whar the text cin-not say, thereby making scnse ofgrps ,nd contndicrions.)

But therc is aoothcr reason why gaps opcn up and conrndictionsbccomccvid€nr in rcxts. works dori,t jtur rcflcct idcology (which Gold-mann had refeffed ro as "myrh" and which Mrchcrey refcn to as asystem of "ilhrsory social bcliefs")i rhcy arc also ,,fictions,,, works ofart, !rw,!ra ol ldf'ologJ that have whar Goldmann would call a , ,world-vicw" to otrer What kind ofproducr, Machery implicidyasks, is idcnti-cil ro rhe rhing that produccd it? Ir is h.rdly surprisiilg, rhcn, thxr Bal-ac'5 ficiion show, Frrnch pcisanrs in rwo ditrcrenr tighrs. only one ofwhich n critical rnd judgmcnrrl, only onc ofwhich is bJdly idcologicil.Writing apprcvingLy on Machcrey and Mach€rcy's mcntor AlthusscrinMarx;'n and L;E/ery C,ritbkn (1976), Terry lagleton says, ,.It is bygiving ideology a determinate form,i fixing it within cenain fidional lim-ns, thar xn is abl€ to distrnce irselffrom lidcology], rhus rcvcating . . .litsl limits" (19).

A followcr of Afthusscr, Macherey is sometimcs rcfefted to as a"poscAlrhusscrian Mandst." E€tcton, too, is oftcn describcd that

WHAT IS MARXISI CRITICISM? t93

way, as is his American contemporary, Frederic ,rmcson. lamcson andEaglcton, as well as bcing post-Althusscrians, arc among thc fcw Arglo-Am€ricar critics who havc closely followcd and significandy d.vclop€dManist rhoughr.

Beforc them, Ma{ist intcrprctarion in En8lish was limircd to thcwork of a handful of critia: Christophcr Caudwcll, Christophcr HiI,Amold Kettl€, E. P Thompson, and Ray'rnond Williams. Of thcsc, wil-liams wa.s pcrhaps leasr Maflist in oricntadon: hc fdt tltat Maflistcritics, ironicalln tendcd too much to irolatc cconomics liom culturc;that thcy ovcrlooked th€ individulism of peoplc, opdng inst€ad to sccthcm es "masses"i and that, cvcn morc ironically, they had bccomc anclitist group. But if thc lcast Marxisr of thc British Msrlists, Wiliarnswls aho by far thc mo6t influcntial. Prcfcrring to talk about "culturc"insrcad ofid€ology, Wiliams a€ued in work such as Olart sttd &.bt!1780-.1950 (1958) that culturc is "livcd cxpcricncc" .nd, as such, is enintcrconnected s€t of social propcnies, each and all grounded in andinllucncing history.

Terry Eaglcton's Citi;'rn akd ld.alqf (1978) is in many wa)r arcsponsc to th€ wo.k of Williims. tusponding to Williamts statc-mcnt, in C*It ft and tuic4 that "therc arc in frct no malscs; thcrcarc only ways of seeing pcople as masses" (289), Eaglcton writ s:"That men and women rcally .rc now unique individuals w:s Wil-liams's (uncxc€ptiomblc) insisEnce; but it rvas a proposition boughtat the cxpensc of pcrceiving the fact that thcy must mass and 6ghtto achicvc their tull individual humanity. Onc has only to adaptWilliams's statcmcnt to'Thcrc arc in fact no classcs; rhcrc ar. onlyways of sccing peoplc as classcs' to expox its th.orcticrl paucity"(ctunb 29).

Eagleton goes on, in Crtrinz ehd Idtoln', to proposc an .]f.bo[:'rcthcory about how history-in thc form of"gencnl," "authorial," rnd"a€sthctic" ideology - enters tcrts, lvhich in tum mry reviviry, opcnup, or critique thosc simc ideologics. rhcreby sening in motion r proc-css that may alter history. H€ shows how texts by Janc Austcn, Mrt-rhew Amold, Charles Dickcns, Georgc Eliot, Joseph Crnnd, md T. S.Elior deal with and rnnsmutc conflicrs at thc hean ofthe generrl endauthorial idcologies bchind them: conflicts betwccn moraliry a.d indi-vidualism, individualism and social organicism, social oryanicism and

As all thig emphasis on ideology and conflict sutgcsts, e mdcmBritish Manist likc Eaglcton; cvcn whilc acknowlcdging thc work ofaBritish Ma.(ist prcdeccssor like Williams, is more ncarly devcloping thc

194

ideas ofcontincntal Marxists like .A!rlrusscr rnd M.clrcrcv. T!:.: !.rr,}.a. "cll. fu xicm Amcncan Mj , srs likc IreJcnc ,rmeson. rbr al-.hc :h hr .t.\ rcca!ir!:1, tmpathedc ,.efennces ro rhe !|,,rrks ofWi[nn i, Tho&pson, "nd ,{ri. Jamcson makes far more ,rJ' of Lukdcs,Adomo, aod Alth'rsser. as,{rll a! non-Manist srrucu.Jist, psychorna-Iltic. and posrsrrucruralisr crirics.

In the fint ofscverrl infl\\ential wo*ls, Maftim a"n tun (1971),Iemcson tek6 up the qu€srion of form rnd conrent, arguitrg rhat th€formcr is "bur the working out" ofthc larrer ..in thc realm ofsupcr-srnrcture" (329). lln making such I srr(fmcnr. lrmeson opposcs notonly the teners of Rr$sian Formalisrs, for *hom contcnt iid merclybccn the flcshing out of form, but also thosc of so"callcd ..u ear;'Marxi3ts, who r€nded to de6ne form rs mere ornamenraiion or;in-dolvdressing.) ln his fa$er $ork Th. potit;'at Unxn rrrff (r98r), txme-son uscs whar in .i4aftrfl lt td Fonx hel\ad cdled. dialectical criticism',to synrhcsizc out ofsrrucruralism and postsrructunlism, Freud and L'l-Crn. Al$u$cr.sd Adomo. .r sct ofcomptcx argumcnrs thar crll ontyDC SUmmrnzcd reuucflvctv.

The Facturcd statc ofsoci€iies and thc isolatcd conclitions ofindi-viduals, he argucd, may bc secn ff indications rhrt therc orisinallv ex-isrcd an unfatlen srrre ofsomcrhjng rh.ir rnay be cilted ..Irim;iivc Com-ml|nism." History - which rccords dre subsequcnr divisions and3li€nadons - limits awarencss ofirs own contradictions and ofthat lost.BetterSralc, vi.r ideologjcs rnd rheir menifcsiriion in texrs, ,uhosc strat-cgiestsentially contain and rcprcss desirc, cspecially rcvolurionary de_sirc, into the collecrivc unconicious. 0n Co;nd's'rr/d /i,4 lan;onshows, the.knowledge rhar govcrning clases don,t /rrrhr thcir powerrs con-tajned and reprcsled by rn cnding rhrr meraphysicr y hhmer Na_ture tor rhe rragedy and rh,[ mclodranraric, ly blamcs wjcked Centlc_man Brown.)

As dcmonsffaied by lameson in andvscs likc rhc one mcntionedabove,

.tcxrual stratcgics of containmcnt and conceatmcnt may bc dis-corcrcd by thc criti(. bur only by rhe criric practicing diatecrical criti-c$m, rhJr rst a cnnc|sm rware. among orher rhirrgs, ofits oDz srarus asideology. All thought, ta-cs"n ."ncludo. is ilco-iogicrt; only rhroughidcological rhoughr thar knows irsctf as such can ittcobqi; bc sc;nthrough and evf nrudly rranscendcd.

_- In thc cssry drar fi,llows. Terry Erglcton upholds rt)c Bcneril tcncrsor Marxrr cnricism by sreing Wxtheriv H.bhtt nor in rcrms ofirs intri_(3tel conc€nrric circl€s ofnarrative bur, rithcr, in rerms ofirs rcfcrcncc

vHlf ts nxtsl cRtTtclsl\l? 115

to class, .conomics, history. Eaglcto* is, furlhermoie, int€rcsteC in thcnovel's rclrtionship to its culturc's ideology - as wcll is in the diffcffntrclationships tbit ditrcrcnt novcls have to thrt idcology wirh t/hich thcyarc inscribcd.

Although declaring "suspccr" Lucicn Goldmannt distinction b.-twccn ideology and "world-vicw," EaglctoD gocs on to usc just thrtdistinction to discuss diffcren€es b€w€cn Clnrlottc Bmntt's novcl/at.Elr? and Emily Bronte's lvqth.rrq H.bhtt. Ja c bn, Eaglcton sug-gests, com€s closc to merely expressing thc idcology otits culture. lt isthercforc, in a "precise Berue," what Goldmann would call r "myth":thar is, it achicvcs "an ;llusory resolution of rcal conrmdictions" (399)in such a way a! to vdidate ideologi, and thc soci€trl l,rta tr,r' A1-though ir is coherent in the way thit all fairy talcs are coberent, ir krivcn by the strains aner:danr upon achieving its proper

'deologic.l clo-

surc.lftthtTiw H.i1htt, on the orhcr hand, is a nr1'th of r diffcrcnt,

darker color, ollering morc likc what Goldmann calls r "world-r'icw."It is coherent insofir as it offcrs a coherent p€rception of thc tcniblecontrrdictions. the awful choices available. within drc culture. Whcrcas

law Eye shows a governcss ending up rich rviihout compromisingeither her dcsirc for Lord Rochcstcr or hcr fidcliw to middlc-class moral-it'f, Wath.rirrf H.bhE, E3glcton shows, dcpicts chanctcrs forced tochoosc betwccn desirc and physicd comfon, intcgrity and socixl con-vention, passionate being and cconornic rrll-being, ltrr-ry 3nd suflivnrg.

In a classcd, sexist society, Cathedne E3mshaw - ih€ younger sisrerofa middlc-clas! young man who, by the laws ofpatrjmony, will inheri!Wuthering Hcights - is forccd to choosc bedvccn d)c man shc lovesand a man whosc €las5 will ensurc hcr wcll-bcing, for hcrsclf and herchildren. And, givcn thc fact that Hearhcl;ffhrs disappeiredjust beforethat choice is forced upon her (he haqdisappeared ir an attempi, unbc-knownst to Catherinc, to icquire enotgh "cultlrril capitai" to compctcwith Edgar), Catlterinc relly has little choicc to makc. Enalln whenHcathcliFretums a rich mrn, he is not only too late to marry Cathcrincb.ur

^lso e chdlqpl m n. k is simply impossible, Eagleton mainrains, to

acqui.e culturrl capitd and, tt the srme rime, mdntain full, personrlintcgrity in thc world dcfincd by W*hcriv HcilthB. "Authcntic" bcing;s alwxys in conflict, xnd the resolution ofsuch <onllicrs is ncver accom-plishcd $thout $mconc or somcthing sustaining r tcrriblc loss.

"Wttthei B Hcbh6 rcmrins unriwn by the conflicts it rel€ases,"Eaglcton 3|guei, "and it contr?sts !s such with thos€ Chado[e workswhicir arc formally nawcd by rhc stnins and frictions of rheir 'content' "

396

(400). Although E:gleton does not ellude io rhc work ofPienc Machc-rcy, his analysis of Charlotr€ Broiti's works-and, espccially, /r,,-Enr-has clearly becn influcnccd by Macherey's thoughr. For he sug-g.:ts that larv Ep an bear its idcological message Ghat romaDce isrealistic, that a poor girl can becomc a "lady," rhar one can be authenticwhile still rcmrining quitc propcrly within social €onv€ntion) only un-der sk€ss; irs aurhor has had to resort to resollrtions so nimsy (andtherefore so'ttraincd") rhar rhey can be scen rhrougb, rhcrcbyprcvid-;ng gaps $roueh which what cannor be said lrair', rh€ ideology can,with thc hrlp of Minist analysis, at lcasr be read from outside it.

Howcvcr, whcfeas F:gletont reading of/ar, tr would seem ioowe a grcat dcal to Machcrcy and his drought, his readingot Wthcri gEcb,,a as a "form . . . ,,.ivcn" (cophasis addcd) thfi rcvcals,,r'r'l€ontGdictions implic;rly rcvcals rhclimirarions ofa mcthod like that ofMachcrcy. Somc works, Erglcton suggcsrs - pcrhaps rhosc coldmannwordd lcc as offcring a "world-vicw" ind nor jusr inothcr mythicilvcrsion of thc ;dcology -.csisr simplc formularions - cvcn Marxisr

MAR] ST CRITICISM:A SELECTED BIBLIOGRA?HY

Mrrx, Engels, I-erin, ,nd Trotsky

Engels, Friedrich. 'I'he Andnkn ofthc Worhing Cla" in Eryl"nd. FA.xnd trans- W. O. Henderson artd W. H. Chaloner. Stanford:Sranford Uq 1968.

lJnin,y. I. On L;tznt"r. qnd Ar' Moscow Progre$, 1967.Marr,I<arl.9bct d WnirgL Ed. David Mclxltan. Oxford: Oxford

u?, 1977.'lrctsky,LEon. Litemtwc and. Ptnhthn. New York: Russell, 1967.

Gen€ral Introductionr toand Rcflcctions on Ma$.ist Criticism

ReAn tt,-fony. Iinralit lt i Mart;t s, Inndon: Merhuen, 1979.Dcmetz, Pctet. Mart, EWb a "d thc P\.s. Chicago: U of Chicago P,

t967.I-xglcton, Tcrry. Maqi"n a.kd L;tdary Citirirr. Bcrkclcy: U of

Cdifo.nia P, 1976.

V}IAT IS MANXIST CRITICISM? 197

Fokkcma, D. W., and Arud Kunne-Ib'sch. Th.ni6 of LittntLft in ,h,Trftntitth Catttoy SEuttunlitn, Manit n, A.tth.tkr t Ba.Pdnt,&rrrl?t r. New York: Sr. Martin's, 1977. Sce ch. 4, "MrrristThcories of Literature."

Ftow, tohn. lt[trxim d.nd Litcnry Hiltrry. Carnbidge: Hanard UP,1986.

lctrcrson, Ann, xnd David \rbcy. 14dat1 L;bmry Th.r'J: A C,ritiealInttld.lctitx. Totow^, N.J.: Bames, 1982. Sec thc essry "Mart-isr Litemry Theo.ics," by David Forgacs.

Iring, Dave. Tl" Ma.rxin Thcor! of An. Brighton, Eng.: Harvesrcr,t978.

&ldcn, Raman. .4 -Rrn ,"\ G"i* tu Antnwry Litc,r'lr Th'o,f.If,xin$on: U of K€nhcky P, 1985. Se€ ch. 2, "MarxistThcorics."

Slaughrcr, Clift. firftir,, Id.olgJ Ml Littmt 'ft.

Arlanric Highlinds,N.t . i Huminidcs, 1980.

Some Classic Mariist Studiesand Statemcnts

Adorno, Thdodor. &rzr.r: C ltuml Cititinx und &'cnr1. Tnns. samucland Shicrry Wcb€r. Cambridgc, Mass.: MIT I', 1982.

Althusscr, l,ouis. Ief.l4rrr. Tnns. Bcn Brewstcr. New York:Pantheon, I969.

Althusser, l-ouis, and Eticnrc B"tib3f. nlnd;ry C,a?ibl Trans. BcnBfewster. New Yofk: Pantheon, 1971,

Atetbach, Eich. Minait: Th. Rrpue"tutin of Rc!'litJ ir Wc'Em Libr-uaz. Tnns. Willard R- Trask. Princeton: princeton UP, 1953.

Brkhtin, Mikhdl. ,Rrr?r'i' shd Hi tyorA. C^mbfldge, Mass.: MIT P,1968.

Benjamin, Walter. ,frrrr,'r,rtirrr. Ed. with intro. by Hannah Arendr.Trans. H. Zohn. Ncw York; Hrrcoun, 1968.

Crudwcll, Christopher lrr',br anl "Ra'bl. New York: Russe , 1955.

-. Srldia in a Dlirf adun. l nndou Irwrencc, 1938.Goldmann, Lucien. Tbt Hiddtn @. Ncw York: Humrnities, 1964.

-. Tlnnld' r Soekln1J of th' Noerl. London: -l^istock, 1975.Cramsci, Antonio. &rrtirn frorr tht Pritox No\b@b. Ed. Quintin

. Hoarc and Gcofrey Nowel Smith. New York: lntcmationaluP. 1971.

Kcn]', Arnold. Att I ttdtctid to th. E Ulitt N,rtl. Ne.N YorkiHamer. 1960.

39u

Lukrcs, Gco€. Thc H;tto/ieltt Nowl. Tens. H. and S. Mitchell.Boston: Bcacon, 1963.

-. Ststti$ i1 E rap4r, nalirnt. New York: Grosset, 1964,

--. Th. Thtor-t 4: thr Nrl'l Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1971.M*atsc, l{ctbc(. On -Arratiirial.,U,r. Boston: B€acon, 19t4.Thompson, E. P. The Makirv of thr E gli'h Woth;,8 Cl^tt. New Yo*i

Pantheon, 1964.

-, Willbm Morai: lrnarti t0 lrwrrrtrirrarl New York:Prntlrcon, 1977.

Williems, Raymond. Cnlturx ann tui;tJ 1780-)950. Nerv York:Harpcr, 1958.

-. rhr I4'g Bt ohrbz. Ncw York: Columbia UP, 1961.-. Mincitm antl Lit ntrr. Oxford: Oxford Ul, 1977.Wilson, Edmund. 7b tt. Finlakt $atnm. cardcn Cirv: Doubled.v.

1953.

Studics by and ofPost-Althusscrian Marxists

Dowling' t illiam C. Jarftton, Abht$tcl, arx: An lrlrdnttiott ta"Th. Politi.a.l Unxaitciaai." Irhaca: Comcl UP, 1984.

EaglTon, Tcny. Crbnisn t"d ldtolvj: A Stunf ;n Moftin LiEmryThcon. Landon: Yeru:. 1978.

-. E ilc' Md E "W.

Ncw York: Schockcn, 1970.tamcson, F.ederic. rId,"ni.n t"d &rtt: Tnrnt;tth-Ct"tu4 Ditlt tiltl

Thaia oILttlttun. trinccron: Princeron Ut, l9t.

-. Th. PoUd.il Uruor.;oat: Ndftstix ar a &xia|i Swbolb Act,Ithae: C,orncu UP, 1981.

Machcrcy, PiclTe. / Th.orJ of Litclrry Prdx.tirfl. Tnns. G. WaIl.Irndon: Roudcdgc, 1978.

Marxbt Rcadings of ,/rth.r;ng H.bhtt

EAdcton, -tcry. M)th' t Powt: A MaEi$ Studj of th. Bn i'.lrndon: Macmillan, 1975.

Kcrdc, Amod. "Emify Brontt: l.r'./tth.t;tu H.bhE." An lturndurtbb thc E Ulih Nor.l New York: Har?er, 1968. 130-45.

knta, Mar8aret. "Capitalism or Parriarchy and ImmorJ lrve: AStndy of Wrth.r;ng Hc;tht." Th.oia: A Jo"md of Stsdicr in th.Art, Htnn

';tb' afln SrU Sri.u6 62 (1984)t 63-76.

1 ItRRt tiACLs-rON 199

Williams. Ravmon.l. "Chnlorte rnd Emily Bronti." Tlt. E lBlith Nowlfiim Dituu n Lawwt. t-ondon: Cliatto. 1970. 50-61

Wilson, Davi<t. "limily Bront0: Firsr ofthc Modcrns." odrfl gar-

taiJ Mi'crlhrry | (1944: 9+1I5,

A MARXIST IERS?BCTIVBON WLTIT{ER-I]VG I{EIGIIIS

TERRY EAGI,ETON

Myths of Power: A Mafiist Study on'Wttthcl.irrg Heights

Ifit is a tunction of idcology to achicvc an illusory rcsoh]tion ofrcal/'iontradictions. thcn Clradottc Bront6's novcls arc ideological in a pre-

I cise scnsc - myths. In dre fabutoLrs, fairy*ale arnbience ofa work like

' I /rr? Er, wirh it5 dmmaric archcryPes lrrd mrdcJ dcviccs. cert r;n facers

I I of,l" .o*pt.* *v.t'ology wh;ch constjturcs Vicroim bourgeois con-

I l".io,,sn.s' ind thii, resrhetir:lly appropri.rrc form. Yct "my,rh" is. of| | course, a term morc corr.fionly :usr.d of Wtth.ring Heithfi; znd.*e need' lthercforc to discriminatc betrvcen dif€rent mcanings ofthc word.

L Fot Lucien Goldnrann, "i.leology" in liierarurc is to be sharply dis-

. tinsuished frorn what hc terms "world Ucw " Idcologv significs a frlse'

f d;sioniue, p,nial consciousnessr "world-vicrv ' dcsigrrrrcs r rruc, torrJ.

lald cohcrenr unders'Jnding of social relcr ion' lhrs 'eems to mc r

I highly rLspccr form,rl:rion. but cvcn so. Goldman'r's qucsr;onrblc d;s-

' tinction can bc uscd to illuminatc a crucial difiircncc bctwecn thc wolkofCharlotte and Emily Bront€. Charlotte's fiction is "mythical" in anexacr idcological sensc; it wclds togethcr airtxgonistic forces, forging

I liom thcm a prrFnioc, prccarious (ohcrencc o( ;nrcrcsts l-vnth.titiqI 4.,;t r'; rnutt'i.i in

" 'nore rradirional scnse ofthc tcrm: an .r|-paFridy'

l - ' i i , ! ; iI tlmclesi. hishlv rn(rgnlcd. mvstcnously arltonomolis-sln)oollc unl_

' vcrsc, Such a noiron ol mvth rs rrsclti ol (ourse. ld€ologcaly ol5to! anofifiof this asay will be rn rftcmpt to de-mysdrylt. Tle world of

I Wrthtin! Hcbh$ is ne'rher crrcrr). ror self-cncloredi no. is ;r i' thc\ Ieasr unriven bv intenal conrradictions. But in Lhe cisc ofthis work it

\doo r".. n..itr.ry ro spcak of a "world-vicq" a unified vision of

lbrillirnt clariry and .onsi6tenc,!. lluth.riry Hti'hn achieves its (oher-

cncc ofvision from an cxh^rsting co,rfrcntation ofcontcnding forccs,

/ d A.AJ

Lnlnua ..lcnebe-=__.9e'_

b. t9J0

Chinuo Ach.b. k i rcll kro*n NiSerian novclGt and criric. Ov.. 6e pst twnty-ItE y.a h. hs poluc.n nuncrdus !ov.ls, shod sones, and cririclt lsays, P.ii.pshis bcn lnoM c.jlcal .say n a dncu$ion of r&isn in to*ph C@trd.s E an oJDartzdsi rhici hc ga!. origiDally a a lecor. ar rhc Unirosiiy ot M!$&huscns in1915 udGrt.lIinrcAi" lrop.s .ttllip.lia.r& tr .voted hoti high pr.i$ md sdngetiparhy o !h. sFt bd h6 given risc lo ndher disc!$iod md Hpons as qu.srioaof @isn 6d colonialisn haec ben moE vlsoorsly debaled. Tnc Eprinrd asryh@ it boad€r in scop€ rhe the ore on Conr?d. bur il evotrs similf rh.de!, cjvc!si8ioally 6 o lrfuft.r a ftedng ol rhl Assidion tor Conhonwalrt! LiEraruEMd lssuagc Studi.s ar Malcrerc Utvdiry, Useda n h o dl.ck o( a tinsdinsolonialisD i. dc cridcisn of Anicm ln@tuE, nd.l, bnr nor endftty by non-Afii-as. Th. raul6 of 6is snicnm st.n f6D inptied asDnplioE rhal rl& Aftico wirdis ! iotuwhar unfilished Euiop.d ' dd rhlr sonchov oursides ce bow Alric.b.n.rfiu the ndiv. vdrea. fi.e dslnpio l.ad ro, dong olhcr.nines, tn e9cious dd{tuwcworrds rheory or rh. Africai im.lr.ct0al dd impty a conrin!.d Eu-

Achcb.\ principal thsErical p.int inlolres his ftj.ciioti of nnivcd.tih. Epre,snred by ditical natemcnts lhar g.nftlizc lhe pdidtdit out oa Afico firmoE.Th. No pobl.ms wnh univetalisn\ accordjne ro achebq e, fis! thar th. pEs.mdunice,\al''y lne cn.rs irnd tr me el) r vnonym for lnc asmw s.tf-;rrog Fechidisn of EuDp€ 04 $cond, lnat every,lilcEtoE nusr.tp.sk ot a paniculrplac., cvolve out of d. nece$iries ol its hisrory pat md .mnt, ed rhc dli.atiotumd d.stiny ofns peoplc. Ir woDld se.n, dEd;ftd if.hdc t id bi a concde univeFsrl i! Atncd Uleatur. it bust d.m fDn a nuch deper hnnan sowce than any pd-.hidl vicw an unmr.. Bnr Achebc des no. say thk. Rarh.r, his €onc.reation ir onln. pdicula alon., for hc ptrrs lit@Nre, !r l.dr hjs wrilirgs, ir s.dic. of rhe n cdlo alrr sD.cifr. rhings in sF.cific ple.s, rsp.cially aritudes. It h in rhis conr.xt rhaA.h.b. defd& thc 'hisn mor,l md sNial .nesrrc* ot Chdsropbcr Obgbor8lirn $. chugc of ouspokme$. Acheb. $ p.inr is thal .m6tlc$ h appropriactd oldgbot lnd his sirulrion dd lbar a cctuin l.vity *dtrld te inrppopriare.

Achcb.! Nmeous books incrM. I\inst Fall Apan (rgs9), No Ins{ a, Eat.lr9$'), Th. Sdiil.iol EBe ahn ottur stori.s (t962),Atu* oJ ca,t (t961t,A Man ofh2 P.opt (196a), Btuot Soul-Btoth.t (r97r. Ev. 1912), Gits at wat Md Otherstui.s (t913r,

^tomi,R y4 on cEatio^ Dzt (1915\, Th. Fh,. 0913), Th. DM

o974t, Th. Trubl. ||ith Nk ria (r9a3), Ar'^i,b af th. SaranBh (t9a1). ^ad

Eop.rdn tnpcdinqB (1989). See C. D. K.tta, Tt. Nov.h oJ Chi,u Ach.be (t969)l>Nidcudt. c^inua Ach.b. (1970): Kate Turlinelon, fltrss Falr Apan (r977JiidRob.n N- Wr.n, n.r.rr'r lydra (l9g I ).

Colonialist Criticism'In. po'd .totdDtd

nq b. d..hol,nmNdin. tq,!o (sM' F6r, ir ha cm! b bc r*rra in ._"dd, hih 6dbtudorrh6p. d.Mc.ijc _a omajmo.*bd dE didnsui$d chx'lM(d'D&mdorb hs,Dnidkh.nh.$jr3of osr.re*y ro -urd. d. mtoni: ,boy,., ,noly,ir ihr,[.

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aenyisk!imonrl drfrm ih dE h.y&y olcoto.drjre: "ln. Ajiicu ir inded my btmd.- rt'. r,4dj,y cordnmjd c,rdc *"ar" ii- ;d&Ntumsd.,reft.Afncdut,rr_.*u,urro$d Eulp.s who

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r $turd FrDp3 F,nr d, uE, cotmd,nnidcsb B

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rny dc nor hdudc a fu{ui. Erop.,n idcdiry ro; rtuchrhcFa$ isbdflzpprcn cshjp' atrn t.r no o;. b. r6t.dby rh. trd rhd w my wrir. iD Enstih, tor *c inrid rd dounh. ofrhing3 cirh L Atrlady emr tsoDt. a r.nhs

*e*nr"r n,a.iF*r, A. D. Hor(, in chbctr ,,nd h.,rjd

-,rr,rryu,,r,.Muns in n,lt hn3u1s.r rir. D,nish. why? Bd.u!. rh.y bd ,h.n,.ad.u

cildy whd ! udm.inr *En i w6 u..d. r Lrd to .dhir L\ar r h:di1 &ouslor I 6d w'J,, r hd ,lwrys srum.d 6a rr,. c...o*"iror Nlriox *a t sEd bon$ fq r *dr.r, $,r &. Encri$_sp.&_ns Uiiotr s6 r d.rinbt. 1116o. su r,r,*_" na D. HoF tnar .!.nins. I f.rr oruc r,,r r,L.

- ur.".-."

(hird r&. b r{. r,6 $. tu soo or d. h__ ;-*"rh..rRtBorsn'drNrrcBdprcna,e r,u*ir,.uak 9r I drks in rqD p.{ I r.h mholshr orhtting a. D. HoF: you rjn,r cn nol\niFrler r (mr h.

"dtd d ist mdn(rod a id $ M] .a4

D.c wa rn impotuor re in wht.h lE rs d!ln- rn r4v.., nrduE od kr u. rhans, rh, b.lons u{o iBp.*., nEr, in o$* lordr. !F!r or, Fnicud oka.ydE our or

'hr rc.$r,.! ot ,s htrn4, rd rnd (mnl

rd h 6rind6 bd d6dny oI is !@pkAushljr provcd qdb .nlishr.nii& (r hoF r do no.

rdM 16 hsrei$ C.tuitr, I m$trruv. papr. m AGhljr: rd LrE wod, vluch tu drriF8unh.n hld'id l}ofasr Mmirs cran( wor ro m. :fbm_y qnr R Moig

'r'c hm{ dbur! I hiv...r Edt.d

I hopc,Du @m. bet rd !F:r rsaii..! ro ro$ rhc blink6 of our pd( So con. ad hdp ft.

s;,hud ,r). prtjudtrB oI dctr

ot' md}., ad(ioi r rEd.nr d d. Ndjond U,nrrdy uh hd 6r.n : mue r Africr tir.eE 6t.d ft I

'r! rinc [d Nr cDn. fd aftiei {irR b qna,}.,r

''p.oprc itr s.rcnt incdd of Juc Ari@. | ?*.n hd ifby pmpk in s.nml rh. hri //. l6ialiB. dr\.h.r rh! brd n.wr rhr .! rq s I qr ..**"a ,u.r, .

-u."$drd n.v.rcom.. Sh. ri!lrty I hrire nr 6c o'n.r rom(n I hrv. Er!rcd b, ;hc.rm!.dhcE.rf wnn psdon& id dismirg cfiMcry. i don.rho* how sotunt lib w 6k it h4 I do b.ti!v. it r hv.nd rtrg! sm.n 4 mr. hmd rh- *" in *o-*"dln re,insj rn* g,,I $* on,r n"rq *. _* p*iwnrch me, -d4ur..n,ja h:v. b.

furl, ind $ddoE mm in5i6@ty. TL' drs! ir u, i. jim

'ob3 rhrch dky q unn.dry.

tn hts b.n nn 8n4.rc. 4 ati.u FtdiLl:r,ntat-en k|k us I t r rcvatirg rhinsr rbour unjvdrtiri Inr lhiprd dcyor.d b r4i. r.b! no!.I, !.hj.h h. nftj,pdcurrD impcane h! rFrll of ,is uflvdgtrry, ,bkry trnkr oKn q,h Ario i&It...rr h. !q oi b

Th{ n ir s in Afrio |pp.s ro b. ci{,.nrd, ftr,flr.'| rd

' ft{ dnn4r, rh. b.siming, }t.

16! nory mrghr js, sd,t, br.,tx. jndEiouri.d pd of Ll). Udbn shb, o. in rh. htlL.m r.sion' or Fdre r tutr. Il . r.* lllre ot.nrmr^ ind pt&a *4 chd!.d d. btd ii-du{ f..l rhar dn ws d atui@ let. t.

Bor L on ir obvioudy nor a3 fatish s rhir Der.*ord mr. him ou ro b4 ftr hc 4d! it

- ' m .r

"i-doubr vbich I tind robuy diMns. He sF o. 2r3):

or 'n

r d.ludns n)fu m (di&ms rh. *dkuntr4rl? M'yb. Ph.r I Edty l]e rhd Itus6'i? Po,/ n b r !d d.gR wdh t d$*r@ l@dy ardcr a i!.

I nnd n hi-d anr $ar ro sho* hk !eb,6. rhDm.rcry .8E.iig .b.tr. hh d.hsid, Bd f.* p..pl. I tmprt F.pr.d ro bc $ (tuibbk jn |

'td EU.* of tn.

rek in o&la r Ni3lnu qiDc. ordu Lldiq r$l| ..$.sfuduf'L\'hlwdrxAn.li6.und4$.lU[-

Dq l, .(I rtu b D.k ui4B:t* ro Ey d ukirgam. 0r.hasi's i|m of .hd6 Dd !j@ r r7llM60 no!.t, st r prnt4 Roln q d uDdit.. Dd rh.hg in arri.{ olmr juj b k ho* jr a*!? Burorown ldb mre.u ro rh.n tr hud E(@eb 6.D bdNbr lh. u'ivcifiq ot d.ndD th@ rd dE Drm.rrtugr rh. qtrt af ! wq'm qiG E rdoDrk lty ii-r(fu by udiv6dn, x jr o.ty dh6 wb6 rq fih brh.v. iL sc.nd.st ro.t n uDjv.e! i. [s ht, u.;".4t a, u'o$ unt"o,.riry w m aifu *a ,, ,uro:d*l chd my [t ir]orhvatourfd.trodhd!(fuum orE@F f tuEdq ,t

'$ pu ,a"qur d,'le

erEn tluE.tf !d ,qr hom. I jhoutd ht. ro s rh.*ord 'Btriv.a2l ,bamcd rlios.rh(fm dilsrjtu ,f

^r-

iko lihrm ndil $ch r rih. as Per 3!ffird td in. Dnov,*lreFn.J.,. miir

'har ho'im., k"& h hdud.

'rr$"u!lll oloiiri* criticisn M. m.tlv nisring oc nishl

ddh tic jGtificrtim of d.rcriig I s

tfus. tndgh i!n,y o $mori!id'sdprc'(0tsdo .rid !n innu.r. on od MiRr' I

sEmq@ @rU$.rEmP.!|.u6 orP'6udioi otr

b.lri; dEs ordE m.nr ad vilu. or htr cs' r:tc ror

i6!:& d. blEt niF *hd eias m th' rh@ !'m at

re ! sr B. tldlv mBlorids @ 5ddsniuesoG$im;{ tu b'd m, rr'!:dJ b..i -FonnJcohi.lis dind si[, of .ouc. t']l rll ovd hin in

dhnc .nd sdivltiis &dnintior*Grd nd qidldv rhsons whdBfeinding hos'

i*. i ' * *-, t.gi. *a -Oi"o

$.v lirr$nditrr*sishrlos&d ad iduni

^ rvir* or \mb. ouoloF.m5 3'!d l' vtok('

(Hillfu Educijoml Bmla L,'dd t9l)bv!PhiliPM ),lJ6inn* Pon-AfrL JotnnruDla of snij.i.d.d, t!.i bnlihr colonialist diricisd'

ft; @."i"t*".*".r.* "-rd ^rd rois nr

'mturl lt h't qi6 mdrY

Th. thi4!@d ot osrogd'mt 6sh di*

se4 impsrivq vet dd'pEi$d 'oY'l

hs tes

ro do *irh *td iddlosical Id h.'3 pbvitrs oi

thd$n\n* hd^s al m$t la^-tutit! M At-

t d ct ra'id tny ieh*l

A lid. lik ltr' All.D .rpounds on $n Ew m@

uiivslfiy:

Tii! doElig it tdonlv un-Al'i6 '-i'ivii3

ttu dul!& !d bY .miprcs. adroo. &

slddly of@nmlniris, d.l.8iddrcv or cilrqDt{c n n I rbbbiE !niv.6' d'r

'rhcbcKnd rh. *ildn6. bctoid ih' *hib dtn3

mih. oI ^nic4

ne 'll.iviliz'ift

dEis 6d

d slt dd nil h. wond.ritg 1$i! poid hw O!ol'

oi!.n vs:hL ro rMplis\ ftd B'rulan fd of torcing

modmr.fllirJ on Atna o' {i'n ws ii rurP.B.. oxolc

cu; h 'd Aftcb i rlErull who hr hrdlRd borh 0

"rl. .a

" p.".tl"s P\I"-Phv ot rtrnch kn6 3bL b

Mi Allen L qujk lbopr m lllimi$ins rll Lh' vmcr

mr.nkdIrriEi d id.llogis! I ho h'4 b'4 (lrimitrr

bstop.m to' 'h.n

rid. otc@ lll'v dl mi$ 'h'

Pd;nl

'.,, tor oidogem iin r Miriig dtrh ov'l' I'

!;vB us n atne sr.d of 6' prdac ob*s'on

;nh tritl !M dlMI .ooJrcDdioi rnd rdd

rrcn hvidbut @d'ioD mnsdng Hn boor

'ho*no.st0d'h6nb.l*rDwhi|.gdbl&lq{{d :Jd itrdis.DN! modd and rrdjtioo'l

' Ib dnnid e $6. olfi. uiv'tu. nd @ent

iof hieory'

: rnd in tinti d.nonsd.tioD of Ouolosud '

libqsrid

f6m th. .otrstli of lcd mod.b Mc AI'o r'I3 u5:

olElodcn des nd 'd*

Fomt idd of lib"

dion,;d h. sll afi'm urtY : '! 'ory

rq

dru.6. HsNl!.d i3ro ge 'E

M'liotMG

. I diboK.ia...i.dotinc orNtdodthuisrhcgold.t F@ of lmp.rcr sdndiaa or rht fmr

psilh otMunu

: M,. All.n i .h.rnic d@s nd ddi.lv .oBil {ho'"

r rtufld' b Nrica io

.h-;*d,. Nde r- *-er.. 'r,"

''rrD tudl Fnh of MDntu *irh i

Dlidrions. wl'o bur v.n.d mrn could contiv' $'h

Ruinjdslhughltti '^ll4trcvllwL!\.ov.nidjnl,i! u'' osrop.m ha sm.ho* Esld dprv 19 nl'

tffLudlb'rnn'odbyin\6tiig0li' i*

"iot."* "'a *lt rt att*

"i'i" -a "ni',. .*r' .ugi"c,h. r*'l ** trl

w N b urd.nbd bt f' Y cldws sh.d,iu bn{ rnd fu rq Ani

$mdonoIEr@ibilitYor oud I so.d .,.t1 ol.oloulid rt'rdi' rlwt]s

'Uhdonfialdyqu6tiod'T|r.mqrjiddimtyd@|}nD.d do|d of !$.h $bjus:doio** oa r-t,Y, .* *qa*N,i,*iu.*-'-**..

-t.. "t ",p".lo, r;nly,d.Fndra$ oM! hk'Nctl P'Epdrivd s

:T't

l

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; , ;dd.r-{N* raP-rtu 6NLr! r" ""

l9l0 th. poplru Eo3lish nddii toni Buctun wd. 1 cGloiilli{ clsiic, Pzrkrr,ir, ti shich w find $. wordr:''Tln k rhc diff.6mr b.rwtr whir! ud btxr. lh. 3in of6podibilly," Ard rh. id.r did od oigiiar. ynn Bmhli,.idE l. k r aNddio r.M otcoroidnh fld r Eu.Eor .ls4r of ir id.orqy ,nd dEdic. Now, ro ral I na'rht h. i! ii6pnbl. of aNftig Gponsibitily t* hin$lr6dhi!.di6hof.@rlE mn;isutr, to rvoid vu.h!m. Att..$ will so & sy lcngrh, win rhiow eydins inrorht ddt &!y yill !38, lq isrde. b lsn@ rh. prEE..d h,c oI tui$ li Aiiqtr hisc, 6 pd.nd rhlr smFhw I va ill rh. btrr na! oM falr. wltich ie .onptcerrl !tur o(jea.. For vhrrvd rads rh. bbck nad nryh!rc 6 *b&wr diE h. comnin.n (rd rlEy we, inde, l*ion) hc did i4 bnn! tuim i o n! wl(L And iomtur h @n.,p.r.d I flD hiy *iri ro ipp.d d noeuridr b phs! by in ltg.n$ of h.!r h! mnd n!lt.hjsrory rinDlt lo .*at Nd lEn r bn iiir Miu mldh.pc b do $i. Ind:s rn rn6. *io applod hio for ryin&wbo @l|io his bord oisiDlirr ir -Br6ins hid.ricii itri-I.riE b Nr Fotl." whc! h o.]n, dl h. des n pind& rotn.t n ld bd colmiriis drirud6, $uBrupotNr in@g.b bldDs !dve6g. orD insdjr!lDs ddrndrnr's *:rT$.d hn b.gg hin o b iftd.v-

Tlur r icridc" prlyiig d $. idotoricrl r.ah ol cldj.lis! $dld ,el sicr md dr.n dr^'lio! .,pdh.ii. ds*ioD widr tuirl md .ulrunl .onftonErion. shoutd $rp'i* no @ NrirlEr sbouh hn cD$usnsn ad rhosAtico auts $a show 'oo 6y smilnc,n bdwa whir.drr brrck." Bur u afticb wto f.rL fdonry iD splE dt amo! b E,t remq in ln. tu or ddjndig stuiri.r .@i(.d .sriBrmilu6 of^liisis io rh.ir os l.nd by rekr nindity c-gimq dsd6 I tor of pny. Cdltrly myom, whjc dbL.( wbo ch@r b !! viotcn.c $ dE rbittiry prin.ipt.or Aiii.b civilLdid ii f@ ro do s. alr br hrm er p6tNrelt or d . EroE or dirdry ro Aldca q rn.nDr ro

civiliattotr Io g.n.ril. (Yd.old 8 w clrin rhr fitryy6 rlo &inl M.ll-dk ,r Mr.r,re,r/rfttr ws r rc-cM or rn uiv.B,iny of virhhn rnd I vindicn d ofAticr) Tk tunlry of.ah sfric ro afic!, L.viig sid.my qn.stio of dupli.liy h d. hdlvc aboutd b. sutfi-ci..dy !od4@d by oe i .Eding rdmi6ioD itr [{r At

lau, rh@ k rcser fdr wstm Evi.ffi of

'nir bo.l ro .r!h in I blet *dEt rdrissidi of

dE {vrs!rv $8u$y ri rnDralny ol his rc.:

cotdbtxrcriti.in r.t

h. nnl druig .bour hir nc, I S.nshdr dchrvd do: Ir.! otting abdr $ rL

w6ll,ho*obrDsof rh6r"ftn.nEvi.wB ionisrrhlr poii! rid dnw sNh *mi8 cdctGidst Bnr rh. hubta rid id .v..t!ft crn b. s brighr c Mr alrctr. P.rh.pttd hor odinriy Fd. {na' Atnca m.d. j5 r f( d cm-plic'ki er oI rcsMion. Tr. candi nov.lii lnd cnficMagrd bur.nc. ew rhis happ.niis atrcidy itr rh. w.yfttr,Alric0n*ri6minrdrdirs6.nvo,l mtrjnsn

. . . n.irhd idyllic, a rhc vn': or $ne ndtdd-tB v@ld hrv. hd il rq bnbric,I rht ni&6ionuic and ENpai .dhinisbr ynh.d rndn..d.d ro b.li.v?.j

And itr .h..pilo3u. b rh. sm. ed sha 'rr.i

rtr

No *rir.r6f ey qu.liry hs vi."tn 6. old A6iaih ri id.:rt,.d *rn b{r rlry t E rid ro rilinlhd is dghrly !!irl psr .mp6.d of dl rndvrrndbl. p..!le, .ncir !@rb. d rh. ng-n.Dr or rj!!id@y .nd colMirlii tn.giDllm.

udmrely $. qudim .f id@togici sid.s *hi.n MiArred [Ery in dty ro dimi$ n.sn' rirh 6ddF m,id b. a fr,td$.d a h. $inrs. Fo. olotriitish tr$rf w6builr rl.o otr rn id.oloty Llrhdgn i! rdhdnB s.y turonSa ElIz i.) which, d6pjtc lmy s.brc*!,

'unircr i.ro

ou. .M i., and inded i. €dy asrin d rh. .nd of I qut.sar ph& ot sfnoubr ftr . rc* E$.!t@ of D'@ly.talion'4d.Bin'h.P.!' ' 'mmgibFieljdiff!

F@n!ely. ir crn Do longE !op. for ln. st. or ui-chinms.d lbird in 064 Fopl.r afrzid rlllr ir @ letrto huch tor sr.ird. Tlld c.Ld sirri tur ciri.r .idnrdd tM $e rru of dr rorld *ia .or.iruiii in..i&i6 rd

'wnr mdad8 or d.l

nd to rnow rior dEn s!ir.6 jur d ifc. i&olosi.dlid. dEy e phing. And w *dka ncd h.G b. pcp:rd

buch or h.@polnu EDlbdon wld scm lrg. adlhb sil.nc. & ovcFw ic Cdsid+ ad ini6a . @.djudschcd on v s. Nrip:ul by r t rros cdibb.6, Ivu v{

r re6 CxrN!^ etu!' $*:'"*,':lrur;-lr* I'i,"$'tt#'#ftId*ftffi

ffiffiffiIMffi,ffi;--:::t *.-g;t-ffi'n-;ffi

. .s ro iInr' n, n pdfilF $.y fel n n lon onc.b.tbrsiE$, For $.e Foph, @6fts k t dint wtd or i5sif, y rll{na €ttr the.un8.liretuin. iw liB b*k it coDtnplarid ot hk chuth ialsnd.rjon wl! lnd hly lri4 ia .dirE djiis tujaticrllvwh@ oo& wa jungl.: tlE sLnitlbbush nL FoviEs $ ndrlAsly ro hel pr.t B no* ro3Frt ot $. b.n.l]B o, Fsa sd olnalhinly, rh.y *ould mrch ndd h'Yund.. rh.ir junsdidiotr Lirn @dt omHnrc$ or comrdE emcdms b. rhe 9cnffi kind

mc 16r natioitlic md ft dom fishr.B in d. cole

il6 hsrdly .d.m.n b oblis. (n.n inFirl mar.B, Mc

oftNiv.lt .'ffit. Th.y hid m choidH rhc mng.dnt shich kcpr rh.m Dd th.n pdprt drln oE Ein iod rh. b.ar of rh. sui. Tb.:ofrD riclFd. Thry.nrns.d. f.s rhi4r &d *6.d ro

leud c.noD powB ol rcrioi ovd odd Bul quira

quicut F gMt @llusir. s{itdl. rhd *6 ini.Fnd.i6.h.*rd irN tu rc ro s. Atrd w w€ diurvcd; bur oirvnon nrdjlt ftr.vd in or.Lfa. w hld 8'in.d eftrhiDsatindtifr iblc vrluF b.P&n otfiE

And $ dr {ffld sb& in jd r mu.n E.d orchdg.

bdny 6 it der {Id in rhe plsr Ou *dtd Gponding ro

$m.di.s in dcm!.lvd $d ddns d$ qitnh d'. hdi-

oi01 coDc.In or rn din . rcL in si.ry-nsins hjr d ro

.onhl hi .iviDMenr-hrv. :d,16som of 6.s nand iD in.n d And rh.L corc.m k.m

ro upd c.n.in p.opk whon niltory i.r dah *in diftr

cDdy sd *ho p.sii in d6I'! t v'lidnt or crpdjemsrd d*rini6 olnd lhu 6.iE- Aid *mt ol all, ed. of ou.

ovn dri4 who dsht ro s!id. t[$ p..pl. mt ofrhci..ru

$m 30 drious b oblig. rhem. whilo{ rh. s6ii P\}cholosi.d. poliric.l sd @mmic bc.ie. on. hopd dd it is only ! pssins ed m .phemcDl

tf$n.mah6tkits ot ff m{il4rd bY jrn

orc d !e wib in Ardd rh*. tuAt p.rhrF bra sdce ts di.histint it dr of h'nd But lek ar rh. cvid!i6:

Aso, Tutuoh hI otr.d giv.i r r r6oi lot his vnciDr rh. n..i ro p6!*a ha tldiriodi fcisi dinc, aldd RsF, ta choan b jubil& ovdsh't app.$ b hin ljt Tu[olrlh.tof d *dn6, orshml, diond ri'l Rt,i :finii.e u but teh a optdon

niy Eltet mE Ndy hli orn sisnful thinki4 th$

T;oot!! mind Ctntinly r .d.tul Eiin8 of Tfi P,/'_

D?eelf f i^ ' .4t . 'o,n,dhbdt!Ui l6 ' 'B'

wirz Drrrld sill D. b.! oni $! .sid dw olmiJ_nn i. dod fd hin" why *dld h. go d of hj:' *.t iobll I, ror.rupl., L\.r "bod rhjblivi4 tn llr D.rd! ToM rr uii.B It oBnbn ft inf*m{idsig lid! x ind..d bt@ *ho littd h thc 146oI tr\. l95G *otrld

'edily rprteie? tu idad Nrt6!

.xFdded only bcnkn colo dira'ii tlquicdr derdcnd d.moist rion or.[

"nodiknirory mr i pdioldy bl'hr iEid4r of dis io rL5go. horcl ro comp.l $c odminileto! iib brd EIqi_doD of $. pftric. vhdd,y whiEs Dd BIEI, liv.n in dimftwdjB or quilid @nsliF *pd!.d by I Eluldierw-nilc co.don $tun , S@ dry. sis €itic iDbF*rdl ir lEh odd $tll sanbl. dd inr..yq too|Jtnfy stad dlsim to oloni.li5o ff rhc hd.fi dnc 6j n d.a. Ffr rlm e iE! iidtsliDr isidoLs .h. Hnr{d r d.ltum@ or rE i.n PcopL fid o e.n tffi*hich

'!qui'cd t\.fl b *d6a m vi.lin.vE

yd, fe whjch 6t *ing hl liv6 |M! rt n fc. iLdploiriDg rblirci4p l.bou e.t valop.nd.&:d bit Plu_brioE bdminsrjchdrhm !t rccort pdpk ii thdro*0" uDd d. h@ol olcdris sirs .i lt 4s'b.wholcofrh.n b b. vit d NL Such r 6itic till m 6obr

rly pdicdd rbi6 b .h. EFnut.d .!d le4 cm_m.orof Ih.d.ljv@!sifd,,,dltt.li16ofrb.dicwE lodud 6. lif.otc\.lfrtutivo:rv.n rr Bdulillh{ snds diric .m! dory, r'lr' i@ @ drnlvh.r rh. cotrJdn of b.licviis L\ar 'it Ach.bc tn Soinr!smrbwn in od( to chmsc tht wt, T!sl. ha dbd

And 6.tr Csm rlyr. Ar s.miY ! 1972 h. B

ln shoping da badt oI $is cuine, nv m$lBrn.s b iu gribds. PdpL *bo brd i0. ba!rwd. rhd AIIi.r bad iB o*tr dlM w $L b

s@p 6. .igdificre ot or t6t anl d.ivilia_ioi. I b.li.v. $!t lhis und66dins it rD. Mll1aiidul conhbdiotr oI Afii.m lifur'|

lh. di\dtrgtrish.d and v.Mtil. Sim ldid Divid$n Abiosh Nicol-$i. i5t. *id $d dipro@{'pltiin! *hy h. mt. sid:

. . . bc:us I fdnd rhd mo* of rhc *lD n@

lbour us *Hod sls ay ..t'l,ry b dEn Aftid

'hilidunL$ t4 wrcivrl6orenrnbd

lrl'a inp.ndiig dA@rioi l rn'w difl'ftillv "

t i* tdld so d cliig danpl' tffs 'BDplt

of dr

nH'rnMs Mn.u 6EE

]\i Africe qitr nu! b. I Penor \ho trd soba

lr orconeption ot 'b.

sdi'rv in {hi'h h' $

^llthtr jlkrk @dMS us' g E ub'dhk or

h'r.n' nrM p..pk H.a k nor h'-r4 k) !tuv d(

duL rh. P & rtr$idms irBess*

tu w-km Udjon? P{hrtr w hr'

r-E&d ntd: *hr{ &r' w' dvmt tortud'Rsdd

,ri n"*-t " t i"r " p-pt. r."* i' "a"q*"

t" * w '

n'Jmds|,dbrdi3m.IdofArncdmbJvsoRrl u dl'd rF b.fof lh. .ming of P

E. s* LIk good rflnd L\4 otrl

uh. diidiaB Fdn' ll4n.( ii hi

's /4kl l tdof mscbvir idbBnf h l70l rc ' r

trr DrvidNtsndd whom b'iig br

deih.d 'hl

obj6! a bd8:

. . , s mrchallv end $i! I is b{dlv posibr'

o diijnsuith wb.rhd rh'v d' nc' litc n'D or

bc@; idMd,sbdiog *hicb iY su'6 wa

rbl. b disnDsnjsh th.n inro mdbrn6' $tdd'

wildbst hunEE &"

Md P.ale 'od:J

suld & fthnai re s'nb' de

ldhgrtsbNy.n&dtoqnj'db0E rctrlMoIB.d'n And v'r ' for m' hn @mmnrrr

r |Nq]N.dbylx l , . rnNkdglnm

,,?llffii:ffi#l-;f'ill"-;ffiffi.J##.Tfil "*

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*

in. vcry dillded lca.Iilor of hn guid6 rh' Etl o*nss

otthcNltutTh.colonuld(ntrc mqnlinsrorR'pr rhv!trotr,ol

cBib'|[6 orhd uhsoti h! nrd' pdru*norN d

dEn$,ns lll. ^fid

nov.l Hah"r \n*" ' '"gttv f"l"

*ii ",

suti.tv w*to ed. 'kd' u!

'rorrmbidoDUsbwir "

h nv cs.. did mr rhc bl*L p..Pk in Aftn(' d'pnv'o d

Lhln om mu3ic.l inrnftntr rlj! lhc rrump'l rM otm{rb'r blo{tr.Y'

rlcsro,h. {orld d Lnr dd fidN'ssnn'sneg'tr

b ohy !rcdnd r'$ drc di*3rd'j im

!6 lhNld lr,t DhYd edDssd b

@de brirs lkn gitu 'o

ln' grr L

:uruBlhs6, u'r m tind tirr b.

vaodv m'ldi5nn(u!.n.sof r'ofr'nrBi

Vy p."pt.,n "ra-pp'-'"tv 't ""

o'"t' *n*

r - . "" '0.u.""*"

kin coruuftFkai fM r-ror 'ht

*'rrno, dd e hud $o* Lnd \holld eq

r; hrkirc u'nd sm. or"hin (

hav. b€!.rcdl.N hd $8idv' An

m;s ro b. dorc cm b.{ b. u.kl'd bv N6tr'r h' owtr

hm:Mfordai'8'nd?

-'dou!lniubdrqdkrYor$.nMmliaEs.v.n to his hdry ofimon:bu

i!r. ro coi.€d. F|nins b him Ihn nishr apP'{ b sd{

P'iin Fur suPlr'{is

,r. "*",

i,r s*; -J.rc-s" -d

Anror' hi lcMd

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'h. ' r . "6. ' '^ 'h ' ' 'vr 'or54dopd I F

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"t." ar , c.-* t."

]pr . re l [ IJfu| |n.

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II

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AAmrrJ8 MrcHeLFouc^ull

WHAIISANAUTHOR?tn prcnoiinB thi diddy odd qu.stios. I ad on_

*ious ol $. n..d lor.. .xPhnaion. To ihtu dtv,

$. .url,o/'.6:i.s.n op.n q!.nion both sir!

r$p<r to iB sd.r.l tun iiot wnhin dk6!s. 'nd

in my oM wri.ingsi rhrt i., thn

mc b dorn to c.n.in rspds owhi.h nry lpF.ar ill_.dvn.d rnd nnkdrs ln

ihn r.sard, I wirh to proP$. a n4s:ry c.nc6m

For ins.nc., oy .hi6dr. in'rh. o 4 af

Trr$ h2d b..n b rn.lys. v*b,l .llic6 2s dis'(u6ivc la/rR *hich hll ouBld. thr flmilidt 6rc'

lorici ol. b@l*,1 *orl, or in ruthor. aut *hil.

i .on,id.r.d 'd.rur:l hnror/," $. 'nivsk

of

w..hh.",nd pohic,lcconomy" in 3.o.r.l t.rms'

I n.Bl.cr.d r sinirar rn.lysk ol d. author rnd hi!

mrk,; ii it p.rh.ps dn. b tha ofrit3ioo thli I .m'

rlor.d rh. n.md olBhod thtoushoui rhk booki" I mt. :nd oltd crud.I3rhion. I sFl. ol Bul

vH^r s ^N

runoir oisin:lly ,tr.n n 'n

lh. !,r.,tr. )a h.ial t'.^as. d, Phib'orhDlnkdby D.;m'$lond

'h.soo l' r,|om rouduhi

i-"**; c"^td M-"q. k*''. r,B (trcn 'h.rr;h) bonrrd r BoEh'd fid si.rD tnon, d Dould

re\h:d,opr, iBh'e77,t tcomby ts,mE oi or,h< publ'.[(. con.]lUnn.6i', Pr.$

' 'subt..t ro $monc.l* by .on(ol Jnd ,l'pcndenc. I nd ucd ro hs own id'n_

,"" tt , -*.-*

* "tt

tno$lc.lte. Fou(ruk re8rrdr hi( thouBhr 's

n'r

t ; ;o;rsr in{ tht i 'd i ' idxl bd, aBJ,n{ rh. . t .cr o l po}r€r !har so! ' rN 'ndi_riduah;don. ehich for bin it rhe 1.8 .v o{ thc nodern {orld and nt invcn-

vorlc 01 Fo!.anh kantlated i nto En}lish in.lud. ]ladn.$ d'd ci'ilitdtio"

{re6r. ( , f , ! 'etr) ,

th. Bnth ol tb. rhnn t tc6l rcv roTz r ' tnt reTt) i

li, O,a-oltt'i,xi r'ne.,",n\' Iclo\t tI. Akheolosv olKntul"lg' tt969'

rrt1s, re72\ Dislrlik. dn.l P,{6, ('e7t. trnr. 'e7?lt

the tI'story ol rd*

"r'- r ii.r".

"""t. teia)t Lantur$c, coc"t t Mcnory. tru'

": S'l"t?d

EtTrs ""tl

tnrzrur-s lreTTti 'nd PounlKmukdec (te3o) 5'c Chrtlo c'

Lrnciond Gnlh crll'n, Mnh'l Fou'a"lt: soi'lTheory oilt Ttdt'c"s'ior'

;hi.h incl cs a bibliosrrphy oI Fouc.ultt vrhin$t Habot L. DavIus

..d P,uf Rabi'ow, ./tti.r.f Io@'h: B.roid Sttt.rn'lLd ard H.rnm&ti6,

;hich indudd Fo;ca!h!'rhc slbicct .Dd Powa'i Joho Raicbnan' M"'el

Fo'dab:'the tue.doft ol lhiloroprt; and Mi.had cla&' Itichel Fotcdrtt; A

fon. cuvi.i l.ic,do, tnd otlEs a. *cll, but lail.dh

';lirri lh.dallow.d th.n nadd to fur(ion

rhbisuously.'ThithdFov.danrhbaiia$mdttom. in tfrat ny ov.Kisnt h6 sfl.d ro tzis M pcr

h w6.rsu.d thai I bd not prop.rlv dscib.d

Bu{on or his wol! 3nd that mv h..dlins oI Mtx

rar pirilulty ina<Lqu{. in tctFs oI ttB totdii} of

his tbotrsht.' Ahholsh th.s obiftdoB *d. ots

viously j!$ifi.d, $., isnor.d . r.sk I hd sd mv_

*ll, I hrd .o inicnrion oI d6cri6i4 Bufo' or

l{rx or o{ rcprcducin8 th.n sr.d.os or implicit

n.anios5, bnr, sidtly n,Ed,l w.nt d to loetc th.ol.r th.t lob.d r c?nain numb.t ol coDc.ts .nd

th.odiol rchiionshiF it th.irworlilntddnion'n s.i .rsu.d th.t I h:d ctr.d non*rc8 ltnilidby b:insine tos.r5.r nanE !s disPlt.t. as Bufiot

.nd Linn"cs or in pl,cins Cuvi.. oar ro D.tuinin d.fane ot !h. mo* redily obs.d.bG t nilv re

smblatre. 2nd n.sal tid-' ThG obi*ion 2lo

33), trn.h n,roali5r cu36cd; {,7ie-'trr, Frn.h i:Nnliir DrYid Rklrdurr,,!-'3rr.Bld .snomii l[dr I

's- "Ldrd;;' -,

Nlrhd Foudul' (dv<kd bv lrrounJ. r, P?44., No.

'r7 ('e63)

,"aio!vlu!kBon. Un Poiti{m. dispec Er'r" / , No. j t ' ,6r ,pr , r ,7- ' r ' , ln lLmr$ ((nl.on Lmi {'7o7-73),ss.dnhbb^rt

uons ofrp..i6. ds.u6n. PHdic6 -,Th.n whv d'd I u\c th' n:md otru'ho6rn ro'

Ordtr u/ ThrSn WhY not noi

ecrh.t, o', rho^ af rh,t whtnord

; vh(h $o s(i. s'd? Tn6? qut'on' r!P'n

fulh Nt,6.d md I hdc rricd 'a

sus' ih'rr,rm

"lr;io$inJ rcs.qr(cin

' bo t hn *rr rp_

;dr shs'lj ' _1h6. qks'o hr' dd'mm'd nrI

;lotr to iiur. comprchctsit' dn(ustrt rrrs'

{rh r "n:ruiI hdorv or "politiol 'conom}'

ind to 6rablish rh. B.'hodr and in*dmett roi

ddimnins, irutzin& ind d'(tibm8 thdc unrrrs

N.r.nh.l6s, n i F''1.3.d momdt or 'nd'vrdu'

rlizJon ,i th. hiltorv ai 'd':r'

lno*kdB" rnd

l,rchtur., or in 'M

hErory of Philcorhv : 'd

sq'

.n..,,hequdnon of rh. rufiord'

r.d ftDotr. ERnmr.whd$.!trdJ rht nrrorr

of. o;cn,, r hrcnry smrc, d r bdnch d nil

loloDhy, rh6c rcnem! s$h' '

rcLih\di woK

:nd s.ond:r) Poq@' m rcbn"n b s' iotrd:id

tundrm.nr i l rc lco(:nrtr Ihorrn hr!^rrs . ,' For thr Duoo*rol thn PrPe

trohi ! 'o;(r l rnalvsisot th ' :urhor is: t r 'ndN'du:l xnd rh? n.mdous queqion'

'lion r thir.onr.i': how rh' ;urh

.liad in a cultui.,!.h 3s 6u6; rl

!'v.n th.:udor,lot in*ine.whm w' hSrn dr

;ddrch in'o ldhcnnci'] and rnibunont th' nr

rfln.Inrpt,opnr. 'i 'r

I hrtl r'x' r:nr.'o:rr!'

l,sh r r(,'.:loatril ':b|r ol {\'cPr

!u s; I @ dtrd in ronnins 'n

mrr krur d'

!u.iioE D. ol 'h.

(hohr or nrur

iemh rnd oghkarh entury' I" l"! 'l ': *

InRnhon ol iotminB 'nv

hmiln *hdhtr horv or

ent!., On rh. onr.rY' I *'nt'

I mdch no'? moJs' Frl'-'h. run'tion'r condF

llii i'.ilji'"".ii.' l" ir'r.i r. *. t".t"a'a, -rh. dom.nr *h.n thc nori6 of h'rcs 31c w4 ro

ln 'uthor!

bbgr:PhYt lhc @ndid

ih. Io'm!l,r'on ol thc nhdrm'ntsl mnor arc_

rca ol th. dm and hr vtrl " Fo h' r'nr bdn&

iwirh o (tri<t m'lclllo 'h'

sinsuhr (hnom p

rhd holds b.sco.n rthor and a tc*, rhcnao-

n.r in {hich atxtappli.nri/ poinb b.th6 hgnr'

'{hrt kdn Altt'ot! \,9

5D.rl'u sod.on. srJ qhn m:*n *ho! epal'

,'s."'l;:n md,il.r,r. -ch

rrhir w' nsr 'Eo3_

tr,;. !'. oi rh. tdn'!m.nul dl'nal pnn''Pk,d

oftmoo'ao *dr& lt is noL simplv d(rr r

odcr d*Kk' iksor *4 dtsPdkrgrdwn!

rp.bur bcur it (:ndti5 'n

immrftnr 'uk 'nd_

h;;h .d,Dkd ,^d F ndd r"llY 'PPh'd ^r '

trmlnl., it domind6snringa rn on3omgpdc'

i'. .i'a 't'sL"

o* .*'o-"tFn,5kd D.odud For rh. qla. o

n..d o'l; considd M o( iE mlior thms.hut'

lh. wrninEofour drY hJ f('d i

ccrry oi;t:prcsiori; ronlv mlcd b isdr' t't,r

Frot,dtndcd torhr(onin4 oriddoJtrv uirn' Io(urry, n. (oBnn. it in iG

'rRtro' dcprovm'N \

*:1::.:li*:lii::il1i#ffi,iffi II;1ha;^-dm'=r.oi,h.'s"Lq.-ryE!erl4t-pl,6 tn rauotth:i ir r\:!1':l'ilc r!!'!l!lqgr,t:

;r!uL.in.i':nsdaiiinS and (k6nr 4 od'r!'?t

, ,*.p^ -a;;.,Pot*

Y!'i"g -tro

*t "

.'-. iha' ,ndiiblt ma!(r blre!'drE oanr*'

;d 6n:lltlqt"i! rh.F b.hind -rhui-d'c*n!ll

bsn;ilhs w'ihng i! not 'h'dLkr !n

'h. rdotomFsidotr or

.-_r*,"''@*.,.jj;:..,"t;t:,1.i"L";.;:ll.X;sub.( .nJk$\ dr:PP!:rL

T!. trcond $dm tr-o mo* tudiFr: ri 6hc

Isil(p b.rurtn *flnns nd ddth Thn d:uoF

rhiD invrds $c :s+old (oncptun oi bG- n&

c;. troiq "htl' \td.'sn'd

'oBuls Rrk

immonllity al 3 h.rc. ft. hqo:@PEd 'i 'rirt

d.:rh b.adt. tu l,fa .on<FEd 'nd

m:glri'd!v

ddth. F$cd inb immodrlitli rnd lh' nrrDur

r.d.cm;d hn rc..Ponrt of d'n! ln r.d'ddmt

snk. Arrb'c toir6. :id Lrt ' auan r4ha ta

Dditul.t, htd :5 d.r mon!nion

".rx, rhr rn.gr fo' d.hring do6' )brt_

;U.Eoniinu.d $.ir ntririvd lr'mro b' nrglr

o lordtrll doth :nd o d.l1v th' ind'Ebl' 6

m.orshrn.'.rvon.muqhll!il 'nrsch'h'rord'r I

'b;;;d6p"'i,a;;rn.N'du&ri it ii rh'

rlon. rhrouahou' 1ll th^'. nigl'r'.

lrom rh. (i(1. ol di5k c Thit @n"prio ol I l

sporm or *'incn iiJF,iy. 6 2 Pdi-c.:1,r.llYt. $hotou6',1. rnd Prccld$ n

B.(l.d' !uptli.5 i dtr'flLon: "whr m'ntr tho !

.rh. arb.atan al I noeltdE. nrr5 A M - Shcndrq

i- ,h,h^d;r^--r ' . ,e7r"*P'bl 'h 'd ' " -"in r,6;;rordEogionolfiI 'u'hd

3'Fp Pp 'r-"

l'..'i r,* u-" *'t-*.a ut -'_t'*',v;l"g

'5:mu.l sd.d, krt forNd"s HB.B'd'n (bn'

d.n, Gldd :nd Bqru, 't7i),P '6

l'r I

t i to Mr. tsfr torcru,r

n now link.d to sci6.c and ro rhc 52crin.. ol lilcislfi ir is r voluntry oblitddion ol th3 slf ilErdcs noi!.qun r.pr.knhrion in bools b.cau* jrllgpl.ain ri..vcryday.xi en..olrhc w !ivn.r. r work nad th. dury of .i.,!i.s imnomliry,n row .nai$ th. ndr.o kill, ro b.coo..hcnuFd{.r of its rurior. Haub.4 Pou$, rnd Kr&.,robvions dxlnpks oIrhG rcy.$1. In addiiion, w.6nd th.link b.Nen \eririns and dedh bhil?ncdi. th. tohl rfu.neDt of

'he indtiduxl ch,ncris-

d6 oI 6. w;di lhc qoibbling a.d ..nGoni:rionsArtrurir.rg.neEres beee.n LiDnlfind his i.xionel ort ih. sisn!.I hi p:iti.u ar individ!dilytalwc aih b Lnow

'hc $it{ in otrr drr it qill bc j

tnoush lh. ringularity ol |i! rbsen( and in his ilinl !o d.iL whi.i hr tr$sforh.d iim inro l vic- jtin ot hi! own *rnins. vf ilc ,i oI rlis i5 l.dilhr \in phito$pfin :s i. lncEry .rni.is6, I midaF ji,in !h;i rh..onkqu.n(6 d{rv.d r6n rhr J'p. lpedG or d.rh oi ih. ru or h,k ben lullla-Jplor.d ordrt !h. idpon:nce ol lhk d.nr h* b.en.pprdrftd. To b. spRi6c, n *.hr to m. ri,i th.th.md d.stin.d b rcphe th. p.iyil.8.d posirion.o.d.d th. ?urlor ll v. dcr.ly *p.d b ri6rthc po$ibiliry ol s.nuii. choge, oIlnes, I Rill.xrnia. No rhr Er p3ftifll&b, impod:nr.

To b€in wii!, th. !h6ir conernins a wort. lth6 ben uDd.Br@d rhlthe srl oI criri.in n n.rto E*:bI;h rlc ti6 btu.n ,url'o. an.l hiswork or b ft6c!id!. rn :utlor'. thotrch! and d-pqi6@ thbuBb hi! workl .nd! tunher, dEr crii.ci.nt rhed !q. !5a19!r-!dit,n6r@vorxlrLr!!IrGcton,! rosrsrylrlqhrr44d-qd Lorth.i. insinic.nd inr.6:l rtl.tiorshr8. Yd. shi-.l . ;"R ,hn q.-'i-; ;;. .;"a;at;;;,|.iMl.r, i. shoi! is rh. rnnE. unir d.sigdrEd by ih.tm,wort? r!; n..6ery ro its 6mposirio., ifrwit k noi sofrdhing *rift.n by r peson oll.d

''audor?" Diiictrlti.s ,ftc on rll sid* if w.En. .quesio!inrhjswry.If :nindicldualnnoran.uthor, whrt aie w. to mk. oI rn6e rhinss h.ha! wnftcn or 3td,l.!r.mong hir p1pe6 or com-hnric.t.d b orh.a? h t[n not propdly r warl?v4l.r, tor in{!nc., w&. Srd.t p:p.6 l,elore h.s1s co6ent d3s,ntru,hor? Linl.Eoq pdh,plitn.. olL ot paper on which hc.ndl.slyunnvdtJhir,.nnsier wl lc i. pn$!.

Assudins dr w. ar. d.rli.s wnh rn aurhor, is.vsyrling h. wrore ind sriJ, .v.rFfiins l'. hllb.hind, ro [€ inch'd.d in hn *or[? l-l' is p106lcm

n bo$ th.ordcal and pr..ricrl- Il w. ni,h to pub,kh ih. @npl.r. worls o( Nj.Esh., ior.xampt,sh.E:do wd draw !h.lir.? C.nainlr d.ryfiingou$l*lublirn.d, 6nrcrnecar*onwlur ".v.ry.rhing" mel..i lvc vjll, ot.ous, inclo.l. .v.ry-thins ib.t Ni.nkh. hids.ll publish.d, .loDs wnhth. d.rttt ol his *orl,hi! plaru lor aphdisms, hisnlrgia.l noEtions ,nd cor.criors. Sut wh,r il, inr nor.bool 6ll.d wnl' .llDrisns, w. 6nd a ftlc..ne,. rcnintlefolsn lppoinmcnt, an dddi or.laundry bill, shotrld rhb b. nrhdcd in 6is vo*r?\0hy .or, Th$c p...tic.l .onsid.ntiobs ft.nd-l?$ o,i.. e..onrid.i how a *o.k en be.xhdedlom !h. billions ol rids l.fi by 3n i.dividlal1k{ his dexth. Pl2inly, we l,ck. r[e!y ro.nofr,p.s.hcqu.ntons s.nent d by s work drl'. rm-pi.icxlrciivity of tho$ qlr nlively unde{al. th.pDbliorion .f th. complcE works ol ao rDdDrorc. iufcc froh rhe absdnc. ol ihk trnewor!.Yd odre q!.rionr rris.- Cin K s?y rir Trr ,4rr,6,ln Nisra, 3nJ Slromrd ot Cl.Dent ol Alexr.dri.J or rh. l'trr oi Diog..er l4ncs co.$nurcsorks? Su.h qnsiions only bcgin b sussc* thcran8e orotrr

'li[ic!l!es, an!i ii so'!c have found n

.onv.ni.nr ro btp,$ lie individtrrlit ol rh. wriEror hG natus as:. and,ore menkrc o. r sorlrih.y hrve Gilcd ro rppt..i,t $. cqlally prcbl.n-3ric !!tur. o{ rh. $o.d Rork ' and rhe uniq n

Aloth.r thsd. ha3 d.Fird us nom talins tuilm.lsur. of dE lurhoas di&pp.rr*c. h avoidsonldnring r!. 3peci6c .v.nr ih.i mak6 ir posiblcand, in subd. ways, continuG ro pr6.R. ii. .xis-r.ne of tll. rulhoi This n !h. noion of ,nt,rr,rsrictlr rya(ins, ii rhotrld allo* us nor orly ro cir,ctrmv;t casmes io r. a ho.. bui to iitud. hisr.cmr:3bk.c., Thc .oncepiion of J.rdr4 r curre.ily.nploy.d, n on6rn.d rjrh n.nh.r the actof wirins.oi r[.indiodonr, 6iymptoFsor5isnswnhnY a tex!, oI an aurhor'r menins; rath.r, itsh.dsjoh rcma&.bly pro(olnd 3n.m8 io ch6Gr:rc th. .ondnions of any t xi, botll r[. condiriont

.wr htu t.!l $! F..n.h ;drs.i with ib dou!1. rf.Fene b th. d of wftiR nd & dr pinodnt (.ndn.nrr,ridD ndG df u;t'ry d.i .itiq, iD nd4 5;cni! dE rm rh{bd jd. i6s

'h. prqr.m olJ,rqus

D.ddr.Lik!.h.lh.rcof rlf-nft-oi.l{ !i&irrobuil& oD 1 !ry ol t\. sip rd d.Dqs w,irins s rltrimfpr.y of pr.ffi rld rLqd jn $r \isD rpttni

'h. pEri' ir ir .bs€," lTrl s( D.zd,. IEdr,)

ota$spanaldispdion.nd nstmpo..ld.plotm.ntli ,ppad, how.v.', th:r rhn conept, ai clr

cndy .nploy.d, h$ n.r.ly r.nrpos.d th. co-pkici .h.rac& tic oi u rurhot !o : aan$.n'

de.Fl iDdnyhiry, Tl|. .*eoely viriblc aiSns ol the

.utho.!.Dpirici .ctiviiy 3r. rft,c.d b allow tbcpl., in pinll.l or opposition, ol

'eliSious znd .rni'

el hod.s of chrract rizati.'. l n sanrins e primoF

dirl *rtus ro w ins, do w. noi, in.ltd, tmply

r.inscnb. in ti:.!6nddGl !.,ms rhc th.olosi*l.ifirm.tiob ol ns ttr.a orisin ot , crnid b.lief

ir is .'arirc nruE? lo tly $3i vri!i.8, in E mr

of 16. prfti.uhr nisbry i mrd. Po$il,l., i! ,ub_

iected to torBdfulnc$ lnd r.tr6sion, G rht not ioFi.d6Joc in mnsa.dcntal trm, lh. rlisioltp.incipl. oi hiddc. m.aninst (wLich r.qrn inte.

p@;on) and th. citical .$uhpiion ot implicit

siS.i6cadons, til.or PUrPs4 i.d

{whi.h giv. rk. o@n'n.o!trr)? Findlv, it not.h.@neprion of *diing ds .b$nc. 2 mnsp6irioninro dnsc.nJ.nttt crmrolrbc r€lisio* b.lier i'a 6r.d a.d ontinuout t.anion or rh. a.*h.ti.prin.i . firt prdtaiN th. suRiul of rh? Nork .er ki.d 6t.nisD2ric !!tPl.o.nt of tl '. .nihor b.'

Tfiir @rcprion of Lr,r'. $sains ,lE p'ivil.g.s

or th. auihorrhroush th. slr.suad oi rh. , Priori;rh. pliy oI r.pr.mbrions that iorm.d t pa.ricu-

h. imrs. of th. rnrhor is dxt.!d.d whhin a 8ivn i!,li+ Tlt dir.PPanne ol rhe .nrhor-sinc.Mil.ma. .n .v.nr ol o!fiimris hlld in .h.ck bv

th. trn$md.nEl. ft n nor nrcBsbeMen tnos who 6.lia. lh3t w can continu. rosituae ou. pr.r.n! di6continuni!6 wnhin th. hi.-r6ii."l .nd mn*od.nbl r.dnior of th. nin.-centh c.nftry rrd thos. who rr. nalibg ! 8r?di(od io libcrlt rnem*lv.x one and tor .ll, fomihis coneFD'l I'rmdorl?

Ir ii obviously i.su6ci..r io rtp..t .nrPtv dog.nr:

rlE dui$or ha! disrtp!.Rd; God and nm di.d .

coonon d€d.' Ratha, *. $ould dt'6in. rh..mpty !p:c l.fr b)

'lt ruJhor! distrPp.rdnct s.

rhould noriv.ly obtcd.,:long js 3rp3 rnd r.!k

lincr i$ nd Jc6'rsiion!, rnd ih. *appo{ion_h.ot oa lhis widt s.should iw3n th.lluid tunc'

'On t'gplm.nl cJr\!u6 D.rid\srarh 'a't

Ph''

'Ndrh;. rr? c4r4a.4 ||l.ror.l{u.l

whd B an Attnot t4r

ions j.l..$<l 6y thG d&ppe.nn"e in *ris on.xt

*. .,n h.i.nt consid.r.hc probl.m! rrai I'i* rnd,r us olin.uthols nrn.. V4'd is$.n16.o1:f,anrt'or? llN dcs it tuodion? Far lom of.rins 2

sotltion, I will .d.mpt b indi.at sm. ot rh. diln'

culn.r r.hr.d io th6. qudnoos.Th. n.m. of .urhot p.s.s allrh. Probl.m. r-

lared b rh. eresory ot rh. p'op.r n,m.- (H4.. I

,m i.hiirs to rhc woik o{ Fhn s?:i..'_rmonB

o'l1.a.)obtioudy not3 pure rnd rnrrc '.r.r.@

rn.Drot*!,m.(.nd !.luthotrn!n.da.ll)hrrorhd ilan indi.,tiv. 6mcion5, It ir 60'. an .

ertore.:6nq(r @inred I som.o

-- orc"q

'h..qu*l.n a r,lct.npnon. Vh.n

we siy "Arntotl.," w ar. usirs 1on. or a &ri6 o{ d.6nnc d*criptio.s ot thc tvPcl'\h. rlrhor o, ih. ldlytnr, or'!h. ioundct of

ontologt" :nd t. ionh '' Fudhcrmoq a prcp.r

".-.h.ro .rluocioneth3n tilr.f sisificdon:

sh.. w. disoy.. d' Rimb.ld n.s 'oi

*ritun rc

Ant. tpnn'.|h, wc .,nnoi h.iitii ' th.i lh.m..ning oa$e pro!.r n,o.orrhn ldbrt n.m.hrs b..n ilcrcd. Th. prop.r nrm..nd rh. nln..f.n 2uthor oscilhk b?s..t ih. po!6 oi d.kriPlion and d6igM!i.n, 3n,1, 3.adri.8 th.i th.y r.l$k.d b *ht ,h.y ..m., ih.y 1r. no! br,llv d.tr

nm.d .nh.r by ih.,r d*ftpiiv. or d.si3!niv.tuncrcn'." Y.(-and trs hft

'h:I .59.c,6.dii6'

.!ln.s an.ndingan aurho't nan.,PP.2r-th. linkb.sr

" prop.r n.m.

'nd .h. iddividuzl b.ins

nrm.d r.a rh.link b.N..n.n luthoit nlb. d

!h,t w$ici h n$c, rr. noi isomorPhou! lnd donot fundion in th. s.f,. var d rh.* difi.rtnc.s

To 1.16, tdr ?x.mpl., th' Pi.tE Dutonr d&5n.r hiv. blu..y.s, dos nor liv? in Priis,.nd ir nora docror dcs lorinvrli&r. fic rrct thtih! n1n.,Pierc Dupont, conrinu.s to ttre. to th.$6. p.Fsonr rh... hr b..' no m.di6. ion ol th. daisn'-iion thar links ti. Mnc to !h. p.*an, wnh th.nam? of tn .uihor, hoEvc., rh. Proll.ns '?

frr

dor. .onpl.x. Th. diiclo$tr. r!1r sh3l6p.arc** n.t b;m in rh. hous. inlt buri,6 now eisirsould not modify $c iu.tio.ing o{rh. luthor!

Mnq bu! i{n w.a prov.d.h.t h.h:dnotsrt..i

'tohi !<nk, Jpkt rdr ^r

E e, '4 'h. rh;tdoPr'l

o] . r ,zr ! 'a(GnbFclmbnd3,r6rJ, pp.,or-r. lrr.l sE L,.k lE'rr I

r4t MrctrErfo!.^u!r

rh. $,n t rhzt *. rtribut b nin, ihn vouldonniturc. lignifctt cll]n8. .nd :lLcr rb. m.n.n.r in *hich rh.luhor'r n.n. fucnons. nbr.'ov.r,ilwc.*lhlnfi drtSh,lcsp.ar*or.B.contOB,,or rnd th{ th. 5amc iu ror *rs apohsibl.Ior bo$ tn. sork oI Shrl.sp.arc od rho$ oa8.onr w. wou€ lriv. i.toduc.d , ihtd ryp. oI gl'sdon whi<h obtlrrcly modi66 tbr_{qn.!i@ingoI lh. rurhor! n2oc, Closcqucith rI. nro. or ,nru6or n nor .r.n.h : nroxr n.n! :nonr o EB.

suLrny ol !ll. n ,. ol rn ru$or. lr L rlbs.rl'.rdif(.n. ro n.iniin ihd Pi.r. Dupo do.s noicxii.nd rh'. Homcr or H.rn.rTrnm.siiur h3v.n v.. qnkd, wnn. in. n6i

'.sriion m.i.l, ift-

pli.! rhit iLcr. i no oo. bt ih. n1n. ol li.rc Du-ponl' th. &cond niicrtd th.r sv?r.l individu*h.v. bc.n rcf.(.,1 .o b, on. nir. or lher th. r.:l:ufior po$.s.d non. o{ .h. mi6 mdidohall/ rtsci:t.d *nh Hom( or H..nr.!- N.nhcr i! n rh.s.n. tiirs ro hr ftr Ja.qud Dunnd, nor Pi.r.Ouponr, n rh. r.il nr. oI X $d th.i Stcndhrltn1m. was H.nri B.yl., W.ould llb.xrin.!h.function.nd n.aninsof$ch *t?m!ns t Bourh.li is rnis or thar p.non, ' .nd Vitur Ercmn.,Clinlc*, Anliclim:ds, F.Gr Tlciturnus, Con-n2nd. Contr!..ius, Jl ol th.E rr. Xi..l.g d-

Th.* dif.r.nc.s indicit rh.t.n .u(ho* nrn.t nor sirply !!.l.m.nt ol spech (.i r subj..r, iomplcocnr, or 2. .l.ncn. th,t coutd bc Eplradby a ponorn or dh.. p.rt o{ rp.ch), lB pr6.nc.L lukionii fti $n.r I I n..r! oI (!:$'f-s'ion. A n:m. on src;t,%.,h.i .;,nbifiOdr rnd ,h$ dis.Enriat ,h.d l'on dh.nafn.m. rls *hblish.s dit Ed forms ol .l.tidn-rhip! rnonB cs, N.nhcr ,i.r66 nor Hippocr.t s.xntcd in th. s.ne rhar s..,n s1r Brlzrc*ktrd, brt rh. trci thar . nlnb.i oI t.r$ q.'..dd.d !o r sinel. n1n. inpliB ihr r.lriobsbiproi hohos.n.iir, frli.rio,, rcipoel .rllrn:tion,.utk i6atio., or oI 6mmon ltiliz.rion *.rc .rr.blidEd.oons thcn. fin2ll, rh. tho* nm.cn.ra.EizB d patidl.r 6.nner of.xistcne of dis-@u6., Disu.!. rh.r p65.$.r ln .urhor! n1c n.orrob.imftdi{.lr.onrun.d.hd foeon.orn.ith.r is n lRord?d lh. mon.nhry anmtion giEn bo'din../, l)e.in8 wor&, ilth.r, ns e.rui and itsm2nnd oI ceprion !r. ..gul*.d b/ tn cultu( in

v. ..n .oRlud. rh{, unlik. . prop.r nm.,

wnich DorB haD r!. irr.rio: ol . disouii. b .h.

'rrlpriion o-Rd. sho producd r, r&i:m. ot

ih.:uthlr (mrnr rr thr (onro!64x;lr-l.p:d'inB on. i,m,-hc ti;, d;inins

'hu, rorn, rnil-

th. .rirr..cc oI enri" gmulr oI di$o!r* 2nd E-L^ ro lh. r:rus di.hir dncou& wnhin . bci.ryrndcult!.c.Th..urhor'! n'n. i! notr tun.tion ofrr.n!.iril *rtus,nor i5 itfciond;nn!no.d inth? bdcn, mong rn. dnmndruitiG, *hicn 3jw3.iI b n.w grotrp! ot di{o!6. 2nd rh.ir dnEnlarmod. of.!nr..e, Cons.qu.ndy, w. on s1y th{ inour cultu,?,lh. rrn. oI rn .urho! ir. virirblcrhdrc.on,pi.idonlf (d.in t.* ro th..xclu$on o{oth.6: . privlE l.n.r mrt h.y. ! 3ig..torr, bu.i. d6 no. h.E { ru.hori. onti2d dn hry. rnund.srit r, bd n.t an.trthor;..d, iinilerlr anrrorymou! poEr inld.d ro . N.ll D:y nrv. ,

jlwrnr, b$ b. oind b! r .uthor, ln n *ns.,th.Iuncdon of in iuthor ii to ch.lrcr.riz. E.x-

liskne, .n.DLrion, sd op.n,ion ot c.drin dis-

] :couB., w mud onii&. rh. .h...cr.trici oI.disonB. rb,i lnppon thi6 u!. ..d dd.rFin. n!dif.Gnc. lbm oihd di<o!G.' ll s limit our ..-ft.rlsroonltiho$b@korr.xrwirn.!$oG,w.6n ishc fou. dilLr$! Ld6.

riBt, th.r.E obies olppbpri.don! in.Ionol prcp.rtr th.y hr. h.cod. G oI . prnidl* rr"cwhe l$i odi6c2rion w$ lc.onplirh.d .om.y..B igo. ft i6 ihponrd b nod.c,6 rll, $ar irt$rtur ls prop.ny is Lisbri..lt *ondry ro tncp.n.l od. conirollins iB rpFroprir.io.. spch.rand boots qd..siBn.d r..l ru$oB,6tn.r thannythidl or impoi.nt rclisious fsur.s, onlr wh.nth. .uthor bc.nc subj.ct io punisnftnr and brh. .xr.nt lhd hn diF!6c $f@Bidd.dr.nr

sr.$iy.. h olr oltorc-lndoubt dly in ork6 ar.ll-dircous. qd noi orisin.ll/ I tl n& . prod-u.t! or. posk$iol but rn 2.tioo rib,td in . bnp.ld 6.ld of s.d.d .nd protan., l.wtul dd un-h* luL r.lisiou :nd bl.iph.Doli h w.r I s.stur.chlrs.d with ristr lou b.Ioft t bdn. . pors-don ou3h ir . .nclii o1prcp.q v.h.s. Bu. ns,. .t th. hom.d wh.r . !y!rd of own Ehip .nd*ric. opyrighi iul4 Ea .srdlish.d (dfd in.hd ol rh..isht.nrh .nd b.simins o1 th. n;cG.n!h eentory) .h{ !h. a.B8..ssiv. pbp.rid al

Vhdt k.t A"thon tB

lays intrinsic to th. .ct of *i!ns b..:'n. It'r th.a(m{[5 r iir roo.rt sorical. tri.ickm (i

iorc.Ill irpcratiy. ol lit retlE. lr n,3 if th. iu- 6c.n conc(n.d loi$m. rineso*wk| 6t..G otDr,.irn.hom.nr hcw.s:c..pt.d intu rh! social ar.irnottullyd.pcnd.lro.rh.notic1!fail.d:-

ord.r of prop.rty *hich eorcm' our .uhu!., *rs viduri cr.atorj Ndi.s of dn,. or th. rt.lFi, olonpmerins for hn n.* situs bt i.vivins rhc rcuiiins kxtu?l notils 1trd !h.n v i:riotu lomold.rSiFlar licldoldisousc!' 3 3y*.n:tiipG4 ! nord orh4.hrn dt aurhoi fldl'cmor, wlt.E

nc. 01 trnsscsion rnd by rtsbrins rhc dr.s.r oi in mthcdriB c x iar h! bdn. litl. m6.wririns whkh, on .no rrid.,h:dbRnconfdr.d

'h:i,[,ndt i.i.r.n{ tor r prdohr (h$r.h or

6.b.n.6hotp'op(.iy, s,oup ol p' op.t'io4 th. i.r.rd{ b ,n ,u'hor in

S.@ndty, th. "2urhor-tundion" it no. uriv.rt biolosy .td m.di.in.. or @ *'. d{. o{ his terchor conn.n. in ,ll dkcoun., Eid wnhin ou. civi_ h3!

' sub$.Dri.lly dif.rnt b.2rin& Th; htu r.r

liarion, th. ..n. rrpc, ol &4 hlw not ,leryr E cE.e, mot. rn,n dnply indi.ann8 th. Furs ofqut.d $oq th.r. w4 i rim. wn.n inoi. r.tri itfotolrion, ,nds io rh. tliabiliq" of !h. di'shi.[ w nos c.ll .ln.riry'(rtoinq lolli khs, dcne,.in.c it.nhik.n.tpt ciarion oI th. teh'.pi6,.nd tls.di.t w'..capt d,.tdh!cd,.nd niquA tnd .*p.rih.nt.l m.lcri2lt .vril l. .. .vllo'ird ennolt,ny quBtion rboni !h. id.ntity sjv.n,im.:nd in r panicuL.Lbor{ot)of th.ir authoi Tlr.ir anonrniq *as ipot d bF Tn.thndpointcon@rni4tnis".uthorfundio'"cs. ih.ir ril-i-!rF..&as*aH6ri.nr i3 th{ ir i3 nor torn.d rPo.t .ouslt ihdush th.

tu{,d( ol rh.i;;di;;h.iD. rdF, hbftta-hn irpl.:nnbunonolzd'<ol,*'o:nindividuJ.lr;. nD'v (.ll r.cnnrc (dr:hns w'h co.molos' GLhr trom a @6plc: oFUnon rho* Purpo;itrnJrh.hd{n! t rcdi( i "corrUi .1 i , ,h.nr 'u 'J\F

'o.onrrua rhc r :nonr l .n ' i 'y wc (r t l .n luhot. ,

.nc.i or s.oeirphyr s.'! only.or\io(cd h'h'ul UndoJd.dh 'hn

onirdrdo; i! r6;-sn6:@trduine rh. Mddl? As6 r

'h. n,nr ol th. rutnor hi,- d'm.nron.r(tFkotrtindividu,l!'DG

** i'ai-ra. snr-*s o. rtc.rd( ol H'p. toldid or ".kirii.-Fnd, hiiln(;ft o; $.po(...s eid , , ," or "Pliry t lb us !h.i . . i kr. o.iSind i$pnlrio. minifdtd in ririn3- N.t.nor n?rcly ,o.nulzs lor zD llsnm. b.s.d on r!- d.!66, a .spd of !n indjvidurl, *Si.t *.$on$.hcr mrk.d. piov.n di*otr&,I' rh. $v- d6isr.i. . .t .uthor (or *ni.n @npik.n idr_.nterlh rnd .idEorh entri.s, . d.lt hcs vidu.l d 2n ruthor), & Pmj.dio", in i.rh'.1'corc?piion ws ds.lor.d sh.n sci.ntidc tds *.F md. d Ls piycnobsiol, ofor m/ othaFsr. icc.pt d on rh.ir o*n m.iR rd posiijon.d aling r.xu: ir rh. onpldbd * n11., il. fttsvnhin .n orrDo!! d @h.i.nr onepb.l slt $! dt.ct .s pddn6., rh. qtiruiii.r w lrsig!,cn ol 6t*li.lr.d rtulbs rd ncd:o& of vc'i6a. or th. .xclusio's wr pldie h .ddidon, dl th.sfion. Aurh.nti6rtion no lors., ,.qun.d r.L'.nc. op.Eaonr v:ry rcordins rc $. p.nod rnd

'h.ro 'h.

hdrviduilwho h:d p;dr.; *.-r '1.

,ot. l;m ol dn(o"rk@nc6;d, A "pht'66;I-:-;f\ol rhc .utho! dis.rp..ed $ 2n ind.x of trurh. . toct ar. tut onlhd.d in th. em F."c.;fuln.s and, *h*. ir r.main.d as ?n inv.ntori and rh.,urhor of an dsltath{ndry nov.l wa ln,m., n *as n.rcly b d.noc I srccifc thsr.m o! iolmrd di&r.ndy I6d ih. noddn tov.lin, Th.r. ;propori on,l $r..B. r(.cq. properg, r bodr. ar.' na.nhchst uosbnodel @n* t in thcsroup oi .l.n.nb, o. parnobsical srndtoh.. ruliq!!4sodr Ic

Ar ti. etrr umc. ho*qr, In{rry'd;.ouu. Inl.k,rs drn(nns.t:DDlc ti,. !:diiion:l

cr4 r.r.otFiry6iftftn-Ma6blE-{ri6-ir.E-- i@inins $. co'fsurrrion o{ th. tudiof toni$ 1lrhor rnd th. daq r1..., r.d circum$nce of disrins rd6-d.nv. i.lai8cpan fom tho*ukdE *.inh!- Thmns:nd qlu. /n'

'bJkd ro rl-c

'1 +. (tftri:n rdd''ion,o /'Ln.rnoc (or b

. rar d?p.,!da! olr 'nR

tlrlrmrtioq. ll b/ r<id.nr I q.fl, h. prnnht '.xs

rd '6

por6tm, Mod.ordeiSn aEi{-Ma pi6?nrEd anory

'nousl, .v. ry .n (nicism, in ns dcsk to tc@'' lh. trthc

.Sod r.. m;da i6_lFE-a:uth.iLlj@r.' ut foh n r.rl, dplots d.vics *ongly i.Eini(dtnyhaq {* oi irtrGt orl/ .- 1 p!'ilardb. $lv.d ol cbrnt;'n .xcBen tlct n wish.d b ppr tlF:., i, our d.y, li!.€ir Norls :'. tohlly donin&! ralu. oI 1 kxt by Ac.nxitins ihc holin* or iu r!_

by tl,c sddg.q of 4!4r!ho. lundaubkdly, thar.ln t, v'ln rlwt'ir,r, SaintJcrcn.h.itt jts

!4t M'.krLFou.^ug

.irt homonyny ir nor pr&l of ih. coddon afihorslip oI &v.El worb sin.. mMy individuah ouldl.v. th. s&c nrme o. $d!on. could h2'. pq'v..$ly lpp'oprixkd rnorh.i nxn.. Th. nrn., asan irdividlrl s.rk, ir nor flicnr! r n relaRs ro .dtual t.diiion. How' 6.n, cr. sd.ral r.rs &: z!ri6ed o rindividud .urhor? ryll.t nornr tFl!t.d to rh funclion ot tk tutlD., will disclo* th.inrclv.mcnr ot *vc€l rurhori Acerdi.s to S,int

J.rc6c, tfi.r. lr.Iour rn.rir, th. kxt thrt nNb. .lisirftd noD thc li* of *orls aEibutd t6 asingl. .u$d,G rho$ int rior to lh. oih.B (tnus,tll. Ntt'or n de6o.d ,s i F.d{d lcvel ol qnality)i.ho* whoe id.,i conflict with lhc docoin. .x-pr6*d in th. dth.* {hd. th. aurhor is d.6ncd xs...n.in 6.1d ol co.rtptu:l or iheor.tidl cohd'.ne); tho$ $.iGnin r ditr*.nr siyl..nd conkin-jng wrds a.d phrlss tro. ordi,uiily found in ih.od.r vorls (*. ?udor ir se.n 3r a srrliiic unito.niiy); 3nd ihos reLiring ro .v.nb or hinonel 6c'116 rub*q0.nr to rl. d.xth ollhc auhd (dr. au-dror n 6us r d.dnn. hi biel figu.c io shich rsri6 ot .6s convclg.). Althou8h mod.m cincnm des no! rpFar 6 h3v. rh6. san. suspnion.oneojng .!fidrjction, nr rr&gi.. lor drfn-ir8 rhc .uthor pR.! srikins dmihrnig. Tlc au-rlor dpl3itu rh. pdme ol atuin .vmr wnhin arqq $ wll :! !n.n d.stomarionr, dirodons,.nd th.ir vanous modi6.ation, {:nd thG rhoish.. .trno* biosrrphy or by Ef.r.nc. io hir p.rtiolar Foint ol vieq in th. snrysir of hii $cialtr.lftne ard his posnion *ithin i .l,s or by d+lir.{ing ht tundh.m"l objtctiv.r). TIe author.llo connitoi.s r prin.ipl. of nnirr in writing qh.r..ny und.rn.s of Foduaion is ascnb.d to .Jran36€trs.d by.voludo., nrturdion, or ouaid. influ-o@.ln rddiion, thrau'lor*N6ro n.Dd3liz.th.arrldidions ti.r 2r. touid i. . srGs oI rexs.Govmare rhts tundion is tft t.liel thd rhd. nusbF4. p.didh la.l of an ruthors rhoushi, ollis oneio$ or umn*ious d6iie-a poin. sh.rc&ndaidion. arc rdolv.d, whcc ih. incomFnbL.Lr.n6 cb b. shom ro rellr. ro on. rnoth.r orb eh.rc aiound a tundmcncl a.d o.iginllinsonbrdidion. Iinellt tn. :uth.r i prdicol'rs@ oI cyprasio. who, in sor. or lds 6nish.dlod, ii nmif.n.d $u.lly *dl, and virh rinil.lvllaiiy, in. d! in 1.ft8, fi4m.ns, di6r,3nd.o 6dh. Thus, .vcn whil. Siinr J.rcm.t (our !rin-cipld oI Nth.nrici.y hiShi id l.I8.ly inrd.qu.t!

b rnldsn cri.i6, .h., n.ved.le*, d.6ne rh..'itiel modilirid now u*d.odiltl1y lhe tunctio.

How.v.., n would bd i,h. ro.onsider the Iunc.rion 6l lh. a(hors a pu. 2ld simpl.

'.connruc'.ion ;ftr ih. iact ol3 cxr siv.n $ ra$iv. m,nrial,linel. texr .lwry! bern a numb.r oI tilns ihit!.i.r ro th. ,urbor vcll L'own .o sGmda.ians,rhc* t xsal sjgnr.r. pcsonrl pmnouns, rdvdbrol rio. ?nd plze, rd ih. oniuspiion ol v.rbt Burii is inpotunr io n6E lh.t rh.s. el.m..6 h.v. 1dif.ienr bcarinB o. nxs wnh

' ruihor s.d on

thos. *irbont on.. !', the l.tt.n lh6. thift.B" refe. !d r r.rl rp.rLerrndto,n ttull deic cdtu,-!ion, wnh .citlin .xccprioN sucn a the ate oI nfJir.d spdch in th.66ttdroo. twlEn disour*nlink..l td an 2!iho., howcv*, th. rol. of"sbift s"k ndrecompl.x rnd vrri.bl.. ft is w.ll knoM ihriin a novcl n,dred in ih. 6st p.6on, n.nhdr rh.6d p.6on tro.o!n, th. pr.s.nt indicrtiv. t.s.,nor, ior thai mn.r, is sis$ oI loaliatio. r.f.rdirccdy to th. wrn r,.nn.r b ih..in. whd h.wroe, o. !o rllc sp..i6c ict oI wrn nsi trh.r, th.yrbn{ ld . 'send s.ll" whc. rimil.rit/ b ln.iutl'pr n ..v.. 6:.<t r.d und.acs cotsid.rtblcrn.Edon witl n {hc oun. ol 1 sjnsl. b@k, IrMDld br $ tal* o !.d( thc .!tho. in khiio. .oih. .cul writ.r d to ih. 6dion.l .'.!.ror; rfi."althorilnction' .rn.! our oI th.n si*ion-inth. divi3ion.dddiihn..of rh.two. oDcnighiob-

i.ct th.r lhi rnmomcnon orly lpplig b nov.l. orpoery,tot@nt.irof qEs;di&ours, bri,inf.ctall dis6uis. fi $ppo*s thn "iurhoFtun.don' i.cb.Bcr.riz.d by rhit llur.liry oI.sor In r nlthehrdal n.atis., lh. *o who indidre rh. cnon'sEnas ol conposition in th. pr.t c. G nd id{ri-ol,i:idrrinrermsolhh posirion or hir tunctior, toth. 1l 'who concltrdd . a.nonshrion *nhin ri.bodi ol th. tdt. Th. iomer inpli.5 a u.iqut iodi-vidui who, ar r gir.n tim..nd placg tue.ded incooplcting a p!oj.ct, wnd$s ih. leftr indieErn in$anca and pl.n oa dlno!$rition 6ai r"otc<ould ptrfom p6yid.d th. r&c rc. or rxioms,p'cliflinry op.r"rions, md.n id.di.al s.t oI ryo.b.lt w.r. trs.d. k isaho posibl. b leE . rhird?solon. eho,p.1kr ofth. so.ls or ltu inv.stiBz.don, dE ob$acl.r .n.ound!d, ib E ulB,.nd .h.prcbl.os yd to b. $lv.d.nd lhii "I" *ould func'iion in. f.ld ol.xkting or tutu D.rhc6,rial dis-couis. !0c r. not d.rli.s wnh t ,y*.6 of dcpen-

d.n.i.sNhcrc r 6d and6*nti.l lsiof lhc "l ir

rduplrr.d, T r k'n,l ol6.non.bv rh.ofi'r'*o

onrh.@dnry,ih. rdhorlutrrcn m Nch 'l ' i

du*Gion of rh. rhrc..goti"nhd drborJdon Kuld, of .ou6' dnclos'

orhcr charad.ri:ncs o( ln. ':uth6.tuncion" bd I

hr'.hmr.dmyrll o'h. l"urrhrobrio$ rnd

'mpodair' Thsv crn b. sdmmnurd 'i

rlF folowins n r.n.t: rh. 'in thorinnction isned

ro rhc ksrl 'nd

rntirunon,l syn

<nbe, dd.rmm., and rnrols. tht rcrlm oI di!

ou*s; ir doc! nor 6prEt f . u

ill disurud, at lll m6, rtd in lnv gkn o|!ti

it L ndt d.frn d by ih. ,Ponhno$ znnbn'on ot '

r*t ro iB q.nor, blt rhrouSfi . $dd ol prerc

and @mDlar D.oR'ldr.ri n dc3 nor rckr' pur'rv

rnd$mplr, 'i:n

rtuil mdrrdu'l'do'r t,it 5i_

mlhm?ou6ly BdF n5. to r !n'.rvor'gorrnd to I

s.ri.. of tubj.cnt Po!nion. rh*'ndividurL olrn,/

.lz$ n.y c.hc ro o.dPY

I N 2s.t rh:t u.!it now I n.v. l'Pr rv sub-

ie! uirnin unj!*i6tbl. limitq Lhould al.o hrv'

;@t.n oIrh. rutl'o.r!nd,an rn printin& music'

echniel 6.ldr, :nd so lotrh Admining 'hr

mv

$llvtL t r.,fti<.d F rh. doniit ot dieonrs. n

*;sthd I hd.sivln$.Em ". hol 3n cxc'}

rktntd mdnins lhl.drsssd 'h'

rdhor

o'lv in th.lim'Ed *n( "l

i p.tsod 'o

Nhon ih'

Doductio. or. ex! .6ooL or: {or! an b' l '_

;Mrkly rrihlr.J Ho-d.r' rr R obvios 'hr

dmwirhin th. t.tm ufdi5(ou6. r P.rsoncn b'

th. .$hor o{ much moic .hrn 1 look-ol i ih'ory'

fo! rnnma. of r (idtdon or r d'FPlina wi'hin

wh,ch hfl book rn,l rurho6an trohLt( For

sntmi.na, wc could srv rh.r such allhos occupv

r "trndscus'v. Posidon.Hod.r. Arirtod., ,nd

'h. Chur.h Fnh'6 pl')'d

ihc o!.. $ did in. 6dr m1lh.nlncians and itt'

oriinabis ot:h. Hippocific trdnion. This t?'of;udor is tu(ly * old d. onr.iilizrtion But

! 6di.v. rhn 6. nindcrnrh ..ntort n turop.

Doduc.d ! sinstl.! rvF;r2udor $ho tltould nar

L. .o.tusdd witt et li ft.r2rv t!iho6' or rh'

tho6 ol enon'crt rchgo$rx6 :ndfi'lound

6 of r'cnc6. ton.*hrr nbk:nlv' {' miB!' lrll

l!.d "i'in.@6 oI dncuriv. Prrctiar.Thc disliDcnr con'Fibudon of rh'e adhos n

$ai lhd trodued ooi onlY ci

rh. Do$'b'l,o rnd 'h.

ru18 o{ lomJ;on or o'h'r

kxr;. ln lhis rir, th.n rotc di8.E 'n 'lv

{om

thr of 1 no'.h*, for .r:qPk' who n baicrllr

nd{ mo.c rhm rs? aurhoi oi h; o{n r"' Fr'!d is

n6r dmolv th? lulhd of Th. Int Qtadtian 6l

Dan;oi oI wn ann ic FAttiu to th' u"tu'

r.iols and M.d b not sinplv rh' turhor ol rh'

coflnunh M'ni{ato d Cdrital: tn't borh 'sr'b'

lishd th. <ndt.s po$ibil ry ol di$ora' obvi_

oudr,n ditobrdon can b. m:d' Th'3ndorol

r novd mrr b. r.rton'hlc lor m

kxr; iih. arqui's rom. 'mPodrnc'" m th'li 'r

13 world. htr in0u.na sn hI. I'sniicant rtmrn'

cr;on5. To al.1'.rv nmpl. r\ampl' an' odd

9v thn Ann Rldclo. did nor i'mPh wni' TF

,tytad o/U/.h,'d,nd: l.w dhd nd'li bd

rl16 mrd. posibl. th. ,P9.rranmlncd

'r rh. b?sinnins of the nii'k"th andrv.'

To ihG .rknq h.t ir.ciion .i:

rhc linis o{ t'.r {ork. HN.v.f' rhis obi'ction sn

h. .nsvd.d by .h? id th.t th. po$ibihi's dis'

.lord hv rh. inidro* o( dLdrciv. pr.ciic6 (using

rh.d.;pld ofAl:d and FEud' whom I b'lid'b

b. rlE 6st ,nd th? m6r inpo.rt) trc isnr'

on y did.Rn' frcm rhosa 3u$d!d bt no"'h$s

T6. nor.le.f AM Rr'lcl'6. lut i

orcin nu66.r o( !6.6bl.nc.t .nd mlo8i6 Patsi.hd or h.. s.r!-v.riout .h.r!tri$ic tiSns'

fiqur.s, rchdonshrps, ,nd *rucrud rhrt 'ould

b'

inradr.d idt. otl$ bdl! ln ihort' to ttv $n

a";R cti(. caatd $. C.tfic Romrne n'rn!

rh*lh.rcGad1in.Ln.tscon.nd .o ih. nidd..nih ensrv Cothic rortc: tb<

ldoin. ruin.il bY h.r osn inno{.nft$ tt.t frDdio$ .s 2 count.cig, lh' oudtw'

h.b trho ss.rd r.vcns. o. $. world rh* h'!

cuu.d l1im. .&. On rh. 6rh.r h.nd' Mtix rnd

Frdd. rt ;in,n:rou ol dk.udjv. pncncdir not

only md. po$'bl. r ftn:in ndmb.r or rn'rosrd

th.t could h. .dopEd hv ft!r. etts blq * 'n-

pon.nrly,rh.y nso mrd. Po$ibl.oI d,fcrcn.6. Thq cl.rr.d

' lPs

iudidn old.ft.h o .r $.n rh.ir om' *hid,

n.v.nh.l.$. rdin ,ithin rh. 6'ld or di@ure

rh.v 'n'hn

d tns,vinB'hn FEud found'd Plvchcrnrhsi'. $. do no' simPlv m.,n th'r th' @ndpr o!

lit"d; ar rh. rehn'au6 oi drctm ,n'lvsit ftlpt':r

in rh.writinStol Kd Abnhrm or M'trni' Kl'in'

but rh* h. m.d. P6sibl.l4ELtmc.s sih r6D.ct ro hi, 6ooks' conc'Pnt 2fld

146 MrcH.LFolc^ult

h/Fth.!B, {hich all .rnc od ol psv'ho'n'lvti'

k thE nat 'h.

o*, ho*.{r' 'nh

tl[ found'rol

n! nd <'.n.. or o{:nv rurhor who 3u(6nunt

hnr(om! .rirnngic'd..? Al'd rll C'lihoa

ind,rcdly FPontbk {or th. k\tr ol thD*who f,F

chln'clly rPPllcd Ln. hws h.lo'

uonrohrrngPr\ .d rh. sr t lo

*rk'n.nrr f:' d'd.r.nr f'od his own n Lus?r s

$.lound.' oibiology lnd 5ru$ui' oflinguntic! r

6 nd b.{16! thq Ek imnn?d oi rhrzn oernrc

.on..p' or r 'h.ory

ot'h. sign '!m'nnutr,In('

sn.d dto ftd ruB, b( b€u* L!s'r' ro: cF

Din.{cd, n:d. pdribl. l ihrcrv ol ddsbn oD'

m.triclly oPpo*d b hi, o*n ,v$'n 'nd

Ecr$'

S.lsurc md. to$iblc : 3.!.6trc SBnmd nots

.zllv di(cGnt trom his o*n nruduor tni'vsi

5"..F(irlly, 'h.n,

thr inr,,iion "l discddiv' fi:c'

h;, rpp.:r 'm'lr

to $.lound'4or'nv scn

tlf(.ndH!or, bu' I brl'.v. 'h.t'

n' lundam(nu'

h r $i.mi6. prcsdn, $. {ounding rcr is on 'n

.ourl f@!M wrh 'ts

f'tuR rrn

-.ntv .m .-..g

't'. m-v

-'d'6'rfioB ihr ir

n1l6 p6sibl.. Tlrk incrdcp.nd'(:l ,or,re ln ft? luor d.v.loPn'nr or

' sc'"c''

rh.loundinq tr mrv.pP..r 's

linl' norc rh'n 2

sinBk inntncol: mor.Srnci'l ph'nom'non thn

hs b.fl dr@vd.d l' misl' b?q

rorp(r, Ior b.mg bo intuni( or 'mptrrduno

<ubmtn.d b ,h. riSpu ol n.$ rhorcior oP'rn

dor. n ordd s itultc i' in: lo

inlx n m,shr b. 'housnt '

hnq s'ndind'onsho* rlidq should bc rc*n{'d" h dkr woros'

fi.loundined oI' sida on rrs:F b! r'(n:n'

n.l.d inrcush d. n..l n?rY or I

on th. othd h,nd rh. m'darron otr di*tRiE

oflcde R hd.i4.n<out to n! ux

no$. To dmd Pt.hormtnc Pdd'G * '

F

n.d by Fr.ud.snato P'6um' r romr 3sn?t'rrvrha' rr! nor drm.d.r rh. ouB.ti { F'o?rpror' 2

numb(ul po$$k rPPlion'B Tolimn itnto.'o_

Lk 'n

lh. ondnr, a\s.3n:[ *r oi tropotnonroriuto $tha & doSniz'd 15 h'vins

'n jnlu-

."r.hv. v,lu. rnd fi.r nlrloAli frudnn 6n_

;nB or fiodd :r d.nuriw Enrlh rh'( n' no

''f' l* irkm{E h th. wrk o

tho( $ai.m?nB .onnd.r.d in6etrhrl or .-pa

hinoic, jn 62i 'lEv

tr. zsocirt'd *i$ Morh'r

d6o!'F, r.t;pt n.gl<kd m hvor of 'h'

mE

D.n'ncnt nFcu oJ th. *orL Th' innirhon or r

,lBotrdc nhcna, unlil. th. foudin8 ol '

r'F

."... d$Lrdovt :nd R n.(drrltdd"h'd kom

s lnd dd.lopfl;E rnJ tins{o'nnionr' As :

ron*ou.nc.. e. d.6n. Lh. th.o(n"lvlrdtv or i

surcmnr*irt' rcsp<t o rlc *otl o(thcinnitur'

*hdms in ih. c.s. of Calilo or Ndton' t r

b.5.d on th. $ruciur:l ..d inkDt' Dunx !r

oblirh.J in msmolost 6r rlvsi'i suGd shc_

nn'olly, rh.mrl ofthdciniti:to6 n nor e'to-ircd

in '.h

on D : ('fl.. or in 'h'

sp:c' n d'no6t

ithd,n G si.neordi*usiv. pd'ii" tht r'la''

b rh.n wrls t. th. pin.rt paif,E ot ftI'i'!e_

In k(ping *rh thtr distinc'iDn. w' c:n uno'F

nrnd whv ( B ind$bl. rhrt Frtdismrrk; oui l.rum tn $' orisin" H'r" *

wdl- n R nc<.$rq odGnnSli'[ "\'rurn

lrcm

(i;(l6. t.d6@k'at or'redi"nioa R'_

dtr@Eri.t rR lh..rEG ct 'ntos]

or romoF

ehFm wirh {i,dt forms of lnoukdg!-tht dN

$. B(phon of loeon n or ob(''d hSuro ror

s*rc, Chomrlt r hir bool on Cnkri'n er:m_

-*,,..r.dr5co'.Kd : formollnosl.dl.thlrh:d

bcn in u( (rcm Co'&nov b H'mb'ldt .lr ould

onh b. und.$rood nom $.p'6Pc'n'or s'n'tr_dr;Rnmturb.auF thB lrkt mmildhtion h'ld

th. r.v r {!rcBrru.ton: in.fccl. r i 'rup'd'(

tudi6chonol1nhRtoriolPorition RddivJdon

rfcs to sfr.thins quitc d'6.rmr: th' iGtrrion or

di<ourc inro brillt n.* don:inr o{ g'n"rra'

hon. Dr{ie, rnd hnrfom od Th' fiiio4 ol

mn niDc, rboundt in Alnpl!s ol thit Phuome

""n 2r E *ork o{ Micfi.l S:Rs

Th. phts., t run b. d'siSrdd r mov'mdr

silh r; Dr@( !Fd6{irv' wh'd chdcftnz's rh'

inNlio; ar'ds;Riv. ptrcna3 ll w' rrrm it i!

b.auic of . b:si. .nd coo*ddiv' omis'on' an

oDis'un rhlt s not rh. rc l{ 'l

:'ci&nr or in_

cosDr.h.nton. In .6.6, tha 2c' ot inninid $

sch. 't

n! 6*na, rhn i' it ind'Eblv 'ubied'd b

iB o*n 'jktoniont;

thl uhi.h drpl'vtrhn'd:nLl

<Liva fdm t u' 't

thc tm' ridq rh' @r or

itt dtr.rldci rnd nrv.ni's Thit nonrcdd'nhr

"misio; nu* b. r.Eutlad bv PftciE optredons

,rNdd c6on*r Gidrd U,!!n ia (N.w Ydl:Hr(&Rw.,164|r l

"t.t -^-'-tk^qir, !1631, pp.t3_tu trt,l

ffi**.=F #

ffiffiffiffi

48 M,c$Lfolc^ulr

cl Ectonic.nrlyds ols work (rhdhn n b.3 her.ry cxr, 1 philosphi.rl syn.m, or a *ien.ficmrl) .nd in dcliFniig psychol4rcal :nd bngrlPlial r.i.r$..r slspicions 3.ke con..mingdr rb$lut n!tur. lnd .rt,live ml. of rh. subidr8ur !h. subj6! shoDld notb..ntichabtndo.cd. kshouli h. ftcd:idd.d, not ro r.!ror. th. ih.m. oran oiiginarins subj.ct, btrt to seize its tun.tions, iisinredention in disouis., and $ synem old.pendci.i.s. \q. shorld susp.nd th. frpicii qtr6iions:how do6 1 Gcc $bjrd ptn{nte lh. dEn.ny otdrings .nd .ndo* Llehvith m.?ring; how does na@mpl;h is d6ign by rni6rrin8 th. rulcs ofdis.o!e trom wirhin) R*hr, we sl$trld mk, undcr*lk. condidon. .nd rh.ough what lorns c2. xn.c,iry lik. rh. n'hj!.r appar in th. orJd oi dis6!6q wfiat position dms it o.cupy; sh{ Iui.tiont ddr n dhibiq .nd wh* rrl.s dcs n nnbwi. cich rr"! ofdcouar! In,hon, ii. $bjcd kndn, subniluc) mu( b. n'ipp.d ot i$ c..ltiv. roldud anrlr!-d * a ohpl.r dvari2bl.ilncionoI

Th..urlor-or *[i I hav. c2ll.d rhc ".uthorlun.tior"-k lnd.ubtdly onll one olth. Fsiihltspeifstio$.f ih. ibi4t d, co.sidcring Pasnnioriel rznsfod.notu, n .ppcan rhd th. ford,$. ompl.tity, rna d.n tn..xiicne ol rhis lunc-rid zc {2| tuom innurablc. W.cr'.asily ihrgii.. dl@ wkE dn6u6. sonl<l cnolrt vithouiry .ed tor d ruthor. Disuc6, !hai.v.r rh.ir$.os, ioo, o! v:In., .nd r4!dl.* of atrr nrn'erof handlirs $co, would untold in I t.o.!iv. 2no_nyni9, No long.r rh. i6on. rcpetitiont:

"Wlo is lh. r*l:uthor!"Hrvc wc pr@I ot hb .lrhcnticiry ,nd

.Vlut h2s L. i.vcrled oI his nos PrGtound $li in his I guls.?"

Ns quqiions will 6. hdd:

''Wiai ar. rhc noda of eiisren.e of this

.Vn.rt dod n @mr f!oF; l,ow ( n .ircu-hr.d; wno controls it?

"VIrpl.em.i6 arc dercrmin.d ror Po$

"Vrho.an ful6 in.s. div.n. fundionr of

Brlind lll rh.s. qudrioni *. sulJ h.r lirl.morc rhan tfic durou of inditr r.ns.:

"Wl 6'r.rwhot+.akingl

THE DISCOURSE ONLANGUAGE

I rotrld reilly lik. io hav. dipped inp.(eptiblyi'ro rhis lectu.., 3s into all th. oih.6l shxll b. d..livrins, pern,p, ovcr$ey.au3h.ad. llouldh,v.pr.L;d b b..nvulopcd i. wordr, 6orn. w,r bFyo.d 3ll rosibl. b.ginningi Ar lh. rom.ni of,p.rkiie,l $o"ld li(.b hav. p.t tived i nandesvoic., long prtcedins mq lclyi.G n.

'n.r.lr Io.n.

Desh 'nysll

in it, tiling !P ns cidence, and tolodscny&lf, *l'...o on.wrtl@king, i. irsinErri..s ?: if n had p.u(d ar innnt, in nsp.n$, tobeckon to m.. Tn(. Muld b.vc b..n .o b?sin-nines: in*cad, rp.{h would pro.cd fon n.,wtil. I iood in tu palh-! rlcndcr grp-thc Poinrof i$ posibl. d;atpearlnce.

B.hind mc, I rhould lik. io nr. h.rrd (h!vi,sbcn !t ii long.nough ili..df, &p.riing in rdv.n@!l,rt I M rbont to t.ll you) th. toi@ or Mollon b._ginning to spclk thus: 'I mus go or l c tSoo.ilnus!o on; I mutr ny rcrds 3r lons I thd. {.woda, I nu* ray rlt.m lnnl .h.r 6nd m., unil th.ylay 6. he.vy bndd, hdlvy si.; I nu* so onid2yt. irt b.m don. rlrddy; n,ybc ih.y'* al-re.dr'said m.; n?rb.rh.y'vc ilr..dy bornt n. toth. ihi.shold o( d/ $o!y, rish. io rh. door ol)..insonio my nor/; l'd be $.pris.d iI n op.ncd.'r

A s@d mary p.ople, I i6asin., nrrbur a sibi

|rcn?.D6coUs'o!uNcu^crbyMkhrlFoudtl',in soin kiene t4adni" \'ol, tusd ty psmis:ioD or S,s. Pubtid'iopyrislnorr7rInkmrtiot.lSdrlS.i rcouncil/l.

p,s.i in vlid rousult p,yr hdhzs. to his *rchdJanHiFpdtrc, do nor rpFr rd.,rrtom Sanu.l B<l<.n! noKl Molo, lEdi]

ffiffiffiffi

!50 MrcH.!Fouc^!Lt

rhrn th.tot. rdonal D2n. At 1ll.v.nB, whdh.r.r.lud.d or sr.ny inv.*.d wnh rabn! ti. h2a-n,n'. sp..d did not *rictly.ri3t. lt s* rhrolgl'his {ords .hat o.. r6osni5.d ih. 6.dn$ of

'fi.m.dm.nr bd $.y w.rc enrinlr rlE n.diun *irh-in wii.i ir divLion b.@ft e.tit ; $cr v.. n.ith.i h.i.d nor r.mcmb.r.d, No dodor b.torc rhc.nd of th. .i3!t.nlh cntury n.d d.r rnonshtoI liit nins b !h. rcotot-how it wii rid ,ndehf-of.hcF wodsi rd r.. n w.r thcs *hichtsnrll.d t6. dif@ne 6.M.n r.:!on od mzd-n6,. vh,te.r . m,tlo.n s.idj t *6 t1l.n torm.r. non.r n? M3 cr.dn d witfi wordr onlr in rqmholics*,in rhc ihc.rrc, in whi.h hc ncpncd,oRrd, un.rm.d rnd ,Goncit.d, pt.ri€ bk rot.:

Ofau& p@pl. arc soinB ro ey all rh.t n ovd:nd don. *nn, or ifi.t i. is in ih. procds of 6cins6ni.h.d qnh, bd.y; thafih. n.dfr.nl mi& arcno lons.r on tb. o$.r dd. oi $ii dieirioni th.ilh./.r. no lon8 r nlll and void, th.t, on $. o.-n.rv !h.y .l.n B b tfi. nEd ro lool for. s,i.b.hind th.n, tor tl* t rpt r., or rh. rui'! o{son. r€@/Cr R htv..v.n.m. to noric. th6.srdi oa rzdnm in out @n rp.ah, an thos. infp.u66 $l.n w. to€ct *[.r * 1r. hlkins abouL8tt .ll thi! n no p@{ $2r th. old diviiion ii aoriu* .r ariv. d b.rorc; w h.vc only t6 inl ol rh.srir.nr by wlidr * &.iph.. iiir sp.ft$i w. h.v.only !o rhink oI d. n.Morl o{ inr.iturion, c$ab-lhhd to p.rdii docbs .f,d pslcho.rllyss @ ln.cn ro thc n.d a.di et rh. sn. rin., drbli.8 ih.m.d to &m. lnd rF:!, or, in d.!p.,:iion, to wi$-hold th.ir n..38 {ordq w. h*. only ro b..r ildit in nind b supd rh{ rh. old divnion n ;utlr.diE.s trr, .vcn iI ft is procdin3 alons dil.Lrdt lir6 zn4 rir n.w inniblioE, rrcducinsE h.. di(.r.nt .gd. E6 *h.n tn. oL ol ticddor a.silc oI lddirs .n .,r to thi, f..lly lib.ts.t.d rpccn, ibis Focdurc dill FIB pl,c in rh.@nt.xt.{. hi.tu b.M.n l;td.r rnd rp.r!.iFor h. i hr.Dins to spGn inv6t.d wirh dcsn,scdni.s lr*lf-(or ib gat r .xulbiion or aor ir

8.r2t r rryunh-wnh ..ftibl. pos.6. l{ *. ttulyFquirc sil.ne to clE norr.d, r!.n ir mu$ b.,nrtunriv. !ilco.., rnd n it in ihb rh.r ft. diyision

I. ir p.rnlF r linl. .iik/ io sp.2k ot Ih. optsi-ior h.Ndr tu. 2bd trl$

- . rhid sls.m oi .x-

clusion, dong wnh $os I h:E n.ntioncd ah.adt

Hoq .DUld on. r..sonably ohp.r. th. on$..intsof tuth wkh tho* odc. divirion!, rbit,rr jnorisi" il not d.v.lopins out ot biuoriel .ontin.3.rcy-not nddy modi6.6l. bur in. .i.t ol cm.nlrl nux, $ppod.d by t syn.m ol in*irrtion3

impoli4 .nd mznipulliinB rh.d, 1.tin3 not *ith'out cons..int, not wnhout .n .l.m.nr,.t ksi o(

c.ftinh 6a rrcpolition, thc divnior brv..ntu. and &ls ir n.ntur rbift.ry, ror oodifi.bl.,no. insitodon.l, no. viol.,i. Pdtin3 th. qu6riori, diiLi! t!ns, no*.v.r-*kin3 shar h8 b..n,whrt til n, thtuusiour our d;@uBq lhn will bturh which nr sudiv.d ihrcusnour so h.ny..n-trri.r oa our ii5bryr or if * rt wfi.t ir, in iB v.ryse.r.l tom, rh. lind of divirion sov.dins ourwilltotno*l.dg.- i.nEnitwlldi*ansonedins li!.I tFt.B ol.x.lulion (h!.ori.rl, modi6-.b1., iBiirnotulr onrEinind ir ! plGr of

h i, undoubt dl,.I'inoriqlly ont'rucd divi!ion. For, .v.. *ith r,r t:d ansry Gcl po.s,ro. dnsuBrin .h. n..ninsful &nE-inrpninsRpd r.d rcror, to shi.n. w.r. oiliBql to sub-mn, h.euk ir h.ld s#y o@ | .nd ms prc-.ouflc.d by n.n who spot. $ of flsh!, .@dineb toel, n*.d oni iu$ie .nd .nnbuEd b .,.1hir ri8hii!! rlEr.i n prcpn.si:d E luiuE, .orm.Ely mnounci.g whar w. eoing 6 ddn but@ntdbutins ro ia .tu.| enr, orryi.c Dd eloh3with n nd $!s *.vin8 is.lt irb il'. Ilhric olLt- Axl y.t,, anbry 1.8., .h. hisll.* tuih nolons.r rcsidcd in wh.t di*our* !6, nn ir wh,i ird/: n Lr in shlt s.s

'd, Tn. day dr*n.d whcn

.dth 6oltd ov.r Goh rh. rito.lir.d .ct pot.ni

.nd j!$-ot.nurcirtior ro s6lc oD wh4 ur!..u.cin d i6.ll: ib ncanirg, is lom, ns obier .nd n!c|njon 6 uh.i h r.t rrcd to, A djvilion .m?qcdb.s..n H6iod d flztq $p:.!tins trc di'o!s. fm {lh.i ir *d , nd dirision tor, n.Dc.-ronh, to. dn6!6. *rs no lon8.r onsid.ndpr.cious tud dcsidbl., sine n t.d arscd .o bc dn.cou.e lint .l .o th. .,.(n of po*L Ard $ rh.

Thn hnronal diyision h.r douhd$ 1... its s.n-.r,l rod 6 our sill ro kndl.l8c Y.i it nar no.re8d shiftiq: th. gr.,r hrEdon! o{ scio6 m/$.ll .omldb6 b. sn ro nop aom omc di{ov.

rsd Phq cnP, pp. r r -t6. {E{rl

.ry, bu! lhel may .qu.lly b. Yi.wcd 3r th. ipP.r.

ane oI n.w ioms oflh.silltorrurh ln lhcnine_tenrh ..ntury rh... wai undoubr.dlv ! wilt io

ru6 hariq 'otii4

to do, in krts oI d. Iorhr

.ra6in.d, oi th. 6clds b *hich ittddr.s.dn$li,nor rh. rEhniqu.s upon whi.h it wrt baed, withrhc will !o lodled*. wnich chr'ttln.a dsicn

culoE, Going b{k r linlc in rim., to th. ttrr. ol

rh.lirt mth and Fv.ntecnrh c.rturiet-lnd Partiollrly io England-a sill b ttowl.d8. .d.'sd

{hi.h, lnticiparins is Fr*nt @nr.n! slct h.d

ort 1 sch.mr oI po$ibl., obeft.bl., mrasli.blc

and cl*ifi,bl. obidsi. qill to kno{LdBc -hichinpc.d upon rh. kno*in3 .rbjcct-in sonc wavs

HUnB pkeJ.nc o!.' rll crP.rnn(.< ..drinpornon. t rtrEin li.wPoint, rn6on (look Blh.r tha' n.d,v.riry drh( ihan rcm-

n nt),2 will to loowl.ds. shich prddibcd (and,

mor. 8.ntr2lly 5polun& :ll innrtrm.ns d.kF

m,n.d)rh( rKhnolosi . r l lR. l r twhichlnu^l .dg.ould b! .6rloy.d in ordr to !. v.tifi,blc d

us.ful ln.vis ion, hinins, pfizmrcopo.b). Ev.rt'rhins *.d o haw ccudd i! thousn'r lon $ciituot th. g'..r Plnonic division ots3rdj' tt. *ill

to ruth h.d iB wn hiio.y, vlich n tot ri tll

rhat of $. oni6ini.8 tdihs: th. hnbrv of :

Ens. ol iubidh .o bc lqh.d! th. listor/ of $c

tu"ctioDs ol th. ktowinB subiar, rh. hnbrv ormrri.l, tcinical:nd innrom.ntd inwnm.n. it

Bri thk *iU to !uth. lilc th.6$d sv.nms oI d_dusion, rcli.! on insionotal supPo*.t n bolh

r€intok.d .nd .(onp2ni.d by *!ol. $raE ofpEdi<6 su!$ as p.d.sosy-mturdly-+th. bdk'

syd.m. publ;h ine, lib'rri.r, nch 2, ih. lcdncd rG.i.tj., h .n. p,n, and labodtori.r bdat 3!t n isprobably .v.n not ptolou'dly a.coEp:ni.d bt

th. mrnn.r in wl ch lno*Ldsc is.nploy.d in r

sci.ir rn. va/ in whicl' it is .xPloitd, diYided,nd, i. som. wrys, rfribud. l. is woth r.@Ui.s,i ihir point, if onlt rymbolic"ll, ih. old G{.kadas.. that rrirhmdic ,hould bc bughr in dc_

mocraci.s. for i .rchd r.lalioni ol.qualily, but

tnat sconc$y alon. rhould b. dencd'ior oli3.i'

.hi6, ,s n d.6onrnt s thc proponions *thin

in.quality.Fimlly, t 6.li.vc tn{ rnis will io Lnowl.dsc, dus

cli:rt lpon i.*itu.i9n.l suPpo( .id distibution,

tnJ! to .*r.i* r lot ol P.c$ur.$r.'rr upon oth.r Ioos oI di$ou6e-I.d splrk'

ins of our own sci.ry. I ah dinling oi $. Ht

Wairm hcntlt! h*, iotcrntunG, bushi o b.s

nscll i! ninr< in lI. phuiibl., lpon si.cti.t md

sci.nc.-in $on, !po' tuedn@u*.1tm thinl_jns, roo, oi rh. {2y .ononic Pddi@.' @difi.dino prccps:rd t.iP.s-ts noPlir! llrhn.ouEh,, rn.c ,h. .isnEh'h c.nsry, ro found thfl_

*he bnnodhFrnd rutit th.ir cud.n.r, in.

th@ry ol wc.lit .nd prcdDciosi L6 rl nli'&

;snn, oI rh. n:nn.r in whti $ci P,6criPtiv..n_k6bl.s ,s fic P.nrl Codc lt:v. susn. d;t b.*t or

iu$ifiaioro. Fot dimpl., 'hc

!cn:l cdL d.&d

;r :r a thcoty oI RiSnr; $.4 fron ti. rjn ol $.nin tenth .cnturi Fotl. loold lor is vllid.tion

in siolosic.l, plycnolosiol, nrdi..l t.d Psvdi_,hic lnowl.ds.. Ii b 4 .hougn rh. v..t ftrdr of

rh. tlw h3<l no lnrhoriq io our *i.ty,.t..Pr itrr

f.r as thqy lG dcriv.d lrotr io. diKlM. Ol ih.

thr.. gr.ar synms oI cxclusion 8orcdih8 dii'

6!6.-prohibncd words, .hc divitid of nldn.s:nd rn. will o rruth-l haY! sPolcn r. 8E1Btl.nsrh rcnern'n8

'hc ftnd Wrh Bood t..sn, fo'

(orrn6, ft. lormd h,Y? oqbnu:Uy rmd.d rG

wrd $? 12n.4 bou* ftir l$t h:t 8ndu.ll,bc' lRmprin8 to sinibr. th. oth.i i. ordcr

borh ro modily |h.m hd o PrcYid. tll.n wi$ I

6m loun&rion. B.aus, iIlh. tu lorna tc @._

tibu,lly sr@its nor. ft.sil. ,nd lcs cd,in b th'

dcnr $d rnly m ns inv.d.d bY . will brrulh, ih. l.r.!, in ons.$, d.ily gtdt h ir.ngtli,

i! doth rnd ihDhob'livAnl y.twrp.,koInkst A3 lhoud th. w,ll to

rurh ,nd iE vicisnnd.! *.8 m.d(d bv tulh ic.ltand it! n.c6! y lnfoldin& Th. Mlon i. pdh:ps

d,n: ii, sinc. ih. imc ol (h. Cck, rtu. di*oleno loig( r.sponde b ddn. or b ih{ whi.n d..cka pow.r in lt. will to toih, in th. will @ eFr'rou! in tu. disouF.. sfi.r, dcn, i! .t mrt, it no!

d.si. $a po*.r? Toc di$ou6.,lib.ntd bv $.

nlbc ol i6 lo.m lroh d.tn..nd PoRr' is i's_prbk ol raoslsng rhc *ill b rurh Yhid Pdrrd.i trr rnd rh. rnl,o ru'h,hriryihPo!.d iMlI

upoi us {o.3o lo.s, i3 sucl thrrh.authitscl!oK<d cdnor 13il to s,sk n.

Thu!. only otc tuth ,ppe6 b.foE oui .t !:s.rl$, I.nility 2nd skcr s!.n8rb it .I tu idsid-ious univ{saliry, h contGn' {. 2r. un.Mrc o{ d'.prcdisio!, mlchm.ry o( In. will b hth, *irl' isvoc,rion of .xclu'ion. AU lh6e *ho, .r on nG

r.nr or 3noth.r in our lnrory,ltlv. ddP.rd ro

r5r MrcnELfoucrurr

r.oonld ihis *ill .o duih .nd td tum ir rsrin*mth rt rhrt v.ry pbin! *het hlh uidcnrk$ rojusit t[. ub@, and b d€6rc hxdnsr; all ihds.,ton Ni.wh. b Aarud r.d Bitrilh, nu( nowdrnd :r (pmbzbly haus!t/) sis.po*r ior .ll our

Th.rc:8, olou6., mny olher 5Fttu lor th.of,tFl and d.liniradon ot discou6.. Thosc I h.vespol.n of up to iow 3G to $F. .xeni, .div. on

i{. .xt.rior; rn.y lun.tion .s sy*.d ol .xclusiolirh.y @nc.6 thar p:n of dnmuG which dcrls

I b.ti.v. v. clr isolat ano$.r sroup: int.6.lrol.r vlF. dikout& d.rds i6 @, co'toliru16 @nc.d.d with rh. pdncipl.s o(.la$inotid,ord.nns .nd dildbDiion, It it t, thons! w. w.r.!N involv..l jn rh. m.s.ry ol.norh.r dim.nsionof di!@u6.: .n3i o{.v.ns ,td chme,

In th. 6Fr p!:c., ehm.nrry. I $pPbrc, thow[I.m not dtog.ilEi rc, .6 n blrdy a soci.tywjrnolr is o,ior n:dlriv6, bld, r.bld nd va.i.d; {omol.., t.rts, ;s:li*d td$ ro b. spol.n it*!H.6n.d .ins*4.6; lhinss said ore, rdM&n.d b6.u.. PFPI. susP.d om. I'iddcr !e_crcrorwalth ti4 !;cd vilhin.ln shon,I susP.crdn. 6uld 6nd 1 lind ol F&tion ltNcn diff.r.nttypd of dito!!* wirhin no* sidics: disco!6.'uRcr.n in $..dtr6e ofth. &t rdd in crsull m..!i.gi, ard whicfi disrppcis {ith th. v.ry .ct which

s2E ris b b:nd dos lorms of dis@u6. itut li.2i 6. onsits ol i ccftir numbd of rew v.rblrcB, *hi.h .e teitnaed, cmsloo.d or dn_ccd; in shod, dncousc which tr Jtottt .nd r+

m.i.s rpot.n, ind.6nncl, bcyond i6 formulrtio.,sd vli.n tdain. to bc spoklh. rV. tnow rh.d inou. om dlturt t$m: rcliso!. or iDr'dicil icx6,.. Elt A !on. ddolt t.*, lbn th. point oIvid of th.n srto!. *hich w. Ern h,,'r'; to 1.mrin.rdr, sci.nrifc rcts al5

wh1t n .b.r is ihr rhi s1p it ne Ei $1b1., nor@ni..r, .o. absolqt . Tl.a ir no qucnon ol

rh.E beingon. a..gorv 6x.d io.:lli in., r6.fl.dtor tu.&m.nDl or crearive dko!F., r.d rnothefor thoic which r.icr4., .xpound .nd ommentNd2 fca maio. t xR b(ohc bluried ind dis,p-

F24 $d @nm.nhncs sod{nr.s.om. $o.cuPv

!fri.d;.LNiajch.1'3{a-te&), whor wqt Doi 'o'Fm bFolsulnrr,?c@4rosrolMqali^ orio

inaud G3e6 ,e13). Fo.$ lod, ttor rd dnd'o'iG.org6 Bdll. l, !97

'96t,rnDd*iir* lEd'J

thq lords positio'- Bur *hil. tlt. d.r,ih of +pli_cition n.y wcll ch:ns., th. tunction t.mii* lh.s.n., ,!d th. pnncipl. of hicrdrcht remios r(*o.t.Th.;2disld.nialotrhisc.rd oncanna.rb. mylling blt pl,, ubpi. or .ng!i!h Phy, arBargs'!s6 th. tm, in rbc {orm oI coomcnttryrha n nothiis nolc th,. rhc rctpP.lrane, vordIo! word {rholsh rhis.im.nn*Lon rnd tici_prt d) ol rlk t.xt cobncnren oo; or .g,it, tt. plrr

oi 1 wo* ol aiticnh elkins .ndk$t dom i$o* rhat dos mt.xkt, kkal/rical dr..m oIhlLr.bom. undy rh.sh rnd innoeco,niinlally rborn in:11 is vigo$, $imult d byitrinsi. ledin$ or rbolghs. Angukh, stch it thsrotj,net wh.r sicli, io. $hom tb.l.as une..nc.!o!nd.d rr rfi. so.d ol ih. E€nc.lisi, cort..linsq in.xl,urribl. *?.kh ot ncrnins, mniy b b.brodos, Ebesnn, @m6cnted upoD i.d.6nndvr'wll.n I rhirt,' hc eid ot t aditg or lkening;'vn.n I rhink of rhn phns., onrinrin8 is ioum.yrlircusfi .Eniry, whil. I, pdfi.pt hlve only iDcon-

'Bur whd an f.il ro s.. tlEr tlie would b. io 6n-nil o.c ol rn r.m! ol th. alaribntlip .!ch .ib.,a;d n.t to supFres th. r.l.ionsl p it*lf! A r.l.-ion5hip in ontinoal ptoc6s oi moditcriioni 2 r'ldonrhip kldng mulipl. lnd divct$ foN in a

siv.n .pG[: juridi.al .xeg.si! i. v.ry ditr r.nr-atd has ben ior I long ti6e-Ibm Rlisious eh_

F.nuq; r sinsl? worL ol lit.Btu en eiv. rik, sidult.rsuslr to 5.e.ril distind .yp.s of disouG.,'It. Ol)$.r, ls 1 pioary rdt, is terE{.d in rh.stmc.pocn, i' adand! @nshdon! in inini.. r.x'

nin .xphnilons and in Joy.L Uts,a: For 6. dm. b.in& I would lik. to lioir mlt.lfto

pbiiri.s ont rlsr, ir sh.t w. g.n.€ll, Elq ro *comm.nbry, th. di6.rde b.NEn prin.ry &at.nd r.mdlry .d phys M in..rd.p.nddt .old.on $a onc hrD4 i. Fois ut b cE.s n.w dis';rss ld inftriEm: th. roFh.arin.$ ot thc onsi_n:al r(, iB p.rmrncn@, is sad 3! dilcour$ d?rc!p,bl. ot b.irs hrouglt !p b dri., th. nultipt. orhidd.. n..ninss wit[ which n G cr.dir.d, rhc !.ti'en.. rnd w3|tll n i 6.li*.d b @,r,i., rll tlriscre.rB ,n op.o po$ibiliry fo. discu$ion. o. rh.orh{ h:nd, w$tlvcr dc GfiniqtrE .mPloy.d,comm.ni*yt oily ml. L !o say t cllr, wht ha d.l!!!ly 6..n rrtidltcd L" dol,. h mn*-.nd

'Jofg. L!i5 B0ls6 (t. rteet ars.i.in! wdt ( IDdil

th. or..dor E e.tdmngjng v.r ir'KrP'lbr'-s:ti

lor ih. f6trim., *hI hri,lrcrdv b"n ttid rnd

i.pdt rn.l6sty wh, wd, nd.nh.lsl' '*'r

ri ' i

Th. inGnit rippling oi

lrm krh,n by thrdt.am ol nrik'd rcPdhnnj m

th. distane rh.r. tr, pdhipl' nothing o'h'r thrn

wh{ w.s tkr. .t $. Point 'f &p'nur?: siDpl'

r.ciorion, Conm..Erv lv.ds ihc ch8n'c 'l'mdt

oid'@uE. by Sivingn itr du.. n 3't"!! Ih' op

s.tun,v ro lrv sndhing o$d th:n thc rcrr r'

qlf- bu! on (ondidon 'h3t

r i! +. ' 'ri

rudfrhich

s ;Rr.d rnd. in som. w,vi intikd Th' oP'n

mulrioldq. th. forunouin6!' "

r'n*'ird. bv

rh. oi,nci;k oi comn.nErv non *hn E lnbL o

h. ;id ;th( ".-h-,

.h. r"-. 'k

mtlG d rh'

ciofttaoc6 o{ '{.tirion.

Tn. novdrv li's no

lone. in st!:r n sid, hut in .s tcrpp'rranaI_L.1i.E rh.E b .no6.r principlc of t'r"rc!ion'

omrlch.ntrd b tk 6Bi $? iurhor' Nor' ol

couc!, rh. t;hoi m th. tne or rn' individul

slo d.liv.Ed d. spdch or *.oi' tht i'xr 'n

qu']

ian, b{ rh. ru'hor ,s fi. rnirvins pri'6pl' in t

ptniolrr 8ro!P ot tninss or trl

th. oriFd of rh.n 5i8ni,ic'ne' i

coh..me. Thit Ptinciplc n no

d6.r All 'rounJ

ui thd. ar. s'vm3! rd dG

kho.. m.rning ot.{.dvm6t ha rcrhmg b do

srh,ny turhor@whom rh.v m4hr b' ft'b(d

nundrn. Emirki qui(rlv lol8oR'r ord'T in:dr:d5firr( !gn.d. but hrv

.uthor! Gdniel prtsoip'iont :nonvnoBrv rirns

mrr.d.Aut.vm r. rh6.6.ldr wlt'r' n ienomr b

rnribnE . m* b .n .!thor-lit!r1o"' philos_

Dhr!c'.nc.-'h. pnncrpl' dct not'lsrvt pht th'

;n. ,ol.r r rh. od( o{ <En'i6' ducouts" t

*ii dua;srfi. Middl. ^s.l

indBrdibl( ih* '

*i.nri6c Exr b. rEnbuad to:n i

rlor ws rh. 'nd.r

oi th. @rl! ruhfulnd' A

oroqibon wr h.ld o d.nv. iB r'enhhc vtu'

lo; i6.urhot. B*sm. rh. svdkmrh ftnflry

thn func on hs b.d nddrlv d'clininsi n b1r'lY

3trnivd now. 31v. b siE ! namr

.E d, d d,mPl. d . svndrcm' ln likr'ruK'

ho*v.r, rod frcm rbou $r 6m' P'nd rh'

authort flndion hrt b.com? lr'rdrv moF 'm_

mdni Now. w. d.mrnd oi il 'hok

n2iiah"r'

s.8,. dr.nrt .nd ftn.di't rhi'h orcuhkd dr_

;rlr ;nonymosl[ rhrousho rh' Middl' A8'q

whme thcy @m., rnd *. vitut lY 'nti

thry r'r

$ wno *ro!. ih.m. w.4! 2uth

rt. un,ry ofrh. lork ptrbh,h'd in th'n nrn6; w

st rh:r Ihry rddl, or { l.rn dBPhv rh' hidd'n

s.nq p.dd'n8 th.r wo'li w.8t rhd b nki

il r mronrlliv.r,io reounr lorth'r'rp'n'ncd

rnd rilc rel tory 'hr(

Blv. brnh to th(n wrinryr

Tn. .urhor B h. eho 'nPhns

into rh' touhr'_

sod. llnsuaBc of 6ctiotr' i$ lnnid' iti cohtEn"'

hlinktwnfir.aligI !.ow sh.r popl. at. Soins to 9vr 'Bu' th?r'

vou r( tFakinsot rh..trrhot 'n

rh' em' $:v I

;h. (nn. (inwnEhim ahd h' B dad rd bxri'd'

wh.. w ar. I.ft $irh no nor. $2n t bn3l'd m'$

ol ffiwlin8r- oI co!6., dtn vou lev' io pur 1

linl. oa.t inb {h* is l.ft. vor h.v. to'n4rn"

srff,un, '

.oh6'on. 'h.

{fl oi th.m' vou m'8h'

AoEI ro.ns. out of.n ruthor'l

h i ;L le.v.n ' r

kul l in l . f ic ' i r 'odi Bd: l l thnoF

nors.tr*ay aom thc l:d th. ruthd'xin'd rtuP_

hne'ntorhc midtof tl th.sord'.nProv'd'ntor

in.-rhcm srh hE gdiur'or hE chr6

br mu*, n uould b. 'idnuros

rc d'ny 'hc

.xkrcncof rndiv'durk *hownrqlndrnvdr' hri I

rhinl tnat. ror bn. ti6., * 1.1*, th' individul

'ho sns down to wia r rn' n rh"ds! or whid

lurlc t 6rbl. 'rft'

Gum6 th'tunnonsor 'h'

ruthoi Wh.i h. wit6 rnddG nor wnt' qh{h'

rl.tdts out, .qn pr.lim'n*v 3LddE Jot th'

mrk. rnd eh.r h. dopr s smPl' hundam R_

mr .t, .ll rhir inarphy o, dilLr'

bv rh. :u'horfundio.. h it hom his n's potnon'

"; .r .*h.,, ,h. h.

-ill irshion-ltom tr h'

dicnt hiv? ,ti4 ton il h. sa'6 d'il, 't

lnv rm'-

d;nill.hrlt Pro6l. ol hs 2!,r.

Conmnurt ldtr.d . ht*dt or d'som*

drcueh th. rdion ol 'n

d"nrlr:tinB rh' rom d

tetiio4 t en n.tt-'lh.ltthor pin'ipk hn_

$! smc chra.. .l?m.n' 'houBh

$':dD' or

rn ldtrt sho* lolm tr rh.r ol indtndanrt 'nd

tfi. IBu' v. hrv. ro r.ognu. u norh" P n<iPr'or rm

nid.d in whrt w. oll, nor .ci

ot'El. H.E 6 y* ,nothd Elrtr' nobil' pin'

;pk, on. uhi.hdrbldut'o 6n

Tll. onuitdon o( &'ciplin" ie iut t3 Fu'h

oD.o!.J ; th. odm.n€rv_prin''d' a n nro$n

i thc $hor opPo*d o th{ of rh' ltr'nor' b'_

eu* di*rplin6 n..l.6n.d bv srouF or obl'c

m.thod5 lh.n olpnr ol Pbposidb. m.. . ini.4l,Y ol ruld

'.

r5t Mrcurlfouc^llr

:.- .:: . r I .|g xll '...on.tiua. .on !'Irc.lt

'v-ikbic !o wtrdv.t

wnh.!. , qncv.r is 1b'. b aarc u* ot rh.nr'

*nll: _ft b.ins,n/ q{cdion oI6cn m.r.ing

or ri.tr -i '

] b.ing d.riv.d :rom *hdvc' hrp_pm.dtotr,$ih.nr.Butth.pdn.iPl*inYolv.din.h. tom:r:-i ol.lrcillin.r 1c.qlillv otpo!.d b

rh.t ol !!..,4.n -+ ln. discip[n.! !nli!. in con'

hdt.ry, wh.i n sopposd at 15. poinr ot d.P.nurc

n nor nf,i n.rnins *hich f,r' b. cdiioe.rd'

nor.n idrr.ig to & r.n.r:r..; ir i5 th! which is

icquicd !r' th. .ontru.mn or n.w *rcm.nti

Fo; t dncirlin. to ditt, thrR mun b. i6. pGsibil-

ity oI formut{in8-a.d ol doins o .d in6ti!'m-

Brt rh.i. i! horc. ,nd tl|.F i3 nor.. ptoblbh in

od.r .har thdc nay b.ld. A discitlin. k not.h'

3um toElolil $. turhs rhlt ,':v b. lncrcd 6n_

cdninsson.ihir$nis noi.v.n rhctoEl olall th,r

mry b. rcpd, by inuc oi ron. Prin.iPl. ol

<ohncnc. and syncmilisltioo, conc(nin8 smc

siv<n hcr or flopordun, M.dicin. dod not cun

iq ot rll $r mry b. ruly !t'd:bnd dn.te.: bots

rsy .,nnar b. d.rin.d by th. sum tot.l oi lb. kuths

onc .ould s.t .bour Plot. Th.rtor .hn, rh. 66r b.inS rhrt 6ot1n,

'nd m.dicin''

lik. otn.r dkciplit.s, cotuit of.106 1s w?ll .t

mrft,.roG rh{ n. in no sly rsidu.ls' or foF

risn bods, buth,vins'h?noM Poss'c tun.fions

:nd rhcnomv:l'd hRrcrv, ch 'hr 'h.n

roka n'

oI cn indilsi*I. Iom rn ol $. tturhi Th'

ottr. r..son n that, lo. 2 Propoeition b bclong ro

bobny or t.rholog', it nu$ f!l6l c.n:in condn

rions, in . $rid.r. moE @hpl.x i6. rhin

rh.t oi Dtrc 2nd sidpl. kuth, 2t 'Dv

r.r.' oth'r

@nd'n;3. Tfi. poPolinon mun El.t ro : sp(ric

fnF of obi.cuj lrom th. .nd ot 6. kv.nrRnth

cn;ry, ror ?a.nPl.,. proP*irion, b b.'6oGn;

ci', hd b b! conc.m.d wiin $. viiibk $o.tur.

o{ Dl B, with i6 !y*.n of clo* and nor $ clo*

chbt.nft:' or *irh tr. b.lFvior ol is tlids; (b!r

ir @ld no lons.r rctr'n,:3 h:d5hll b..n th. c:!.

' ' thc.irt mrh entory, i.Lrn(6 6 i$ $mbolic

rlu. or to rfi. vitu.s d prop.di6 ,@rd.d ir in

annquity), Bui wnholt b.lo.sins 6 t di*iplin.'

a pon$ition R oblig.d b !tl 'z.mnePru:l iroh'

m6s:nd i(hniqu6ol I wll d.6n.d qpci kom

th. ninccnt$ ..nory ot*.rdi, : Proposirion wts

no lonBcr drdiel-ir b.<4. ''on-m.dic,l" bF

.onitrs mor. of 'n

individual i.nt rv o( itd ol

spula iniec'i .it ::.rr!or: aa.!h.:tol o'qr,:j:.tir. '-

.:i -r ',d- -

n Jt .'.r-i lcobscoon'ftnn! ..i i"rd! ,lcs.cn.d plidti in r.tum' ir

@uld-n hd to-,Ppal o.qlally nd.Phorielnotjonq rirolsh mnttuca.l rccordiiB to 1 di6.r

. h ntBl rrd physiolrLlci nodd (6n.ohl

iriE.i. inilr.i,iion oi rhc aey oI d*n.), But

6er ! mor $'l|. lor tu onl.. ro b.lons & : di*i'

Dhn.,: p'oposuon mu* ft i 'rn a anrin rvp. oi

rh.o,d r1l f.ld,5u6( r rordtll 'hrt

fi. qu6r ror

p'imh. li 'surs!,, pcr{.cilt rc(.Pbbl. $m. up

ro 'h..ishRmth

ftnr$y, Ylt.ndgh, rn rh. *c'

ondh.lf olrh. niF'c.nrfi ensrv,b'ourntdn'cotre inb, t hcn:r. to ..y .ro., bu. inio t eorrd

ot chin.rr :nd ro.ririnro pur. Md sinpl. lin-

Within i. ow.limit3,d.ry dncipli.. E@lnk6

io!.nd Lls. p'dposnion!,6u n Epul*t a whobkDtulos:r ol l.:m'ng. Th..tr.i!oro(r $i.ne i!

bath morc, rnd l.$, popul,'.' l thzn on. nish'

rlinb ccn.i.h d.r. is imh..lier. cxp.ri.ne.i63piniry $d6 b.xrin8 on :nd ontinuiuv rc

rcnp:ny'ns rnm.mordl bdi.f5: b pdh:Ps thcicftno.no6r'

'h. ntid!m5.ol

'€n onlr .n.rs. dd b. idoti6.d wi6i' a *dl'

d.6n.d p'c?$i th.r. ar mo.$.'3 on $. Prowr.ho$*', whos. (orns rlEr Pith dt lisrorv oI

lnD"l<dg!, In !hod,. p.oposnion f,u* tul6l som.

ondour rnd .omPk, cnndibo$ b.foE n en b.

.dnir.d *i$iD . disciplin.; b.foG it an bc pro'

nounc.d tur or Iik. it 6!$ 6., .r Mdsi.r cm_

su' lh.m misht sn wnhin th. 'dCi&opl. h". al'.n snd.r.d h@ on r,nh nin+

re.ft*otury botnkB rd biologirts n2n.e.dnoi ro *. rh. truth of M.nd.ll sttt h.nti' aut ity rs rdndy b.eus M.nd.l spotc ol objcds. .r_ploy.d odhodi,nd pl.ed t'im..ll wnhin a rh.o'

ftiielp.i3p.ctiv. toElly rli.n to th. tiolog' oflti!

snc, But 'h.n.

Nrudin h.d itrgc.lt?d ft:i h.ftdi'

hr/ t..i$ co.niFEd r 3.p.r.t d.h.ht b.lochiq' .nd yct, io*.v.. f,ov.l ot lnlzniliar rb.

Dnnriel.mry h.v.ben, it B n.v.nhd6!r.con_;il$[ il o'lr s rn ..is-., *'th bialo$ol di\'

cou6., M.nd.l, o. ih. oih?r hand, tnmrncdl lhtt

'G.olBd crnsuilhlm 16 r9ol)' f..i.i fiinonr ol d-

'cnpi lolirn Md&l (r3::-q), ABrtir s!di<j"

'ah-i.,vns. N.odin lttrt-te), rmcl bornii

hftdn.ryr s onlntut'd an 'bsolurclv

n'w b'o'

loc r lobt( f t ,n l ' r u : hr : : r r unL'L r ' ' rm.r-et,.*, t'.,t.*n.a'n , rromsF

'ns ldr rhc

!r tr;' nms rhdn ' i< r n \hL.h nb'

srcA bdnr rh* i!6nnct ' 'n

{'d or !6d!

ii. in which h.i.dn.rv r t aPpt* and os3P'

o.rr erh tFtuhc.l ksdlrnrv Hcro ti r.o'w

lbi.d, -lr,"s

i.r *s -"p-n

i'k .id ror

l,.rh thror.i,crl rounJrrionr'

r(h, bu' h.lr nor rds l. -'i{Nh'n 'h'

rrr

ol onknponr) b'olosialdi!'orE : tr enrprv 'a

no' :lonrrfth I'nd'hi ubtds3ndbiolosrcrrcon_

cDEv.r( fom.d A *hol! ch'ne'in sdk th'de

"6vn.n.of. toDlly ncw r'n8' o

; vr kqutd bdorc Mmd'l rculd dicr mo

'i; ruc.nd hR Pmpdh'on' 'PP

Dtd.dlci. M.nd.l w8, tu' mo

;hlt ('cne @uld nor.vrn poP'rlv sp'rk ot hrm

And v.i Scli.id.n, for .rnpl'' 6nt/ v"re "n'cr'd.nr;nr, !r rhc h.ish' ol rh' nii'korh (ntul]i

*s;'"b1.*.r,liq **.o--i' ' i"Bio mor' thrn'

dR.ipl,dcd -or''h; nsas po$'bl. on"uuldsptrk i

' krth In,

, rordt onr Po,ld onlY bc in rh'

on! obcf.,l ' l ldul6 ol !om' disdrr'. |onq

{hi.h would hav.b & r.adivrtcd dc'I tm'oo'

sook.,lrkqdlin6 !ontLtorc, tt'm o{ coniior 'n

th'

Droduc;on ol dnouE . 6r'ns iR limnr rhru'3h

;[r idonol inid.ntiry ul'nBd' rom or a permr'

n.ntk:divr on ot thr 16

Vr rtnd tos. in,n:uthoisf'rtilirv rrh'mur_

hrli.'ryofonm€nt:n6 3nd In rh' d'doPmdi.d

: dRC'Dlin. s hinY in6nrcr'ru

rhc (rc:nun of dtr@ud' Pc'hrr

nomth.l$ prim'pl6 ofcotrtrm"nd tr tr proF

ihh lmDo$ibh o rprr..i:t' th'n p$inv' mltF

pl'obi rch wrhot frnt uhn8 inro cod'd{r'

hon rh.ir rcsndi!.' rcnncrirng roK

T6{. E, I b.Ls.' i thtrd sroup'r rur's qdLnE

b odml ds.ow* Hse. *ct' nolongtrd"rng

$lth th. mrkrv o( tir' pd'i! conirmcd wmn

tl6our., nor $nh:E{ins th' hrad oI ds:F

o!r,rn4; ii is mar. '

qr<aion 'l

ddtrdLnrngm'

:o.dhont und?t slu(h i' d'Y b"mpbt'drd rm_

Dos,nc , c.n',n ndflb'r ol 'uk!

upon 'hor

In_

iivid;:|3 *ho .LnPIuv k rhus drniins "ss

to

lMznhir!J,!ob sd|.ii<n Gso{-si) c(flln boFnkl

evdoncel!. This rmounuro r rrRltdon zmong

, . . i 'q, ,uJ. ,"i , , - ' r r .

r - ,*" q hr! 5- ; i r r c 'd l rn i i r

rL,irunr or I I'r s troq lrom Lltcour(L qurrh'd io

do o Mort u *tL', nor rll rdr ot dKolr* n'

6cl! u.m :d Pqtrr:bk: sm' rc tortr@rn

""';a 1.1'lt-*i.*d md difi'oiitn8J whi'

dh.is -c

rLnunl" opci ro Lh' smds 'no

srno'

rtrh"d ""' p"o, (rmcrions opdLd rrl

Hft. I {o, Ld [l'. ro rc'odnt '

rnk norY ro

bcruntul I hr r mrv Ydl b' ru' It'nompr$'r

rll thc connnru ol d'<ou s': tho* hmn'nB rE

sw{t. rho.c onriouins $ ch'ne rPFrdnG

;'d rhc. *hich $ldr non rmons 3p'*'ns slF

iccG. Ar ttE b.sinninS oI rh' d"i'dth 'mF

t'

ih. Shaun h.,rd kll o( EurcP'

nriE ii;n, rcmn{(' Polid( "d th' mrrurv

'd rn,l

'hl ,hB wd df rc 6cir knovr'ds' d

m,$.mrh6. H. wrnkd to obbin rhn pte@J

[no{l.da.. Whm iomsn' rold hiF ol tn bg'r3h

qibr D;ssqd ol 'hir

n:Bclous d*ou* h'

5rmm;ncd h'm rc htr prl&c 'nd

r'pr hid 'h'E''rhc sbosun rook l6son' frcn lh

"ie :ri lrmili"i3.d htm f ;'h mrh'n:ha

,lk. whEh h. rcHrn.d poscr rnd liEd m '

!'rt

old de l! w6 no' unul rh' ninRmthGNrv dar

thG w( lar,rot mth'mz;'irih"cndot 6. rnddoF ior n hrt

'E LuroPan 19

o{t s ,.ll Tfi( *ort h* ir thn rh' Etrslsh !:r4'

wt ,ra... *." , oIp'ntt 'nd

r 'trtodrdrd

Harmqwork.d'n t lhiPvlrd h' h:{t krmr 3'om'_

F. c;n s. n? 't

$n miisnE rh' aPHbn!'

o;. of rh. so' nyfi' oi tumP':n dloftr b

rh. nonoFlilbq ECd Lmsl'dg' ol ondd rvr

,nnx Eu;p. oPpo$d th' trniv'Erl onmmsmn

of ldosl.dg! 1n.l r|[ infinn'lv lE 'rchrns'

d

Thir dotion ddr no( in hG n d !P to (16'

.rmi.aian Exchrng' rd oFnudaf,on e

Dorniv. (orc6 ar pl.v *nhit @rpl'r b* 6tnc_

ilc syrcms; t is Prob:blcth:t tn

isdcD?ndenilv of rh'n Th' nd $e'hln ::'c

obv;u! of rh6( ft n;di" sY!Em

sh* N.dlkcnEb rcf6rc n ritulir nNtrdcdrs

th. aut'fiduoneEqutr'dotd' epakd (ot*ho m

d'n;suc. inkrosaron or NiErion thourd d_

tupy-wh'.h l]oirion rnd lomuh" whi'h rlF d

n""-*4i nl,t.d@n Bdtu(rbb'-:&'Fn"_,"trr. cr mibnccs ,nd

'hc ehoh nn8! d n8N

rh:' m'( :c."mp"ny,l6.our*i 6n:llt' tu lrv5 dom

rJ6 Mrcfl.L rouuult

r1'. $pps.4 or impo!.d sis'ificrne ol th. Nnls!..d, d'.ir.{cd upon rhoic to whom ih.y arc.d-d6*il, .lE linibrioDs oI thci! colsnirirs vrlid-i+ n.ligjour disoun., iu.idi.t .nd

'h.t.p.uti.s wlt $, in lorc s.ys, politi.al dis@u6. rr..ll b.r.ly dirsiahlc God rhc tuntioning or a ritsui ih.t dd.nin.! rh. individut rrcp.diet dd.gr..d bl6 of th. ryc.lec.

A .ith.r di(.r.ft iu.ction is fillcd by f.llow_sl pt o{ .li5ou6c', rho$ function is ro Ptr.*. orro r.proJue dncou6., huiin ordq rhd n lhoDldcirdl.tc wirhin . dokd conauniry, a.ording to$rict rcgulitio.s,withoutdo.c in po$esion b.ingdbp6ec$.J bt this vcry di5iribudon. An r(tuicnod.t o{ rhn vould bc rhose group! oI &h,PsGdns, pos*$ins knowl.dsc ol po.dt to iecn. ot,4cn, upor wlicn to {ork vt.i,nans lnd mns,ornrio.s. Blr dous! th. unimt objcd o{ thntnowl.ds. vrs .iMl r.i6riot, it ulr Pror.d.d.rd prcs!.d witl n r dtrminrt 8duP, by ih.,otu!.*rcm.ly ompkx! .:.rcisd ot neBory im-

D,i.d by ilcb '

p.oc.s- App.dtiBhip gain.d t_.6, boih to

' gtoup and to I s4rc! sbich rena-

don n.dc F:nile*, boidia no:dilulg. The rol.rolrp.aking add lisani.g *erc not intcfth,n8.abl€

Fs sncb i.lldsnipr ordis.ousc rcdain,{nhth.ihmbisuous int ahyors.&tcyindd;.losur..But do norb.deciv.d;.vcnin eu. dkcou*c,lydir rh. oid.r of pubGh.d dncouse, l.e. from all rh'ml, s. srill lind secRlrpp!6pn.rcn and non-inr.rchDsdbility rt *orh. Ir couldoobelh*tbe.d of vriiiog, :s ft n inniruiiomlis.d iodln rnhiti h@k, ib publishins stsEd lrd th.p.Go.alityol rh. eriEr, cus wnhin I ai(us., /ct co.{min_irs, f.llo*ship oI discou$e.' lrr. $pararcnds olrh. erica ontinu1]ly oppo!.d to lh. a.riviiy ol ,llotlu vdrins .rd spekins i!bi.d!, rfi. intan-ririv. .linctd n. lmds o his di5ou6.. rh. lund$ndEl sinsularity h. hs lons 3cord.,l o wri!ing', ih. a6m.d diisyonetry b.Ne. icr.*ior'

.nd:nyus.ollinglnictyn.ms-3ll thLdanil!6in is fo.nultion ($d t!nd! nop,nt r[. intftplry of rh.!. frcb6 i. grlctia) sdGane ol ! aitrin 'lcllowlhip of discou6c.Bui rh.r. {. m.ny o.hd$ lundioning rccordi4 tocnrirdy dif.cn! s.|.mis oi .x.l6ivtt ibd disclo_suB on ii,o.ly to ihink oi tcchnisl lnd $icn'ti6c Gr6, of thr fortu of difusion and cnd_I.don in m.diel dirc.u6., of ih.5?

'[o have

lPpbp;3cd .@nonic or politiel dncours.At fcr sisht, docrin.'kdigio!,, pohici!. Phil'

o$pl cJ) would cs D co.$iiut. rh. v.ry Gvd$ of, 'Gllovsiip oI discous.'; Ior lnong rh.lait r, th. nuobd o, sp.alec *.t.. if not fix.d, rl.d linir.d, .nd n $as 2md.g ftis .!nb.r fizt,ik.in,^! w2. :llow.d ro cir.ullr. end b. ransmit.d. Dati!., on t[. od.r h.nd, r.!ds b difution:in $. loldinB in.oonon oir sinsL.tu(mLl. ordi*ous. that iodividuds, !s 6any I yo! $nh,@uid defift then r.ipro.tl all$i.nE. Ir .pp.i.a!c., rh. sol. r.qnirit. ii lhe ..cqlinon ol dr.s.d nu!h. ,nd ri. !cc.pt!tc. ofr ccd.in r!le-hon or k$ fl.riblc-oi contormity wth viid.rddkrinM. l( n wc'. 1 qu.$ion oI iur rhr., doc-dn6 would lirely b. .ny dilirr.rr ldm t.icn_ti6.:di{iplin$, and diieBiv. co'to' suld bcitm.rrly on rh. fom or snEnr of wh.t wx !n.r.d,rnd no. on thc ape.l.i Dqtin.l in.tdc., how-d.i, involv.. h.6 rp.*.t .nd th. spol.n, th. on.throusn th. othci Th. rpctldn! subid ir involv.ddrqush, 2nd .r a r6ult of, th. rpok.n, 6 n d.Don-stltd by t!. ru|.. ot.xclusion lnd .na rj.diotn..11'kn b.e8h! into play wh.n . sp.ak6 to.huldd on.. or d.ny, in.$i'ilrbl. uttrltc.3iqudnoB of ld.ry .nd unordodoxy i. no $5yaris. olr of tautiel .xter.rltion of dckin.lm.cn,nisms; ih.y.r. a fundsn.nElPld or rh.m.Btri .o.vcseu dddn. involvcs $. !ftr.n6 orsp.rle6 in rh. kn3! rh.r docni.. isr p.mrnmdtrh. sign, d. 6:niie*ltion dd th. ictun.$ of.pdor dh{c.crrdi.r.ne to. chs, to 3 *ialor irciJ $atus,io2 nnionalityora. int.6qro.sruggle, r r.rck, r.sCttn.e or acccF e. D*-liin.links indiyid!:ls b en.in typ.s o{ uasrnccwhil. onFqucndy b.dng rhm ftoD aU oin.i!.Dcaine .fe6 . durl lubi.cnon' dat or rp.*ingsu6jecc !o dnco!6., rnd tlur of dis.o.6. o lhe

s@p, 3r l.Ti vituall, ot sP..k.is.Finalln on 1 dtrd broad.r sdla, w. hrv. ro r._

@gni,. th. greir cl.ayas6 in sfiiton. mishr cilrhd socirl app'opriition ol dircou6c, Edu@rio.tui *ell bi, rs of rishc in. irstruD.ni *hscby.v!ryiniividual, in 2.oci.ty liLrouroxr,.an s.inmi.$ to in/ Lind oldi5coua!- Rut wc w.llknowrh{ in i, dn btrdon, in sh.! it p.mis .nd inwli.t ir pr.v.nts, n lolld* ihe w.llt dd.n banl.'lir.! oi bdi confiict, Ev.rt.duclioral sy5tm i!: iolidol oc,os of m.intiining oi o{ nodiavi.g$c .pp6p.irtion of diko!6., wi$ lhd knowl.ds.rnit rl. pow.s ii erri4 dtl' ii

i rm wll ,nr. oirh.lb$rdion I !t P.dorminBsb.n I $prde, 6l nav. jus do.., r.rbd ituts,

'rellowrhifl oIdirou6., ddnnrlsroups rnd so'

rirlloDloDriirion.Mo{oith. m'rh'vrr' I'nrrd

rokrid.;otrrsinB sdt edi6ar 'ht

dirnibd'

r;,t.d.mnsth.drf.i.n' rvPdaIdi*oda :nd

;hi.h.ppopnr. thd. rvp6 or dnodh' 'o

d'

bin orcsond ol tubFd ln lw

rh6.,E th. ml,n 'ul6

lor th' 3

.oorf. whtt R u n.dudnonil iv

.or 1 drull's.non ol .wordri,notrqui'krnon

ol tom. tuineo{nks (orrPdl€Ei irnor rhco'

rntunon ol . (drttur)dmrinrl srcurr * nd '

dre

ribunon and rn ttProtilion o

,l iE l.rmh! md 'R

Pow*!? whr-a wnrmB

h[I.l sti(R] not t tinihr lormd subFnon'

;.rhip! r.lins dA.' ,lir{. 1d6' but}hdr

nrin nr6s xr. nrdhd.s .nrlqrusr Miv $'

.or.ko s.v .har !h. judici.l ryr'o' a' wetr "

In'

*nudoml;cd h.di.im. @niiFi' sinilar svn'ns

io h. tubi(rcn o(di3ou6'?t wondduh.rhsr atuin numbsor phros'pF

iel t$.m6 hr. .oi conc to @nlotm ro $$ lc-

dviry of limit.tion and.xclusio' t'd P'rhaps 'vcnbr. 'n lorEiL

Thdmnron, firot of 'll,

bt Propoiing rn id"

mrh r r l.{ of dsouR.. Jnd rnimm$'ni E-

donrlrry 6 rh. pirncipl. 'I

th'ir b'h'sor rh'v

eomplny, m, tn .thic., rnNkdSc .pronrriEtrurh onty rc th. d.,ift fo. ru

bor.r ro $int ir.' Thcy th?. go on b Einfor' $k {tivirv bv

d.na.sth. lP.ofc ctiq olduou6' In g'ndn

Ev( 'm

th. .rdBion ol rh. 'cnqrv

rno mn'

mec ol $? iolhtrR, .v.r sina Ih'n p'r&ox6

Kr. muzl.d, mor. or Ic$ *cdrcl' n wour srm

thr v.6cn ftoush h$ *m rc n iMr d'*os*

l'. ..min.d 1, lidl. rcon 't

P6nbk bdt'n

{;snt lnd dd! k would rpP'rr to hn< 'h_

,uJfi:r to r'nad. 'hoJd

sPP.:r mrdy rt r

etui. iNri6non bcNcnlP"riis'nd th'nr'nst

d,ri n should (on*iok DuBhn chd in tB tgns

$d erd.rd Ysibl. bv Mrdt or. rcNcud/ ih:l

th. rmdG ol t.ngurs' rhem*lE3 sholrd b'

bbushi rb plrt, P'oducing I c'nnn 'tr'c

or

m.rnrngThR v.d r.ckni .lil ion ot

'h' x rv oI atr'

.ouEc it ohiloophicJ thou8lt ha hkn m:nv

Iomi in r coun. oI bist6+ w' hra tann q!'6

tEmrty in tn.8ui* qt 6inv dtmd nN ltminr

'oi1*.,,o-.'r,.,r".,r'...;,r'.to"'a;g*u'id p(m'B ur ro.l'dc

' rcrlitv or

'Ji3'ou6' rh'

rldr ol 'h.

found'ns6uhj.fl ii 'o

rnimr' o"mpq

Iorms ot hnsurS. qnh his obi.c'iv'rt 'hrdsrr

rh'

rhicLnd ind 6cnh ol.mFtv rhinB!'h'3rrsp! rh_

oir.tv ih. n.rninsr lvin8 sithin rh'n b'vond

rim.. li. ind'cr'6 . frdd ol m'r'in83-l':s'n&

hN"ry io mrlt. th(m.tplrn-in whid ?ropot'

rioni s'.nc6,.nd d.du.tiv.'n*nblcr urhmndv

6rd rh.,r ioundr,on ln this rchuonshrP wro

mdn'ns, 'h.

foundrns rubt(r h:5 ti3t5' nl're

Erck5,1.fl.8 n [i! dBpoel But

ro d.non*rr. ths. p.sinB dougn th' qngurrr

io{an@ ol dncoure.'tlt. oDos'ns th.n. rhlr of originlnng

'rPca_.ncc Dl.vt rn Jnllosour tol' Thit r$'iE m rh'

cK; dp-knc thr dd h.loE n ouid b'

a.r!p.d in 'h.

fom olr.osno Prb'tsnrhc oi

; !;m. s:t rl*rdY sPoLm w

$r Md4 tmRrins n rll 'bout

.urdmid.o6ibl.' od of primniv'rft ognrhon

Ths,. prim3ry ompli.itv wnh rh' *orld rouids'

tor us. r Fs,bil'ry otsp':linB" 'xP'n'm''

s tri

rc d6'cn:k ,nd n:m. ir' rc jud8F n :nd hnrrl, io

!bo* i i. rhc fom oI mlh tl th'r' ir dnerM

wht ould k l.eitio,&lv b' if noi '

disdd' ttd_

ina? Th,ns' mumur m.,nin8t ou hn8sg' Mr

mcr.lv @ .*r1c'i lrcm is mo$ pnnrhv' *gln'

nins!;th$hns!:s. "* rlrc:dvwhisP'n4o u!d

r b3ncof which n ro'ff d'' sr'rdon

nrih.m.ofun'v.st m.dDnon i,'t bcli* v'l,""fi m.nnd ol.lid'ns $.

'el'rt ol dncour(

And rhn d.ry{. rppa:'rnc6 At 66t sight n trurd

cn that, to disv.r rh. morm'ni ot a rogpr

.v.r'*h.r. .l.vrnn3 'nsuhrid's

in'o conc+6 n

n:lh cn:blinq imd.di.r. on(iodm* o &Pnv

.[i\.nionalirv in fi.wond n '?d:inlv

ro prtc'

dnconE. n th. anR ol sPsbn

fii5lo16 i! r.:llYonly tnother di

oRrrLn. or nthd, n k thnst tnd d'nB $'n'

;lv.r *Ai.i t'."t6lv hdn' dnou'R 'n $'

unfoldim.f 'h.

6rd .l &cr'r' Di@u* tr no

lom* m-uch norc rh:n rhc shrmm'rinB or r rtu6

.b;rrob.bon in,Rom"dirnduhd irrhhst

6m.Rdtodlv ook'rh' fom ol dirduE ' *h'n

d.rythrs ma h. nrd mil wh'n rnv'hmgb(omd

h.rd$ 1or Drcnouncins. di*o

os. nl thrit hrms o'irlEkd rnd '*h:n3d

m.rflns, ih.Y * l'h.n rllb'rb

slcnt inFnoniv ol $ll @nsiousffir' ..whcdr* is in. ghilo$phv ol t rouid'n8 tnD_

r..t. , ph,tGophv oI otiSinrine 'rp"ide

or '

philooihy .f '"iv.Rt

m'dhnon dr<uro' tr

r58 Mrc!.'.rouc^uli

rcdlr only rn triviri, o{w.iringin the 6r:r cas., otcding in rlE Gord ,nd .rch2n8. ;' d. r6td.Thit.rch,ns., lhn wrnins, this R.ning n.v.r i!'volv..nythinsbuttsnr. Dn.or6. thus n!lli66 n'scll, in r.:!iry. in pl..inE nsdf r rh. dilpolll of rh.

VAai civihztion, in .rp.ann.., his $ownoar.

'6p?ct iow.'dr di$ou.e ihM olr own)

Vh.r. hr! n b..n mo.. rd bed.r honolr.d?wt.n h.v. h.n d.p.ndcd noE . i.,lly, rpp*.nrly, upon iE conicinsrd iR rnir.R.l.h.F.tr, Bu! ii sRni ro m., . aitdn t r hid.s b.hindrhi. .ptar.n. slprch.c/ ..cord.d, thL :pp,rentlosoplili!. h G !i rioush $.€ tr6od. tllli. baFd.^, r$r6hold. and linit! w.E d.libmr.ly dn-pos.d in ordcr, !t l.a$ pzith bn.sEandcortolrh. e..ar prolif.'ario' of dnmuAe, in such . w.y .rto r.li.E n. nchtu$ of ns Fo$ d2nsc'ous .L-m.nc; to ors.nis. ns dGoder $ .s .o sk.!. mu.dft non lncontolLbl. arpKt. k j3 6 rnous!pcopl.nid *ant d ro.liae .ll n c.oriBirruprior;no rlr r viiy of our thousl'i rnd l.nsu.s.,'ll '.r. is uadoubt.dly ir our s;.iy, trd t *ouldnot b. surprn.d b rR ir in orh.c, thoush ukingdiii.crt forms.nd modcs, r plofoud logophobi,,e son of dusb f.,r of th.*.v..$, or rhG m1$ otspo!?n $insr oI.v.rythins tn,t ould posibly bcviol.nt, dkcondnuoui qu.rulous, dnold.rcd.v.b{d p.rilous in n, oI th. inc65rnr, diso.ddl/ buz'

lf wcwGh-lvilloor,ry.o.(ac?{k Lrr-buib .r.Ds n in is condniofi is activitr .nd i..fcct, I b.li.v. w. frst r6olv. onc.!v.s ro ,.&pt.hrd d.cisions enici our cuftnt rinljn8 B.h.r.ddsror6bi,rdrnicib.lorsto th.thr.sroup,ol {unction I 6!v. jud ndriob.d: to qu.iion ourwiu o rrut6; to r.$or. b disourk ib cirr,ctr :rrn d.,ri to lbolnh ih. ld.r.ignry oI fic si3ni6.r.

Tbcs. .E rh. t.sb, or rnh.r, soh. oI th. rh.hawlicl will 8ov.rn n, mrl in rh. y..6 llled. on.an st2tlt .wzr disinsui.l som. ol ihc n..l'od-ologial d.na.ds th.y inply.

A pri.cipl. of rdft4 6Et of all, Wl'.rc, .ccord-ins b drdarion, w. irink *. r.osnii $. sold ofdi!@uF., tn piocipl.r b.hiDd iG llourniils 2ndondnui9, h rhoE 6ctoB whid san o plly rp.sitiE reL, ch !r rh. .urhor, disciplin., will ttn.h, w

'trd .athd rcmsnic ih. n.8itiv. lcdvny

of rnc eninsront .nd nr.l2c.ior of dt@urk.Buq on.. E hd. diiinglirfi.<l th.s prin.ipl*

of nr.fidion, on.. w. h,K dasd onsid.dng

th.n.i. lunJdcnt.l rntlo.,tr.:.!ion,*h'dDv.discavd b.hinrl tfi.m? Should s.

"8irn rhd r

soild of rninanupkd diicouE. sould b. vinuauyompd., Tlir i: wh... *. fity. b binS othcrnFAodologiol p.incipl.s inb ph,

Nqr, rhcn. rh. pdn.ipl. ol &.o'rt'!ir. Tn..rist.na ofsyi.N of rrr.fiction dcs nor implyth,! ov.. a',i 6.yonil rh.fr li. src{ vistar ol !nn-nh$ dn@uc., cohiinuo$ end sil.n., r.pr.$.dand driv.n b..l by rhcn, mrkin8 ir our nrk to:bolish $.m .nd { I.n b rstorc i. .o rp..ch.wi.rh.r talling in t rmi of .p.iltin3 or thinling,*. nln .or im4in. sn. u..rid lhing or rn u.-fiousn! flodinB Aod in. world, im.rla.ins $nr,! ft lorm.nd .v.nG, DGcours nun b. GaGd* . disonrinuour aciiviry, is digulnr nrnitBb-tioE omdimo cominB toS. r.r, but j!$ .s .asily!nN.rc ot, or.,cludins crh oth.r.

Th. prin.iplc ot ip'.,r.,.r d.d,6 thd . Frticut,rdisotr& ennor bc r.blv.d by. prior syrrm ot sisnifcrtionsi rh.t * rholld not iD:gin.rL2t thc wo d pm*rt us wi$ a l.sibl. t e, 1..!'ingB mady to dcciph.r n; ir dod noi *nk handinelov.wirlwhtwc.lrc.dyknowth.r.irnopft -dii.lriv. Iitc dnp*in8 th. {od jn our i.su., rv.

mu* .onc.iv. discourR T r vioLn.. lh.t w. do brhiqs, o',

' aU

-!ns, is r pbciic. q. idpos. lpon

th.mj ii n i. this thdic. tlw th? dlns ol dncolE.6.d lh. p.incipl. of th.ir r.sukri+

Th. foldh p.inciplc, d:r oI ai.'b'tl, holdsih,i w :r. nor to bu.b{ to tb. hidd.n orc oI dis-couc.,b$.n.rdolth.tfi oushtorn.dinsmnii6ied in iti id$..d, i.kin8 th. dih!r.. i6.r, ns.pp..r.nc. and iB r.s!l.r'ry, th.t w sfiould l@Lfor nr .ftm.| @nditioro of .ri3tdc., tor rh2rwhici 8iv.s rir b th. clunc s.rjd oI th6. a.rs

Ar th. r.gulabry prircipld of aniysi!, thm, w.hrt. Iolr nodons: .e.n. !.ri.& rcsll.rjty d lLcpo*ibl. onditio.s of.xki.ne. Tm lor ftrm w6nd rh. notior ol d.nt oppos.d b ild oI cr.,tion,ih. p6sibl? dn<litio.! o{.rGih.? oppoeins riB.nifsiion. Th.e tour notion. kigniidnoi, on8i.n.liry, !niry, cG.tion) h.!., in a fairly 9....21 {,y,doEi.,rd tn. @dirionrl hnery ol idar; by Bd-.al l8cn.nr on. bu3hi rh. poi'r of.c*ion, lh.nnitr oI ! sorlq oi r p.riod or ! thd., on. Imk.d,l$ lor ih. nrrk o( individnal oisir2liir nd !h.irnnn \e[h of hidd.n octines.

I souu lil. b 3dd jur so ftnrli ih. fd ofvhic6 d..dr hietort V. G.qlcddy.r.dn con

r. 'hpoFr)htr torywrhhMngrcmo.J . 'ndnid

u:l .knt lron n! nn!'l.E d pd\ition :nd Prh

hiyinsr.v..l.d.h.mor. cndurins*ru.rt.solhi!rory. Thr i, o.l i$ not suic' ho

'i.;,hav.b..n wortins inrhisdnccrio. alonr' Or'

d,hd, I do nor rh'nl. on. dn oproR th. 'd.nri6o

non of lh. ,ndn,durLe\ent ro rh n: lFi c l lons

t ro t.nds quit. .o ncdy On th. 6h@rv' n

s..ms ro n.;.t it it in 4!..,i.s tn. indiYidtral

.v.ni in dir(iing rh. r.lolrinA powct oI hLroric.l

a.!!in onb olSci,l pdcFln6 (,".!'i,LJt ii '

dddi, p'rirh k3r.6. ro hrrbo

ly*dydrbyy.rrrndwRlbv Kk th. t r .8 ' 'du'

;llr p.{.isrb.yond barrlci d.o$oi. dvn$'ni

rnd .$obli.t-th. .m.l' ne oi rhG. mse!'ph.nomcnr ofs.uh. or mul'i !.cular inpod.n"

ilurory, * r n pHcti*d 'od1).

d@! not rn iB br.r

on.(nBi on thcconrrtry, tr R (onrinurllt .nl' 'g_

in! 6c icld of d.n6..oNhnnv discov{ifl8 n.v

hi.u-md.$pdichta s.llitmareprofon'd-in..$andy isol.intg n.* .n5.mbl.r-d.ns nx_

Fcoui d.6. td inr4ch,ns.abl. d rlre.ndd*

c{iv!: lrod &ilt Prie nuctu*jons to $cul:t ian:'

tioni Vhat k lisni6cant k lhrt hktorv do6 nor

.onsid6 ,n .vent wi$oli dc6nins thc krier rorhi.h r brlonss, q rhou'.p.oflinsih?mdho'l of

rnnFir us.d, wnhour *ctrnsodr rh. rtguhrirv ol

oh.nom.nannd lb. pobibtsliniE oI rhcit occuF

;cnc., *ithoui cn,tuning ahcui 'ari{ions, in0.x_

ions .nd ih. slop. oI thc qw., rnhour d6ning

b lno{ thc condnioN on thich rhcn dlp.nd

Hnbry hrs loig sinc. ibandoncd ns aftmps to

rnddtund .v.n6 ir cms of cau$ and elien in

ti. lornl.$ utiiy of soa. grat.voluroiirv Pro'e$, wh.th.r vlsu.ly homos.n.ou! or risidt hi' 'archi3.d. lt did not do ti,ir in ord.r o k.k our

*ructur.s anr.riot ro, ali.t ot ho$il. to ih..Y.ni

k s.s r{h.r in ord.r ro ?sailish ihos. divds. on-

4l3)n& hd sm.rim6 diqg.ni, bs n.krdrcn'omo8 i.ri.e th{ .nrbla ut ro ordm(nD. hc

1dt of 2n .venr, th. [mn, b i6 nuidi9 rd rh.

conditio* of its .6.rg.ne.Thc btd.mco!,l notiont..w iDPo*d rFn uj

.r. no lons.r rhG. of on$ioBns .nd .o'rinlirt(Nirh rh.n @r.l2riw pohl.ms oa lib.nv tnd ou_

s.liry), no. ,r ih.y $as. oI tisn :nd $rnctur..

Th.y rR mnons, 'dh-,

ol s.nu :nd ot tr;d\irh rh. sroup ol noions link.d to th6c ir ir

.round such an c.sdblc rh3i thir r.alFG oI die

ou6.l m dinkinSofi: aricul,td, ediinll not

upon tho$ kdniond $emd *hicl ti. Phrldo_

Th. D6.ort. an trngtus. r59

rhcF oI th. pa$ bok Ior'liviaP'hi$oP. but o' rh'

.fc6ir work oI hisiori.ns.But n is rko ncrc rh3t rhn,nilvrc F(d son''

irob$ly i*son. philosophicil or th@d;al

!,obl"-". li di'-,66 !e b bc !ftd 6ct d .n_

efrbl.s of dncusiv. .v.nb. *h.,c.ord thn roiion oI.vcni, so r1(ly trl.n inb 6n_

sid.rdon by philoopb€61 Of rcud, :n ddr i,

n.nh.r 6ub$ane. nor rdd.!t, nor qu2liit nor

eroa$; .rcn$ atc nor d.poral. And v.n n 4Dri".dhinlv nor imsaidial: ii bl6.[..! 6GonB

.(.d, .N;F an i'. ld.l oi n:Eridi+ rMs h'v.

$cir plne; th.y @n*t in ftlod to'.d6eK

vi.h, dnp.6ion oI, th. sosc[cting admull_

do. .nd fic eldiiot ol ntri.l .ld.d.i n e_

cu6 .s an .6.d of, znd it, Datri:l dnp.nid, td

u! *y rh,t rh. plulsotht or d. ihould :dtra

in dc dtrdloq*6ntish p.ndotiel,oltn in_

sdr.il nt 'irl!E,

lI, on $c othr h.nd' dit

c;iv. adt r. to b. d.ali with .! I'onoa.nM!'

bur disco.rinlo8 &ri6, shar sbtut aE u b .c'

@rd dn dilco.tinuiryt H{. fl 1( not d.aliflsvith a suadsion of ind.nE i' tin , nor *id! rhc

rluriliiyofihjnrinssubj.ci wirtisoncrn?dtt.thos c,6ura. brcrlins th. i.$rd and disp.6i.e

lh. lubi(t in d muliplicitt ot Posibl. positionr

rnd n,inonr. Su.n . dilconinlitv ril6 and iF

vilidaks th. lmrlld uni6. eadiiionally Ed8ni$d

lnd rhe le.n rcidlly 6nr.ncd, ri. irn. r'd di.bjcci Beyond $.m, idd.F d.o( of rh.rt w

'nu* conc.ivc-b.Mcn th6. dnondnloE 506

o{rthtions*hich xr. not in.ny ord.r ot!!.esion(orsimuh3Deiq)*ithin any {or se.r:l) @sjolend$-and w. h!* ehbosk{utid. of phi_

losopl,ies ol.m. td bjat 2 $.orv of dirmn-

iinuous sy$.mxti$iion. Finilly, it 't

i. tuc thttrh.F dis.!Fiv., dGcootinuous &ti6 hev. th.nrcsulrriry, r(hLn ..trtn I'mirs, it 6 cl.rrlv no

ions.i pdibk ro 6trbl,sh m.chlniollY duel

li.l( or id.al n.esiiy .bo.s ih.jr onsrib_

ivc .l.mcns, w. mun acepr i$. intodudion of

chanc. $ a ecSory in tlll produdid o{ 4n6Tii.r. rgrid, *? lel th.3bsnd ot. rlort mb'

line us to 6neiE 6c linl, b@d chfc. a.d

lnih.,.M th't thir ddd.r wdg.l inbd o

rlip ino the hntory ol idat @$irb roi in d.rli.3

"nh manins. p.*,bly ths b.hind t!i! ot th,t

d4nd6., but ri'h discou*c rr '$ur.r

kfl6.nddistincr cvcns, I Lar I rc.agnis. in tlis *Gdgl . t.v

{odiaus, ioo, p.rh+t d.vi.a p.milring rh. inlro_

t60 MrcEL!o!c^slr

iludio., ioro rh. v.ry r@B oI tfiousfit, ol noddtrol .tdrt , dk.ontiwi,

^nA n&.tidlilr, 1\is tcp-

|sts r uipl. pail which on. Fdicular lom ollistory rn.mps ro aven by rccolnring rh.codtinu.ous lnlol<ling oI som. id.:ln.essi+ Aur ihty,r.th... notiols *hich oushr io p.mn us to link rh.hinory of ry$.ns ol th.ushi io ilie prictic,l wor!ol ikrolhnr; ihrt. direnion5 ro b. t l,os.d ir !h.wo* ofrnerdicxl clabori on,

FollosinB.!& principld, end relldiry to thisov6dl vifl, rlE ,naly&s I irdd ro urdcdal. fxllinto Mo group,, O. $. on. hand, rb. onielsroup which s 6. r.v.Brl-principlc to worl. Ish:ll :eDpi b .lktinsukt th. fomr .f .x.hBion,liBit.tion.nd approprhrion of *hich I w?s sp*k-ingeni.r; Isn, try io slDw how rh.y rrc ion.d,in znswr io Niicl n&ds, low rh.y 8c modii.d.nd dnpl.@tl, ,hid on*raints th.y hav. .(.c-drly .x.rcised, io whar .xr..t ihq hrv. b..rmrt d @. On ihe orh4 [,id, rl. gen.llogical

s.oup, qhich brin8r rh? thr.. orh.r p.in.ipl.s i.roplat: how s.ri.s oi discou^. are Iornrd, ,hrough,ir spir. oI, or witl IIe aid ol s. sys.m! ol.on-sFliri: whr. *d. rhe sp.cific nords for .ach, andwt,. *.r th.n.ondirioB otapp.iane, s6sih

T.ling ih ditiel sroup 68r, I prcliminrygoup ot inv.$i8.lions 6uld 6.1r on wn.i I firv.dcsigFtdtunctoBof .xclurion. I hav.ak.2dyd-.min..l o.. of th.s. Io.: dekrhi.*. p.riod; tlrditj$dion oI rabn :nd mldnc$ in d. da$n.l.9.. lrtd, w could ifthpt an inEstig,tior ot aEbd s'*m in hnguig., A2r coneming *rualiryfbn rh. siftnrl b rh. nin.tenrh c.ntury In rhi!s tuu!.| n r b. on@ed wnh r|c F,.ncr inshi.l' rfiit h8 pro8csivdy*rd h+p y-diqppa€4 bur viih rhc *y ir h.s h..n rh.rcd nd rc,.diol.r..l, Ibm ilE pgdic. ol dh{ssion, viri irIorbid&. condlc! nam.4 cl.$i6.d, hi.Ercfihddom to th..Ed,Br dftil, ro tlE 6.Lkd, rimia lP.pqnrc of rh. ft.mdr oI knality i. ninenrh-6ory p.ydi{.y .nd s.di.ina Ot.o!8., rldcoDly .nouni to sondh.! synbolicguid.lind, bur@. on .lrcrdy b. pEtry sur. d'ar tn. .r6t6 xillnor ldl strrf. w..rp.d,.nd rhr hl6or rE nor

'rlwals ro b. lound vh.G qr i6a8in. th.m rc bato. dE nn hci$, I would li&. b

"ddr$ 6t9clf

o th. rlnd t5Em oa.x.lusion.I*illcnvnaS. itinNd wy5. Fi6 L Iwould lik. io ry to vkurlis.lb.d,nncr in whi.h rhn trurh qnhin *hich *. .(cNght, blt which sc ..tr*2nrly r.ncq w$ F

l.qkd,L!.rt:l|ee?tim!,wsrel.ar.d,cxi.nd.d,nd dnplx..d- | willrak.'6d otall dE isr or rh.Stphnb 3nd it b.sinnitrswi.h Socnt6, orli I.astwith Plabnicphilo$lhr rn'i I shlll ry.ose howc6.cti!.. .itoal ,lkou6q cn:4.d ynh po*r dp.il, sqdually rrsns.d i*li into I di3junciionb.N&n tu. ftd i,L. disouB., I fi:ll n.xr i*cih. Nm ol $c ,irr..nti ,nd cv.nt .nil' c.Do.icsand rhc.B. wlic\ rborc.ll in England, s.w r[..nr8.ne ot r ob6.d.!ionrl, a$!n,.i!. rcio..,. i.n.ir nmrd pbil6ophy inep.r.b!.. .oo, frcnrdigious id.olosy*to. lhir aBi'ly dnrdiui.d rrcw torm oI lh. wjll to knosl.dSc In rh. thtdplt.' I rlJl so .o tlE t Binring ol in. nin i&nfi6tury .nd th. s,.ar {olndiog .cs ol nod.n s.i-e4e..r wll 2t rh. torh.iion o( indunri.l $ci.ryann th. tsnprrying pditivisi id.oloty. Tnr.csli.e! ad ol rlc norphology oI our will to knowl-.ds.! ihre s.sins pons in olr philirinnm,

I *ould rlso li!. to conlid( $..4n. quFriortram qui!. anot!6 anEl. I would lik. to mcrsur.!h.cftctofr disotrc.cl.inin8 b b. ri!.tifc-fradical, psyciirEic or sciologiel-on .ll. m-smbl. oi podicB rnd prcscripiiv. disouB. olwl ch th. p.nal mdc 6n*s. Th. .tudy ol Fychi-aeic rkill! and rh.n !o!. in !h. pcnd .y$.d vill$fl. a3 1 poift ol d.patur. a.d ar b6ic nltrial

'h ( wirljn rhil diiiel p.sp.div., bn. oo . ditr..cnt lcv.l, ihr rh. an:lyin of th. ru1.5 lor rh.limn?iion of dkous.5hould bk. pl..c, oI ihds.liong*hich I .zrli.r ,l6jgn.El rh. rlrhor prin-.iFl., ifit oI mnn.nkry d ih2i oI d;ciplin..qn. on .nvk4. a eftin n!m6.r oI5tudi6 in rhG6dd.I am rhi.lin8, tor.xrnplq of rn. hirory.i6.djci'c in ts. sixtdftfi 6 ninacorh enbi6;mr !o mud .n c.coud 6f dils.ri.s had. .l.9i..pb d.v.lop.d! but ol 3rspins-lrcm .n.st6troction o{ o.di..l dGolsq ton .ll i$ .!pponirs i.sidtionr, tron iB nensmkion rdd ntr.infoi..n.nt*lDw th. pri.cipld of rurhor,6hm.nhry rnd discipli.. worl.d in prrdiq olsi.tins to loos hd $. sE.t .!tho. pnncipl.,wh.rhnHippcr:r.! Grl.n, lirrclsu: rDd Sydm-*'m, or 3&rhrrq' b@h. . principl. 6I lini-qnon in m.di6l diso!6.i low .vcn l.t into

'bn* (.'1.-.-"), crc.k phyi rr P.nalsu!(ftophnitus voi Hohdi.iml (!{'r-!J{t, Svnrphlsi.n! rd 1|c$.ift4 ftom4 Syd. u(r6rr-3e),lndsh lhyi.irnr Hsm:nn 8oc,iriv. Gd6l-!,ll

dr nin€cen.h ..ntury, $? pridi€. ot ,phorisn

!.d omh.nrary r.rzin.d ni oftncv rnd hos it

w.. sddurlly l+l.ad bt rh. .mph.* on e*_

hnb.i6,.d cliniql r.inins on .ctull ..s.s; .c-

@rdinc b tlich hod.l n.dicin. lousht ro on$i

tua it;lf er . d,sciplin., bdins is.ll :i fist o.

MoBl nirtory tDd,l.tt,on rnlromv tnd biolost

O.c muH;|s flvitte. rh. mv in wlicn .ish-

ldrh a.d 'in

r..nlb_enturt h.t v.rnici,m 3nrl

hi*ory n,v. on$td$c.hanct.r oi rh. author

rd .h. torh ot rh. srl. ulilising" nodifving .nd

rtr.rinB th. proe'ior.t oI (l'sjdr.x.s6n blbli'

o ldnr i ,h:s iosrrpht, 'h. l 'vc lorhntor i ( ' ro 't.B.n&.y 6gu'.t ul rutob'ogdPhv rnd m.mdR

On. d too. scnui hl.. r lml I Fr.ud! rol' 'n

Dt/.ho:.nilyh(.1 lnowl.dc.,50d'f.r. frcm th,r

;fN.*on i;phys'6. -

r'.* th,t.n ru'hor mish'ptrv in rh.6.ld ot phndopltt (K1n', for.rtmpl.'

;h; oiFir.d , 'oDlly

mw wry ol ph'losphiz'n8l

TlEs, th.n, ft 3om oI rh. Poj..o t llins

wnhi. t& .ririel trpEr ot thc brl. to. th. halv'

sk ol in*.rcer ol dGoFiY. <ontol Tn. gctealogi_

et aip.d conaru rh. .fKtit toonion of di}

ou6., widh.. vithin th. IimiolBidc oI thcm. or 8 it mon ir.qu.nt, on batn

sid6of !1.d.$nn tion. criticirm.n,rvsd th.prG

c..s of t!r.L.don, @n.olid{ion.Dd uni6c on

in dn@n$.;8.ndl%/ studi6 th.n 6m,rion' rt

onc. s&..d, di,otrtinuo!. and r.Sulai To tcll

$. hth, t}|$ No nrk .rc mt.r*avt *rc.lv

sf,Dl.dctt!ry, w. do mr 6nd, on th. on. ha.d'

t ;" "t

eiEri.r, ...!Ei.r, ..osolidetid .' i!

tibliion, .nd, on 1 6ot. piofou.d lad' rh. lPo._

hnout @ulinc lonh ol dibur*, whi.n iEhF

di:cb b;{oi. o; :ftd 'B

hr ,6,rdon, find, isd,.'t'-itd ro s.l.ctio. .nd .onnol. Tk reultr fo.'

nitio. of ditcour* n1t in ..nrin snditions end

up ro. amin poi.r, mrsraE onrol Proc'l'rcl(rik ir wh.r hrpps, ro'.':nPk, *h.n

' disci_

Dlim kko on c lom rnd *itor oi ei.nti6. di'

;ouFg, C.itr*tn mod6 oi o'td d:v r:t. onli| wiihin I di(udv. ior6.tio' G!.h .. lit Pry

cnriciu 4 rh. .u.hor'r oniio.iv. dnour*) .vcn

$dd rny cririsl rtl (:llins inttncd 6r.on!rcl

ino pLy huq,!r'h.,rm. 'im.,

triv. r.gut'.iii6 throush {hi.l| l|l.* intune. e

Iod.d, Any BmaloBiol d.icriPtion 6us ar.

inb .aounr .limi6.r pt'y *nhiD r. ,o!D!_

tio.s. Thc diff.nnc b.N..n !h. cini€l and tfi'

g.rcrlogi..l .nr.rpris. i, m' on. of obd or 6'ld'

burofpoi ol rnrcL, F6Fdir.

Er i?r on I m.nno..d on. p6!i61.:hdv' ih3! of

rl* ebms i. di*ou^. on s.xulhv I would b. dil-

6cu[, $d in lDt.5c :b$r.ct, b rrv to c.rrt our

ihn $udi Rnholr ar $.eo. rim. tnilvti.S lil.r

rry, i.l '8rud Ind dhiol, brclogct rdn.d'el'.r

w.ll t6 junaKal di*uEiv?.n*nbualit i diru.*d, wh.r.v.t it ii t.n.d or d.(ih.d, ndiphoritd, .pl1in.d q iuds.d w. r.

: kry lon8 w,t fdm h hg (onl'ituEd, unir'rv(guhr d;ouF conccd'ng a\DnrYr t nrv o'

lh.. w. nev.r *ill. tnd 6.t e ir

lim in rh! ditction, No dailci T.6oos .r ho'

n;n6uE n.nh.i in th.n lormt nor lb.t behrv_

iou; wh.!h.r in lit.ra.v or n.di..l dnou'5', in

th.t o( pcrchi.rry or ot th. di'4tiotr or on$ious

n.s- Conv.rsly ih.& diiiatdr disd6iv. r.8u_

I"riri.s dd nd div.d d.trq t6oos in rfi. trEc m.._

ncr, ti wilt only b. Fsibl. to ud.n.l. lht $dv'

th.r.forc, if v. i*. i..o ..count th. plurrlirv .i 6F

.i6 wirnin *hic[ !h. Eb@, ...n on. b Fm. d-

kni dif.r.nt Goo a[ $c ofi.tq tr. { sorx.rvc ould .ls;$id.. thos...ri., ot disu*

which, in tlt sixie'ih :od sdend.atr with w..th {d povcnv, monev, prdudon

.nd ftd.. H.ft, wc suld b. &.liog wnh .oo.pr.r.y het roB.nods drmblB of ddncirnonliormular..l by rirh rnd poor,lhcsL.:nd rh. isno'

flnr. Drot d;ft znd othlica, rof2l omcidi D.F.6.; or moGln$. li,.h on. his i6 lorm ol reu'

hriiy anA .qualt its sy*.nr ol snsribt. Non.

al,h.mpRdEly pt.6gur6 thrto'h.i fomll Es!_

lanry rhr s8 ro tqliG thc momDlin. dd *hicr' B l.!.. ro b. lnom' 6sr 4'ifi.

;tudy of w..nh' and, sub..qudtlt 'Poliiidl eon_ohy . And yci n 6 trch th. tot.going rhd 1 n.w

..Sultriry wd tod.d, Gfti.dng or .xcluding, jr

iryins o. rci.cdn8, this or rh.

On. ould dso coneiv. r :tudt of dis.oi6' sn'

c.mim h.r.d'ry, 6u(h I it (,n b. 3l':n'4 dn'

ffid;r it*x unhl 'l '.

h.Eindnsallh. Nrnri.'h

entuty, rmons . v,ri.tf ol d'Gpl'n.!' obfl:_

don. rd+niaud t.d lormul'ct w mddb. o'

c.d.d to .ho* th. 96e$ wh4.bv rhda t.n.r

d.roallt b.ctr. 3!bsus.d u.d.r th. trngr. "Pr.m, no, t osnn.d .t .Psldoloskrllv oh.tmt'

lnom $ Fnd'6, Tnit ir rhc eort Fr.nPn J.obha, iun 6;pk d, *nh ulqutt.d bn[a.ne lnd

'"Fdipb j.dt (b.,erol Frn.h bioloci'( lEd'l

r61 Mrcr.LFouc^ut

h i! rhur tht c.iticrl ,nd g.n..loeic.l dcsctit-rion! irc to ,t..n,r., suppon rnd cootl.rc .!chorfi.r. T& .ritiol rid. 01 rh. rnalysis adls *it$ il.sy$.nr .nvelopinS disouKci an.nPti.S ro htrkouhnd di,tinsuish in. Drin.ipld ol ord..ins,.x.cbsior .nd ariv in di(oua.. w. miShr, ro thy*nhourword,,s:yiiprtcGd 1 kindof *udi.dcr-3tr .c.TIE g"n.do€,cil sid.of dkcours, b/ *ltoI onsd, d..L *nh ,.ri.s of .trRiiv. Iom:tionol dGoue: it !ft.mps to Bt tp n io nt p(M' olafirnlrion, br qhich I do noi m..n a poecr oPpo..d ro rh.i o{ n.8{ion, bur th. pow.r or 6n-nituti.s don.ins of obi(s, in r.l.iion b qhich

on an .fflD or d.ht h. or f.l$ ntopsitions.t t ur ell th6. doBrirooiobic po.nilin tnd,

!o pl,y on -ordr

yd a3rn, |d us !:y $:! iI th.crnic.l $yl. ir on. of $!di.d c..u.ltcs, thcn th.

e.n.alopql noqd n on. ol Lli.,tols posilivn:r.At all.v.nB,on. thirs 4l.tn no$ b. dph.'

sis.d h.r.: thit rl. .n.b& of disouGc thu un&r$md, das aoi r.rc.1 rh. !niv.6.lity oI. m.,ning,hur 6'ings to ligh rn. .crion o{ inp!&d r:ri9' witha frnd.m.ni.l pow.r of 16m1noL R.dq ird .ti.6arion; nriry, in ilE I'si don o{ tfitn4ion*.eminly not .n, ontinlous olrpouring of n.m-ins, ndc.n.inlyno.,nynonarchyoltllcsisni6..

And no$ l.t 6os. eho !c Eat on rc.bll.rnl.i dDs. snn lid. omF.h!$ion of $.ory 6ll rlldk-if nr ryF.,1 h rtonBcr .h.n iE d.lning for

Hans Robert Jaussb' r92r

Drrrruunrvbequcol rrr.rmpo( trcofrhh esav'Jrs3 i'3 rcBanl'd d rh'

ll orircrpal *chnrt ol rrc,ontnpor-v rcrhaie ol rcaprion {R"'p'[',,,iii,a:li oai"*.a *

" t.*!rc in ,;67 at coniatrc, sh'@ Jass G&h's'

thc osav wrs "riElnrlly rnlcd vhn h and lor whn purPo" do'r oic iddt

iii","" i':"."*","a .i'* p,'potlv 'l'nrficd

wnh hi'dnch s'h'ucri onrion

li i'Jr -,i,r.a'vr"

i.l"alor whn puryor do* on' stud) trnn"sl his'

i..i' s.'I' l'*. 'h..h'*.r

of mrnifc*o" "nJ borh a'c on(tncd wnh th'

au$rion ol the (lJdon ol Pd ro p'"'nt in interpteranon' i,'* *^ rcorion u.i'v

"" rn rrrcmPr o 'olv'

I h' Pr obl'm oI rh' inPa$c

*"""',.a . fu-p.* tt...v rhcor) bv r\' 'nnrhcticrl

s'hoolj of Mrflilm

i.a ro'.,I,s.. ft. M..^"" e,\ e "Rnron ro hnrorv bur onlt in r'mi ol pre

a'.m -a."..-",i.',

*tilc lorrulism, '!i$ allits antlttical slbddv' n&

"r..iiil. r'i.,",i.4 n.

-.-on re3\ne ' or borh Jrus 'rsucr'

i' !h'r rh'v

i . " r . . , . ' . ^p. ." t

+. t ""a.mmDltrDn8tr iu ' ld *ol pubn( l tsrh 'L$'

olcours,drr t r . .Pr iontheoo r . inuodJ"< ro "

n(J Prr ' r r" '-

i'iii..'. i,,,r.J.y' *- , p'oblem n lo'r'' 8 r PJbric h rr to b' rdenu6'd

ehh rh€ Drcscnt, tle ta*, Posr.irv, ot @dition? Each of $s' pesentt Prcb'ri'i.ir,i.'i." i" *ir""a rn "dJi'Dn

t,6.' *r'or qusriDn! otrd'qurcv'

which hu$ dis(4rs on dtr *av ro trk'ng uP I posuon rdvo@dng a {uat oI

'...ii;i" ,' ,ir*-;.,t p'*"s or fi. ri'tion or rrodu'rion ro FePrior ln

il,i

"i.*.

*. ri",.v ""il -nuin! 'n

o€r unlold'ns Poknri'liry or m'rnin&

"r,,.r' *" U. r*.

"i *t,ti,.J i" rc(prion d *r'ious h'doiolnom'nn

'''i'ii'.* ...i""

"* a.,r r onriiurad rs:

''llion ol honTons oI th' hk'

-;-r i..*r r"a .t

't'. .;menr of @ntnrunon Tl'k $ noi I hisroriciln

.i.i.r"" " ',."r

.U..1"',) l" its t t dmenr of th' Psr' How'v'i' n ir also rru'

ii,, i,"1',ii"i*;;,* *ir"br.ii"i,v conld b.,.hin.d rn the mnsrirution or

" '",i.r .i,."J.'rv *p.,*,1.n' in.n)'hkoi'"1 nomdr' Jrus 6 \dvilr inllu-

."i.ii' 'i.

i..i".;r.,r- tv ot H;ds c'.'e codo" a $ hn thort ollori

)"".- t'1, ii.,';.r,.' c,a,..'i ....,F" ,. th; 'd., .r th' Jrsk and or tr,ai'

tron x : ran<lrJ ro wtrich atloriuonsaRuI mndv rcr?dblc lau$!ubst'tuk3t. , r ' i t , ' r .*a . - . t . , t ix .d t 'nd'nd I pure\ J:r le ' kr l hbto ' icr l s i tur-

r ,o. i I "h i .h, i t i rd{L*d, tha' . r noe* ' ' rn ' l p incipl ' no r ' l 'o losv noscN

,i*,,t'. ir"'.J. "-* ",lc ',/oithrnBs

bur dr Enhhins point'

n'i.",t ri*" i. p'i"'.a "iihou'

ir( liRt lour lrcrDns sh'd ac d'voi'd Lo

**i"* 'ln,

.r r'i.*'v li.,ort. M'rrnm 'ririckm, 'nd (omrlsn J'dst

;;;i ,;;;;;;.*"'. .;. ""nsiar.d

in no orr'cLions roued dn A'nh'ri'

.in...i,.' r',r"1'"i,r, -

.non!.nonbv Paat A' Mdn sd Asthctk Ft'

J!f