Understanding Culture and Youth within Understanding Culture and Youth within Educational Institutions: Beyond Cultural Educational Institutions: Beyond Cultural Definitions to Cultural Change Contexts Definitions to Cultural Change Contexts

Martha Montero-Sieburth, Ed. D. Martha Montero-Sieburth, Ed. D. Research FellowResearch Fellow

Institute for Migration and Ethnic StudiesInstitute for Migration and Ethnic StudiesUniversity of Amsterdam University of Amsterdam

m.montero@uva.nl

European Conference on Educational Research European Conference on Educational Research A Global Society: Implications for Education and Educational A Global Society: Implications for Education and Educational

ResearchResearch Invited Symposium - in cooperation with WERA, World Education Invited Symposium - in cooperation with WERA, World Education

Research Association Research Association Helsinki, Finland, August 26, 2010Helsinki, Finland, August 26, 2010

Intent of Presentation Intent of Presentation

Intent is to discuss the role of culture as it Intent is to discuss the role of culture as it relates to youth within educational relates to youth within educational institutions and what this means in terms of institutions and what this means in terms of changes taking place in different contexts changes taking place in different contexts – Tendency to overemphasize Tendency to overemphasize formal formal

schoolingschooling over the significance of over the significance of informal learninginformal learning which takes place in which takes place in community settingscommunity settings and among and among peerspeers

– ““Essentializing”Essentializing” of the concept of culture of the concept of culture rather than rather than “contextualizing”“contextualizing” concept concept

Intent Intent

Discuss ways in which cultural change has been Discuss ways in which cultural change has been thought of in the education of immigrant children thought of in the education of immigrant children to explain their academic achievement in schools to explain their academic achievement in schools and how such achievement and culture relates to and how such achievement and culture relates to their ethnic or indigenous group their ethnic or indigenous group 1.1. Based on a review of secondary literature Based on a review of secondary literature

research research 2.2. Own research in the analysis of explanatory Own research in the analysis of explanatory

models used for the academic achievement models used for the academic achievement of Latinos in the U. S., which has been of Latinos in the U. S., which has been researched extensively for close to 80 years researched extensively for close to 80 years

3.3. Research conducted in Latin American Research conducted in Latin American classrooms where the indigenous is classrooms where the indigenous is compared to the normative schooling culture compared to the normative schooling culture

Intent Intent

Identify the explanations currently being Identify the explanations currently being used in Europe for academic achievement used in Europe for academic achievement which focus on:which focus on:– Culture versus structure in the social mobility Culture versus structure in the social mobility

and school attainment of immigrantsand school attainment of immigrants– Structural analysis of second generation Structural analysis of second generation

research research Using own ethnographic research of Dutch second Using own ethnographic research of Dutch second generation high school youth of Turkish descent in generation high school youth of Turkish descent in the Netherlands undertaken over a 3 year period. the Netherlands undertaken over a 3 year period. Using research of Latin American immigrants in the Using research of Latin American immigrants in the Canary Islands, Spain where intercultural Canary Islands, Spain where intercultural education is used as a mediating variable education is used as a mediating variable

Intent Intent

Conclude by identifying implications of Conclude by identifying implications of such explanatory models for youth within such explanatory models for youth within educational institutions educational institutions – In terms of local cultures and identitiesIn terms of local cultures and identities

Ignoring of youthIgnoring of youthSuppression of youth Suppression of youth

– Need to examine the reinvention and Need to examine the reinvention and extension taking place for youth through the extension taking place for youth through the creation of multiple identities in their creation of multiple identities in their negotiation of cultural change contexts negotiation of cultural change contexts

Reviews of Secondary Literature Reviews of Secondary Literature Initial Review:Initial Review:– Montero-Sieburth, M. and M. C. Batt (2001). Montero-Sieburth, M. and M. C. Batt (2001). An Overview of the Educational Models An Overview of the Educational Models

used to Explain the Academic Achievement of Latino Students: Implications for used to Explain the Academic Achievement of Latino Students: Implications for Research and Policies into the New MillenniumResearch and Policies into the New Millennium. In Robert Slavin and Margarita . In Robert Slavin and Margarita Calderón (Eds.). Effective Programs for Latino Students. Mahwah, N. J. Lawrence Calderón (Eds.). Effective Programs for Latino Students. Mahwah, N. J. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 331-368.Erlbaum Associates, pp. 331-368.

Second Review focused on Reform EffortsSecond Review focused on Reform Efforts::– Montero-Sieburth, M. (2005). Montero-Sieburth, M. (2005). Explanatory Models of Latino/a Education During the Explanatory Models of Latino/a Education During the

Reform Movement of the 1980sReform Movement of the 1980s. In Pedro Pedraza and Melissa Rivera (Eds.). . In Pedro Pedraza and Melissa Rivera (Eds.). Latino Education: An Agenda for Community Action Research, Mahwah, New Jersey, Latino Education: An Agenda for Community Action Research, Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 99-153. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 99-153.

Third review was Third review was on an overview of Latino academic achievement explanations and a on an overview of Latino academic achievement explanations and a critique of these:critique of these:– Montero-Sieburth, M. (2007). Montero-Sieburth, M. (2007). Academic Models: Explaining AchievementAcademic Models: Explaining Achievement. In . In

Lourdes Díaz Soto (Ed.). Praeger Handbook of Latino Education in the United States, Lourdes Díaz Soto (Ed.). Praeger Handbook of Latino Education in the United States, Vol. 1, Praeger Publishers, pp. 8-23. Vol. 1, Praeger Publishers, pp. 8-23.

Present review Present review of research of a comparative nature of explanatory models used n the U. of research of a comparative nature of explanatory models used n the U. S. and Europe, particularly the Netherlands and Spain. S. and Europe, particularly the Netherlands and Spain.

Educational Explanatory ModelsEducational Explanatory Models

Explanations based on social science research Explanations based on social science research which has been conducted to identify and find which has been conducted to identify and find solutions to deal with the attendant problem of solutions to deal with the attendant problem of why some students fail while others succeed in why some students fail while others succeed in schools. schools. Educational institutions are held to be the Educational institutions are held to be the producers of producers of opportunities for successopportunities for success, yet their , yet their underlying assumptions have implicit meanings:underlying assumptions have implicit meanings:– About what About what success is success is and and who decides who decides what it what it

should look like. should look like. – About how such About how such success is tied to culturesuccess is tied to culture, with the , with the

notion of notion of what culture what culture and and whose culture?whose culture?

Educational Explanatory Models Educational Explanatory Models

Such assumptions operate from the stance Such assumptions operate from the stance of normative cultures of normative cultures (dominant/subordinate, majority/minority):(dominant/subordinate, majority/minority):– In U. S., explanations abound about:In U. S., explanations abound about:

Why Latino students Why Latino students failfail in comparison to in comparison to their their White European counterpartsWhite European counterparts or in or in relation to other relation to other ethnic groups ethnic groups

– FailureFailure is a code word and antithesis of is a code word and antithesis of success.success.– Academic achievement in attaining specific Academic achievement in attaining specific

scores in scores in testing and completion of grades.testing and completion of grades.

Explanatory Models Explanatory Models – In the case of youth in Latin America, In the case of youth in Latin America,

comparisons are often made in terms of social comparisons are often made in terms of social class differences: class differences:

– Indigenous youth from Indigenous youth from rural areas rural areas are compared to those in are compared to those in urbanized centersurbanized centers thus thus failurefailure refers to not measuring up to refers to not measuring up to urban, “civilized” status urban, “civilized” status

– Indigenous youth from Indigenous youth from low socio economic class low socio economic class are often are often differentiated from differentiated from middle class middle class through schoolingthrough schooling

– Indigenous youth are compared on the basis of their Indigenous youth are compared on the basis of their social social capital, capital, while they often experience discrimination in while they often experience discrimination in schooling schooling

A A culture of exclusion culture of exclusion rather than rather than inclusioninclusion prevails. prevails.

Research Focus Research Focus

Research focus for explanations about achievement Research focus for explanations about achievement arise from arise from cross groupcross group and and within group comparisonswithin group comparisons: : – Analysis of Latinos vis a vis White European counterpartsAnalysis of Latinos vis a vis White European counterparts– Latinos in relation to African Americans, Asians, Native Latinos in relation to African Americans, Asians, Native

AmericansAmericans– Indigenous youth compared to middle class youth in Mexico, Indigenous youth compared to middle class youth in Mexico,

Guatemala, etc. Guatemala, etc. – Latin American immigrant youth compared to native Spaniards Latin American immigrant youth compared to native Spaniards

and other immigrants and other immigrants

Such studies tend to be large scale and longitudinal Such studies tend to be large scale and longitudinal They also tend to generalize disavowing for unique They also tend to generalize disavowing for unique characteristics that are prevalent, differences from urban characteristics that are prevalent, differences from urban marginal experiences, gender, education of parents, etc.marginal experiences, gender, education of parents, etc.

Culture Concept Culture Concept

CultureCulture is often defined in terms of the normative is often defined in terms of the normative culture’s value of wealth, knowledge, cultural culture’s value of wealth, knowledge, cultural and social capital.and social capital.

Eric Wolf points out that the culture concept is a Eric Wolf points out that the culture concept is a product of the age of product of the age of nationalismnationalism. . Thus Thus ccultural incorporationultural incorporation is about becoming is about becoming like the majority culture/society and in some like the majority culture/society and in some countries is about:countries is about:

– AssimilationAssimilation– Integration Integration

Power of Explanatory Models of Power of Explanatory Models of Academic Achievement Academic Achievement

Such explanations take on not only Such explanations take on not only epistemological power,epistemological power, of being of being “truths“truths” identified by social scientists, educators, ” identified by social scientists, educators, policy makers policy makers Assume the power of paradigms that represent:Assume the power of paradigms that represent:– Eurocentric perspectives Eurocentric perspectives

a) Native Dutch interests over non-natives (allochtone a) Native Dutch interests over non-natives (allochtone versus autoctone)versus autoctone)b) Majority Spanish cultural norms over foreigners b) Majority Spanish cultural norms over foreigners

– Majority Culture power dynamics based on:Majority Culture power dynamics based on:c) Social Class differences as seen throughout Latin c) Social Class differences as seen throughout Latin America America d) Dominant WASP culture in relation to newcomers d) Dominant WASP culture in relation to newcomers and immigrants and immigrants

Culture ConceptCulture Concept

Hans Vermeulen (2000) alludes to the ways of speaking Hans Vermeulen (2000) alludes to the ways of speaking about culture as “about culture as “culturalisticculturalistic” and uses the idea of ” and uses the idea of culturalistic fallacy culturalistic fallacy to refer to:to refer to:

“…“…those ways of speaking and writing about culture those ways of speaking and writing about culture which depict cultures as sharply bounded, homogenous which depict cultures as sharply bounded, homogenous and relatively unchanging entities, transmitted on from and relatively unchanging entities, transmitted on from generation to generation” (p.2). generation to generation” (p.2).

Culture is often used to explain behavior for which there is Culture is often used to explain behavior for which there is no explanation and alludes this to certain groups. no explanation and alludes this to certain groups.

In research, we refer to this use of culture as In research, we refer to this use of culture as essentializingessentializing

Attributes within Educational Explanatory Attributes within Educational Explanatory ModelsModels

Measured in the U. S., Latin America, and Europe Measured in the U. S., Latin America, and Europe by competences achieved in:by competences achieved in:

Language LearningLanguage Learning: : – Standard versus non-standard Standard versus non-standard – Passing of language examinations that are often part of national Passing of language examinations that are often part of national

testing programs testing programs – Achieving Language communication for the job market Achieving Language communication for the job market

Adaptation of social and cultural behaviors and attitudesAdaptation of social and cultural behaviors and attitudes– ““Un American to speak Spanish in certain contexts”Un American to speak Spanish in certain contexts”– ““Enjoying privileges in the Netherlands requires learning the Dutch Enjoying privileges in the Netherlands requires learning the Dutch

way of life”way of life”– ““If they want to enjoy their livelihoods in Spain, they have to act as If they want to enjoy their livelihoods in Spain, they have to act as

Spaniards” Spaniards” – ““Love it or leave it” Love it or leave it”

Civic responsibilities Civic responsibilities – Induced by strong coercive policies, “Induced by strong coercive policies, “you must be a responsible you must be a responsible

citizencitizen” ” – Characterized by using economic gains for process of Characterized by using economic gains for process of

democratization democratization

Culture Linked to Explanatory Models Culture Linked to Explanatory Models Explanatory models are historically and socially embedded and are Explanatory models are historically and socially embedded and are linked to the social and cultural integration and normative cultural linked to the social and cultural integration and normative cultural reproduction often spurned by policies. In the U. S., identified during reproduction often spurned by policies. In the U. S., identified during these time periods: these time periods:

1920s: Great wave of immigration (melting pot ideology) 1920s: Great wave of immigration (melting pot ideology)

1930s: Nationalistic trends (cultural pluralism)1930s: Nationalistic trends (cultural pluralism)

1940s: War time 1940s: War time

1950s: Suburban expansion, “white flight”1950s: Suburban expansion, “white flight”

1960s: War on Poverty, the Great Society (cultural deprivation)1960s: War on Poverty, the Great Society (cultural deprivation)

1970s: New immigration (cultural differences) 1970s: New immigration (cultural differences)

1980s: Reform waves (NCLB) 1980s: Reform waves (NCLB)

1990s: Neo-liberalistic trends (cultural adaptation to economic 1990s: Neo-liberalistic trends (cultural adaptation to economic structures) structures)

2000s +: Globalization and transnational influences (cultural 2000s +: Globalization and transnational influences (cultural resilience, multiple identities) resilience, multiple identities)

Culture Linked to Explanatory Models in Culture Linked to Explanatory Models in Latin America Latin America

Historically embedded in pre-Colombian, Historically embedded in pre-Colombian, Conquest, and Post-conquest ideologies Conquest, and Post-conquest ideologies of social, cultural, and racial class of social, cultural, and racial class differences for Latin America differences for Latin America – Mignolo (2008) attributes much of the post-Mignolo (2008) attributes much of the post-

colonialist thought to colonialist thought to capitalismcapitalism and which and which serves to devalue the humanity of competitors serves to devalue the humanity of competitors and those who offer low cost labor. and those who offer low cost labor.

Culture Linked to Explanatory Models Culture Linked to Explanatory Models

– He argues that social class differences were set He argues that social class differences were set up during the colonization process of Latin up during the colonization process of Latin America and persist to the present. America and persist to the present.

Christians

Mor

isco

s

Convers

os

Moors

Jews

Christians/Spaniards

Mes

tizos

/as

Indians Blacks Zambos

Mulatos/as

Analysis of Dutch Explanatory Models Analysis of Dutch Explanatory Models for Turkish Youth in Schooling for Turkish Youth in Schooling

Analysis of secondary data: Research studies conducted Analysis of secondary data: Research studies conducted by social scientists in the Netherlands over the past twenty by social scientists in the Netherlands over the past twenty years on immigrant youth of second generation and their years on immigrant youth of second generation and their academic achievement have focused on: academic achievement have focused on:

motivation, attitudes towards learning motivation, attitudes towards learning (psychological (psychological adaptation) adaptation)

ethnic identity, ethnic identity, (cultural identity) (cultural identity)

acculturation patterns, acculturation patterns, (cultural identity) (cultural identity)

engagement and tracking trajectories from engagement and tracking trajectories from elementary to secondary and higher education. elementary to secondary and higher education.

CultureCulture has been treated in terms of has been treated in terms of specific ethnic groups specific ethnic groups but also psychological, and adaptation factors but also psychological, and adaptation factors

Dutch Analysis Dutch Analysis

Growing numbers of qualitative studies in Growing numbers of qualitative studies in the Netherlands (Bowen Paulle, Yvonne the Netherlands (Bowen Paulle, Yvonne Leeman) Leeman) Research regarding attitudes of native Research regarding attitudes of native Dutch towards Turkish and Moroccan Dutch towards Turkish and Moroccan students students

Meykel Verkuyten Meykel Verkuyten (2005) during the past 20 years as well as (2005) during the past 20 years as well as with his colleagues, Peary Brug (2001), Thijs (2001) has with his colleagues, Peary Brug (2001), Thijs (2001) has yielded some understanding of the enormity of this issue. yielded some understanding of the enormity of this issue. They indicate the need to find alternative ways to study They indicate the need to find alternative ways to study history, culture, ideology, power and contexts as well as history, culture, ideology, power and contexts as well as discourse analyses and social representation theory. discourse analyses and social representation theory.

Dutch Analysis Dutch Analysis

Research of the second generation in Research of the second generation in Europe and particularly the NetherlandsEurope and particularly the Netherlands– One of the most prolific researchers has been One of the most prolific researchers has been

Maurice Crul and his associates, TIES Maurice Crul and his associates, TIES Project, comparative analysis of second Project, comparative analysis of second generation schoolinggeneration schooling

Focus has identified: 1Focus has identified: 1) Access to pre-school, 2) ) Access to pre-school, 2) opportunities for Dutch language development, opportunities for Dutch language development, and 3) limited available opportunities for learning and 3) limited available opportunities for learning within schools, especially segregated schools.within schools, especially segregated schools.

Dutch Analysis Dutch Analysis

Own research during past three years in a Own research during past three years in a “zwarte” (Black) high school due to “zwarte” (Black) high school due to concentration of Turkish and Moroccan students concentration of Turkish and Moroccan students but which is an “elite” school because of its high but which is an “elite” school because of its high academic programs and student outcomes in academic programs and student outcomes in science and mathematics (ecological programs, science and mathematics (ecological programs, Roboticus, science fairs, math fairs).Roboticus, science fairs, math fairs).

Findings: issues of Findings: issues of cultural dissonancecultural dissonance between between cultures of youth and expected academic cultures of youth and expected academic schooling expectations schooling expectations

Dutch Policies towards Educating Dutch Policies towards Educating Working Class and “Minorities”Working Class and “Minorities”

Policies aimed at reducing educational disadvantage of Policies aimed at reducing educational disadvantage of working class students (Driessen, 2002; working class students (Driessen, 2002; Rijkschroeff, R. Rijkschroeff, R. G. ten Dam, J. W. Duyvendak, M. De Gruijeter and T. Pels, G. ten Dam, J. W. Duyvendak, M. De Gruijeter and T. Pels, 2005).2005). – 1960s1960s: as part of : as part of democratic and tolerance democratic and tolerance

process, focus is on working class children process, focus is on working class children – 1970s1970s:: arrival of guest workers and changes in arrival of guest workers and changes in

reunification laws for familiesreunification laws for families– 1980s1980s: growth of children of 1.5 or 2: growth of children of 1.5 or 2ndnd

generation in schools, however no official policy generation in schools, however no official policy towards towards “immigrants” “immigrants” was warranted (Driessen, was warranted (Driessen, forthcoming). forthcoming). Bilingual and intercultural Bilingual and intercultural education were education were promoted.promoted.

Dutch PoliciesDutch Policies

– 19851985: Weight factors applied to ethnic and minority children and : Weight factors applied to ethnic and minority children and used by schools to provide homework assistance, reading, used by schools to provide homework assistance, reading, tutoring, etc.tutoring, etc.

– 1990s:1990s: Focus on Focus on minority children minority children and less so on Dutch working and less so on Dutch working class, support programs (Driessen, forthcoming). class, support programs (Driessen, forthcoming).

– 1994:1994: minorities policy replaced by integration policy towards minorities policy replaced by integration policy towards “active citizenship” with mandatory laws for newcomers to learn “active citizenship” with mandatory laws for newcomers to learn Dutch Dutch

– 2000s+2000s+:: Evaluation of Evaluation of effectiveness of disadvantage policies and effectiveness of disadvantage policies and movementmovement towards decentralization, reduction of funding except towards decentralization, reduction of funding except for parental education for parental education

– Paul Scheffer’s Multicultural Drama critiquePaul Scheffer’s Multicultural Drama critique– Aim is towards more restrictive practices including stricter Aim is towards more restrictive practices including stricter

separation of church and state and more restrictions on religious separation of church and state and more restrictions on religious freedom freedom

Dutch PoliciesDutch Policies

– Present: Focus on what Driessen refers to as Present: Focus on what Driessen refers to as shared citizenshipshared citizenship, replacing active citizenship, , replacing active citizenship, and this requires moving away from focus on and this requires moving away from focus on differences towards focus on differences towards focus on common core values common core values

– Onus is on the immigrant taking charge of Onus is on the immigrant taking charge of integrating.integrating.

Shift in responsibility of the state towards Shift in responsibility of the state towards greater decentralization and decision making greater decentralization and decision making at the local level at the local level Closing of multiculturalism as a failed Closing of multiculturalism as a failed experiment towards greater accountability experiment towards greater accountability

Comparison of Educational Comparison of Educational Explanatory Models Explanatory Models

Analysis of LatinosAnalysis of Latinos – Cultural deprivation Cultural deprivation

and culture deficit and culture deficit explanations explanations

– Cultural differences Cultural differences – Voluntary versus Voluntary versus

involuntary immigrantsinvoluntary immigrants– Bilingual education Bilingual education

model model – Economic explanatory Economic explanatory

models (social/cultural models (social/cultural capital) capital)

Analysis of Dutch-Analysis of Dutch-TurkishTurkish StudentsStudents– Cultural disadvantageCultural disadvantage– Compensatory focus Compensatory focus

in schooling, in schooling, remediation remediation

– Bilingual education Bilingual education (pillarization idea) (pillarization idea)

– Intercultural education Intercultural education in schools in schools

– Additive resources Additive resources

Comparisons Comparisons

Analysis for LatinosAnalysis for Latinos– Co-Ethnic Peer Co-Ethnic Peer

Communities Communities Explanation Explanation

– Dual Reference ModelDual Reference Model– Academic “At Risk Academic “At Risk

Model”Model”– Success FactorSuccess Factor– Transnational Transnational

AdaptationAdaptation– Comparative Analysis Comparative Analysis

factors (structural, factors (structural, institutional, etc.)institutional, etc.)

Analysis for Dutch-TurkishAnalysis for Dutch-Turkish – Awareness of Second Awareness of Second

Generation through Generation through dropout analysis dropout analysis

– Extensive research on Extensive research on failure of “minorities”failure of “minorities”

– Structural analysis of Structural analysis of how system operates, how system operates, analysis of tracking, analysis of tracking, analysis of counselors, analysis of counselors, etc. etc.

– Models of polarization Models of polarization become evident become evident

– Re-ignition of language Re-ignition of language focus, of bilingual focus, of bilingual education education

ComparisonsComparisons

Focus on resilience of Focus on resilience of studentsstudents

Analysis of funds of Analysis of funds of community community knowledge knowledge

Use of H. Trueba’s Use of H. Trueba’s theory of mestizaje theory of mestizaje towards multiple towards multiple identities identities

– Strong emphasis on Strong emphasis on language skills, language skills, social participation social participation membership in membership in associations, associations, political political participation, voting, participation, voting, cultural participation, cultural participation, museum visits museum visits

– Focus on labor Focus on labor insertion as active insertion as active basis of education basis of education

– Culture is Culture is “minoritized” “minoritized”

Research in SpainResearch in Spain

Research of high schools conducted in situ in the Canary Research of high schools conducted in situ in the Canary Islands, Spain show:Islands, Spain show:– Although Although well intended policies aboundwell intended policies abound regarding the regarding the

integration of immigrant children via integration of immigrant children via intercultural intercultural educationeducation, gaps in the professionalization, training, , gaps in the professionalization, training, and extension of intercultural experiences are evident and extension of intercultural experiences are evident

Reception programs appear to work but tend to Reception programs appear to work but tend to often be the often be the product approach to culture and not product approach to culture and not the process approachthe process approach

Onus is on cultural mediator Onus is on cultural mediator

Research in Spain Research in Spain

Targeting of immigrant children as in need of Targeting of immigrant children as in need of change, deflects from the purpose of intercultural change, deflects from the purpose of intercultural education to create education to create collective experiencescollective experiences for co- for co-existence of all children in Spanish schools.existence of all children in Spanish schools.

Geographic concentration of immigrants tends to Geographic concentration of immigrants tends to create so called “ghettos” and an increase in create so called “ghettos” and an increase in “ghetto schools.” “ghetto schools.”

– Intent of intercultural education is lost from its Intent of intercultural education is lost from its dialogical and interactive purpose and its dialogical and interactive purpose and its internalization of the non-differentiation of internalization of the non-differentiation of “foreigners” from Spaniards“foreigners” from Spaniards. .

Implications of Explanatory Implications of Explanatory Models Models

• Parallels between explanations about failure “as pathological, Parallels between explanations about failure “as pathological, endemic” endemic”

• Explanations focus heavily on youth and their community including Explanations focus heavily on youth and their community including parents as in need of being changed and compensated forparents as in need of being changed and compensated for– The U.S.: in terms of ethnic differences based on cultural deficits The U.S.: in terms of ethnic differences based on cultural deficits

and raceand race

Culture is an issue to be remedied Culture is an issue to be remedied – The Netherlands: based on narrowing gap of economic The Netherlands: based on narrowing gap of economic

differencesdifferences

Disadvantages can be surmonted through economic Disadvantages can be surmonted through economic attainment attainment

Implications Implications

Both cases, the issue of pathways towards Both cases, the issue of pathways towards academic achievement are variedacademic achievement are varied– IIn the U.S.= segmented assimilation of upward and n the U.S.= segmented assimilation of upward and

downward mobility and structural analysis persists, downward mobility and structural analysis persists, strong focus on peer culture and segregated schools, strong focus on peer culture and segregated schools, teacher normalization of failure teacher normalization of failure

– In the Netherlands=schooling is defined through In the Netherlands=schooling is defined through tracking and insertion into programs. tracking and insertion into programs.

Segmented assimilation is considered by Crul and others to Segmented assimilation is considered by Crul and others to be pessimistic. be pessimistic. Research explanations are national country analysis based Research explanations are national country analysis based on age of entry in school, pre school, tracking system, on age of entry in school, pre school, tracking system, decisions made through counselors and stagnation with a decisions made through counselors and stagnation with a longer academic pathlonger academic path

Implications Implications – Explanations currently are about polarization, with some Explanations currently are about polarization, with some

succeeding within the current system, and with others succeeding within the current system, and with others trailing behindtrailing behind

Variations between those in school and those who Variations between those in school and those who have left, bifurcated situation, segregated schools have left, bifurcated situation, segregated schools (zwarte schools) (zwarte schools)

– Strong structural focus and analysis situating the need for Strong structural focus and analysis situating the need for pre school, mentoring programs, coaching, tutoring, pre school, mentoring programs, coaching, tutoring, community schools, additive resources, etc. community schools, additive resources, etc.

– Understanding the length of movement through different Understanding the length of movement through different tracks for Dutch Turkish students who are Dutch nationals, tracks for Dutch Turkish students who are Dutch nationals, yet have Turkish backgrounds, speaking and using Dutch yet have Turkish backgrounds, speaking and using Dutch is one of the critical obstacles to be overcome is one of the critical obstacles to be overcome

Local Culture IssuesLocal Culture Issues

Identities may be ignored through misunderstanding of youth Identities may be ignored through misunderstanding of youth contextcontext

– Ignoring of youthIgnoring of youth

– Suppression of youth Suppression of youth

Cultural codes being applied to youthCultural codes being applied to youth

– U.S. Spanish is a code word for differences that surmount to U.S. Spanish is a code word for differences that surmount to being a challenge-represents ethnicity and race often related being a challenge-represents ethnicity and race often related to the us and them to the us and them

– Netherlands: Islam as religion has become a cultural code Netherlands: Islam as religion has become a cultural code that is essentialized that is essentialized

Aristide Zolberg and Long Litt Woon (1999).Islam is Like Spanish: Cultural Incorporation in Europe and Aristide Zolberg and Long Litt Woon (1999).Islam is Like Spanish: Cultural Incorporation in Europe and the United States. Politics and society, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 5-38. the United States. Politics and society, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 5-38.

Need for Re-invention towards Need for Re-invention towards Cultural Change Contexts Cultural Change Contexts

Refocusing on what is meant by the success of Refocusing on what is meant by the success of youth in and out of schools and what is being youth in and out of schools and what is being labeled as failure, and whose failure it islabeled as failure, and whose failure it isDetracking of schooling and promoting the Detracking of schooling and promoting the advantages of youth over the disadvantages advantages of youth over the disadvantages Understanding language stands for much more Understanding language stands for much more than linguistic communication, and for the power than linguistic communication, and for the power dynamics it entails dynamics it entails Identifying the ways that curriculum is organizedIdentifying the ways that curriculum is organizedIdentifying the ways that academic engagement Identifying the ways that academic engagement take place take place

Need for Re-invention Need for Re-invention

Focusing on the education of parents and their Focusing on the education of parents and their pre migration standing and working pre migration standing and working collaboratively with them as partners in collaboratively with them as partners in education education

Understanding educational contexts from which Understanding educational contexts from which 1.5 generation youth come from, and for 21.5 generation youth come from, and for 2ndnd generation, their access to pre-schoolgeneration, their access to pre-school

Identifying social, cultural, and linguistic capital Identifying social, cultural, and linguistic capital resources of these youth and their development resources of these youth and their development

Implications

Finding the resilience of Dutch Turkish students, Finding the resilience of Dutch Turkish students, immigrant youth in Spain or elsewhere despite immigrant youth in Spain or elsewhere despite the odds they facethe odds they face

Acknowledging their adaptive, multiple identities Acknowledging their adaptive, multiple identities as part of the changing contextual landscapes, as part of the changing contextual landscapes, they they too are changingtoo are changing. .