marlon mcfarlane effects of endurance sports on overall cardiovascular fitness and variables of...
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Effects of endurance sports on overall cardiovascular fitness and variables of trained male athletes aged 18-24 years old
Marlon McFarlane
UP664401
Human Physiology
University of Portsmouth
April 2016
Word count: 7694
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the award of Marlon McFarlane at the University of Portsmouth. I declare that this is all my own work and has not been submitted elsewhere
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Abstract
The study will aim to investigate the effect of different types of endurance sports,
namely, rowing and endurance running, on the overall cardiovascular fitness and
variables. Cardiovascular fitness and resting variables will be dependent upon
favourable cardiovascular adaptations. The study will look to explore whether a
significant difference will be observed between rowers and endurance runners, and
to see if these adaptations are exclusive to their sporting discipline.
40 male participants were recruited from the University of Portsmouth. The four
study groups included rowers, endurance runners, a comparison group of short
distance runners and a control group of those who lead a sedentary lifestyle.
Participants recruit for the sports groups, had to of competed in their sports at a
competitive level and could not compete in more than one of the three sports
competitively.
The Harvard step test was used to investigate participants overall cardiovascular
fitness, while resting heart rate, systolic and diastolic pressure were the key
cardiovascular variables measured. Information from the IPAQ instrument was used
to provide details on how physically active participants are. The study found no
significant difference between rowers and endurance runners mean Harvard step
test scores (p=1.000). However, a significant difference was observed between
rowers and short distance runners (p=.001), and between endurance runners and
short distance runners (p=.019) mean Harvard step test scores.
Analysis of correlation coefficient found a strong correlation between resting
cardiovascular variables and Harvard step test scores. The lower the resting
cardiovascular variables the higher the score on the Harvard step test which
demonstrates an improved cardiovascular efficiency. Resting heart rate, r(n=20)= -
0.830, p= <0.001(2-Tailed); resting systolic blood pressure, r(n=20)= -0.850, p=
<0.001 and resting diastolic pressure, r(n=20)= -0.823, p= <0.001 (2-Tailed).
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Table of Content
Effects of endurance sports on overall cardiovascular fitness and variables of trained male athletes aged 18-24 years old.............................................................................................................................1
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................2
Table of Content....................................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................6
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................7
1.1 Cardiovascular functions..............................................................................................................7
1.2 Physiological cardiovascular adaptations....................................................................................8
1.3 Adaptations to cardiac output & resting heart rate.....................................................................8
1.4 Stroke volume adaptations........................................................................................................10
1.5 Cardiac cavity & wall enlargement............................................................................................11
1.6 Adaptations to blood pressure..................................................................................................12
1.7 Immediate cardiovascular responses to exercise......................................................................13
1.7 Sporting disciplines....................................................................................................................14
1.8 Rationale....................................................................................................................................15
1.9 Aims...........................................................................................................................................15
2.0 Hypothesis.................................................................................................................................16
Methodology.......................................................................................................................................17
1.1 Sample Size................................................................................................................................17
1.2 Recruitment procedure.............................................................................................................19
1.3 IPAQ scoring system..................................................................................................................19
1.4 Procedure..................................................................................................................................20
1.5 Data Analysis.............................................................................................................................23
1.6 Ethics.........................................................................................................................................23
Results.................................................................................................................................................24
1.1 ANOVA.......................................................................................................................................24
1.2 Test for Normality......................................................................................................................25
1.3 Post-hoc test..............................................................................................................................26
1.4 Correlation coefficient...............................................................................................................27
1.5 IPAQ results...............................................................................................................................30
Discussion............................................................................................................................................31
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1.1 Cardiovascular adaptations & efficiency....................................................................................31
1.2 Cardiovascular variables & Harvard step test scoring................................................................32
1.3 IPAQ Analysis.............................................................................................................................33
1.4 Limitations & Advantages..........................................................................................................34
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................36
References...........................................................................................................................................37
Appendices..........................................................................................................................................40
1.1 Ethics application form..............................................................................................................40
1.3 CONSENT FORM.........................................................................................................................57
1.3 INTERNATIONAL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE.............................................................59
1.4 Exercise and Health History Questionnaire...............................................................................65
1.5 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET..........................................................................................73
1.6 Cardiovascular variables & Harvard step test results.................................................................81
1.7 SPSS results................................................................................................................................83
Figure 1: Mean scores achieved in the Harvard step test by the experimental groups..........24Figure 2: Negative correlation seen between Harvard step test score & Resting heart rateFigure 3: Mean scores achieved in the Harvard step test by the experimental groups....24Figure 4: Negative correlation seen between Harvard step test score & Resting heart rate..27Figure 5 Negative correlation shown between Harvard step test score and resting systolic blood pressure...................................................................................................................................28Figure 6 Negative correlation between Harvard step test score and resting dyostolic pressure.............................................................................................................................................29
Table 1: Distances covered by football players over 45 minutes...............................................18Table 2: Fox, Billings, Bartels, Bason & Mathews, 1973 (Cardiovascular fitness index)........22Table 3: Tests of Normality..............................................................................................................25Table 4: ANCOVA, Tests of Between-Subjects Effects (Dependant variable: Harvard step test).....................................................................................................................................................26Table 5: Mean scores from International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), Short form.............................................................................................................................................................30
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Acknowledgments
I would like to take a moment to give special praise and thanks to god for guiding me through my dissertation and persistent hard work. Furthermore, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Matt Parker, for the support and encouragement he has provided me with throughout my dissertation project. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their support throughout my entire university experience and I dedicate my project to my father who is longer with us.
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Introduction
This dissertation will aim to explore the effects of endurance sports on overall
cardiovascular fitness and variables of trained male athletes. The cardiovascular
system is a collection of the systemic, pulmonary and coronary system and is self-
sufficient (Noble, 2005). The cardiovascular system and the aerobic process are
closely intertwined therefore significant functional and dimensional cardiovascular
adaptations can be observed through endurance training. Henschen, (1898), was
first to investigate cardiac enlargement in endurance athletes using chest
percussion, seen in cross country skiers as cited in Maron & Pelliccia, (2006).
1.1 Cardiovascular functions
There are five imperative functions which the cardiovascular system performs as
follows: the transportation of deoxygenated blood to the lungs which becomes
oxygenated, to deliver oxygenated blood to working muscles, transport heat from
the core towards the skin, transportation of nutrients and fuel to working muscles and
lastly the transportation of hormones (Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, 2012).
Consequently, increases in cardiac output, coupled to the needs of the activated
skeletal muscle groups, allow for the accomplishment of the essential functions in
which the cardiovascular system performs.
Fundamental mechanisms responsible for increased cardiac output in the context of
exercise include increases in heart rate, ventricular stroke volume, and peripheral
arterial vasodilation (Kovacs & Baggish, 2015). Exercise subsequently presents an
aggregate demand upon the cardiovascular system with increased oxygen demands
by working muscles. Metabolic processes accelerate while more waste is produced
in addition to rising core body temperature and the utilisation of nutrients. For
efficient performance and to meet the increasing demands of the body, the
cardiovascular systems regulation of these mechanisms becomes essential
(Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, 2012). Examination of fundamental aspects of the
cardiovascular system comprises of cardiac output, heart rate, stroke volume, blood
flow and blood pressure. The key cardiovascular variables which will be investigated
in the study will be the resting heart, systolic and diastolic blood pressure. These
variables will to help provide an overview of cardiovascular efficiency.
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1.2 Physiological cardiovascular adaptations
Adaptations which arise as a result of the participation in endurance sports comprise
of increments in mitochondrial size and number, surges in oxidative enzyme activity
and an increase in capillary density (Maughan & Gleeson, 2010). Additionally,
dynamic endurance training leads to ventricular enlargement of both right and left
cavities, allowing the ventricles to expand with a relatively little increase in wall
thickness. Ventricular enlargement is achieved through additional sarcomeres within
each myocyte causing an increase in myocyte length. Equally important is the
augmentation of stroke volume, bradycardia at rest, and growth in blood volume
raising the central venous pressure and increased myocardial vascularity which is
also characteristic adaptations observed (Levick, 2010).
Improved facilitation of oxygen delivery to working muscles, and enhanced
circulatory and thermoregulatory dynamics are also observed (McArdle, Katch &
Katch, 2015). Furthermore, the enlargement of skeletal muscle capillary density and
the number of mitochondria, better aid the ability of working cells to extract and
utilise oxygen (Aaronson & Ward, 2007).
1.3 Adaptations to cardiac output & resting heart rate
Overtime, endurance exercise produce significant rises in cardiac output during
maximal exercise, which are attributable to increases in maximal stroke volume.
Cardiac output is a product of stroke volume and heart rate, defined as the amount
of blood pumped out by the heart in 1 minute (L/min). At rest cardiac output is
around 5L/min (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015). Maximal cardiac output can range
between 25-35L/min in trained athletes, as opposed to 14-20L/min in untrained
individuals. Contradictory to this are elite athletes who have been known to reach
maximal cardiac outputs as high as 40L.min (Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, 2012).
Considerable variations in cardiac output will be present amongst individuals during
rest. Changes in cardiac output may be influenced by factors such as emotional
conditions which may affect central command, cardio accelerator nerves and nerves
which modulate arterial resistance vessels (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
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However, on average, 5 litres of blood is pumped from the left ventricle at rest, with
the 5 litre blood volumes representing an average value for trained and untrained
males (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
Changes to the autonomic control and intrinsic heart rate can be used as one
explanations for the reduction in endurance athlete’s heart rate at rest (Carter,
Banister & Blaber, 2003). Bradycardia may be present due to increases in vagal tone
in response to long term endurance training (Aaronson & Ward, 2007), this is
because training-induced parasympathetic activity of the parasympathetic hormone
acetylcholine, acting upon the sinus node increases, and resting sympathetic activity
lessens.
In addition to greater myocardial contractility, corresponding compliance of the left
ventricle and the increase in blood volume, collectively, these adaptations contribute
to the characteristically low resting heart rates seen in endurance athletes and the
athlete's ability to produce large stroke volumes with low resting heart rates
(McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015). Heart rates astonishingly low between 28-40 bpm
has been recorded in elite endurance athletes (Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, 2012),
such as in the case of cyclist Miguel Indurain, who has recorded an impressive heart
rate of just 28bpm (Moore, 2012). Therefore, low resting heart rates would suggest a
highly trained heart.
Furthermore, lower resting heart rates increase heart rate reserves. A lesser
percentage increment in heart rate and the cardiac workload is required through
increases to heart rate reserve which is advantageous to sustaining maximum
amount of physical exertion, as demonstrated in endurance sports (Bell, 2008).
McArdle, Katch & Katch, (2015), goes on to state that studies have shown that the
only factor enabling endurance athletes the ability to achieve greater maximal
cardiac outputs is through large stroke volumes.
According to Brown, Miller & Eason, (2006), a significant reduction in heart rate and
submaximal exercise can be achieved through regular endurance training.
Throughout the duration of submaximal exercise, the heart becomes more efficient
demonstrated through a proportionally lower heart rate. The length of diastole is
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prolonged due to a decreased resting heart rate following endurance training. The
end diastolic volume is augmented as a result of increased filling time.
This process is best described by the Frank-Starling mechanism whereby the
myocardial fibres inside the walls of the myocardium are stretched much further than
normal. Correspondingly, there is a larger preload during systole which accounts for
a more forceful ejection of blood from the ventricles. The larger preloads are the
result of more blood filling during diastole, and the internal diameter of the left
ventricle being enlarged (Brown, Miller & Eason, 2006).
1.4 Stroke volume adaptations
According to Aaronson & Ward, (2007), stroke volume increases gradually as the
ventricular walls and cavities thicken rising from around 75mL to 120mL. In addition,
resting stroke volumes in elite athletes may average 90-110ml/beat rising to a
staggering 150-220ml/beat (Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, 2012). Increased left
ventricular volume and mass, cardiac and arterial rigidity reduction, increased
diastolic filling times and improved function in intrinsic cardiac contractility all play a
contributing role in the increases in stroke volume as a consequence of endurance
training (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
Furthermore, regular endurance training also leads to increased blood within the
arterial system. Robergs & Keteyian, (2003), pointed out that previous studies have
found that Intense intermittent cycle ergometry exercise performed at 85% VO2 max,
induced a 10% increase in plasma volume after 24 hours. The increase in plasma
volume in response to exercise after 24 hours, demonstrates that a large training
stimulus is not necessary to increase the blood plasma volume.
Venous return and the subsequent ventricular preload are increased as a
consequence of increases in plasma volume, thereby augmenting stroke volume
during exercise. Larger stroke volumes compensate for lower exercise heart rates
because of more considerable quantities of blood being pumped by the heart with
each beat, providing sufficient oxygen delivery to working muscles requiring only a
small increase in heart rate (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
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Observations based upon research on responses to stroke volume during upright
exercise for men were made, comparing endurance athletes, and sedentary college
students before and after 55 days of aerobic training.
Endurance athletes showed significantly larger stroke volumes during rest and
exercise in comparison to untrained individuals of a similar age. Increases in heart
rate and stroke volume were found to augment cardiac output, with stroke volume
rising above resting values by 50-60% in endurance athletes (McArdle, Katch &
Katch, 2015).
Furthermore, it was found that untrained individuals had only a small increase in
stroke volume from rest to exercise with accelerating heart rate producing greater
augments to cardiac output. Moderately significant increases in stroke volume when
shifting from rest to exercise were also observed in endurance trained athletes
(McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
1.5 Cardiac cavity & wall enlargement
It has been argued that the left ventricle cavity size which is commonly referred to as
eccentric hypertrophy, and an increase in the cardiac muscle wall thickness referred
to as concentric hypertrophy, are the outcome of aerobic training. Although there is
still much research to be done to establish whether larger heart volumes are either
the result of training adaptations, genetics or multifactorial with both genetics and
adaptations through training playing important roles.
Ultra-endurance sports such as rowing where found to have one of the largest left
ventricular diastolic cavity dimension and wall thicknesses, in a study conducted by
Spirito et al., (1994). In respect to left ventricular wall thickness (LVWT), rowers were
ranked first. The investigation involved 947 elite athletes across 27 different sports
that competed at a national or international level, with echocardiography used to
identify morphological adaptations. Track sprinting athletes ranked at the lower end
of the sports compared, concerning cardiac adaptations in response to athletic
training.
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A study conducted by Wasfy et al., (2015), on endurance exercise-induced
remodelling, involved the use of 40 competitive male rowers and 40 endurance
runners. The study investigated endurance sports with low and high isometric
cardiac stress, using echocardiography for analyses, after three months of intensive
discipline-specific exercise training. Wasfy et al., (2015), observed eccentric left
ventricular hypertrophy in rowers, with high left ventricular mass and volume.
The findings where In contrast to those of long distance runners which revealed
eccentric left ventricular remodelling, as left ventricular mass remained the same,
however, large left ventricular volumes were observed in both groups. The study
established variability across endurance sporting disciplines, regarding the degree of
isometric cardiac stress as a result of the type of endurance training participated in.
Complementary to Wasfy et al., (2015) findings, Hoogsteen et al., (2004) identified
sports specific left ventricular adaptation in endurance athletes. The investigation
compared three groups of competitive endurance athletes, namely, cyclists, runners
and triathletes for differences in left ventricular adaptation. Both cyclists and
triathletes differed significantly from the marathon runners, in left ventricular mass,
and wall stress index with cyclist showing a significantly larger internal diameter in
diastole in comparison to marathon runners.
It may be fair to say that the findings from Wasfy et al., (2015) and Hoogsteen et al.,
(2004) studies, allow us to be optimistic in anticipating significant differences, when
the two endurance sports are compared in relation to Harvard step test scores and
measurements from cardiovascular variables.
1.6 Adaptations to blood pressure
Blood pressure refers to the pressure generated in the arteries during systole by the
left ventricle and the pressure remaining in the arteries when the ventricle is in
diastole (Tortora & Derrickson, 2010). Systolic pressure throughout the duration of
exercise has been known to reach 250mmHg in healthy highly trained athletes.
While typically, increases of over 200mmHg are usually observed (Kenney, Wilmore
& Costill, 2012). The regular resting blood pressure of a young adult male is less
than 120mmHg systolic and 80mmHg diastolic.
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On the other hand, people who exercise regularly and are in good physical condition
may have even lower blood pressures (Tortora & Derrickson, 2010).
1.7 Immediate cardiovascular responses to exercise
According to Brown, Miller & Eason, (2006), acute responses to exercise trigger an
immediate rise in heart rate mediated through increased sympathetic stimulation via
adrenaline and reduced parasympathetic stimulation via noradrenaline as exercise
intensity increases, this is known as the anticipatory response
(McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015). Sympathetic stimulation increases myocardium
contractility producing an augmented stroke volume along with enhanced venous
return. Furthermore, peripheral vasodilation through the auto-regulatory mechanism
in muscles accompanies high stroke volumes via a reduced total peripheral
resistance, while more blood is delivered to the skeletal muscles through
vasodilation (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
Moreover, vasoconstriction of the viscera shunts blood away from less essential
organs redirecting to working muscles. Autonomic and humoral controls are
responsible for cardiac chronotropy during exercise. Parasympathetic tone inhibition
causes rapid increases in heart rate. The central command feedback mechanism is
accountable for the rise in heart rate towards 100bpm. Parasympathetic stimulation
wanes while sympathetic stimulation increases through the cardiac accelerator
nerves. The initial rapid increase in heart rate with the onset of activity will eventually
reach a plateau. The plateau in heart rate represents a sufficiency in the
cardiovascular system meeting the demands of the working muscles, which is known
as steady-state heart rate (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2015).
Calculations for maximum heart rate can be estimated by subtracting the athletes
age by 220. Alternatively, a plateau in heart rate after rising intensities and increase
in work rate can be used in gathering a more accurate determination of maximum
heart rate (Kenney, Wilmore & Costill, 2012).
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1.7 Sporting disciplines
Sports are subdivided into disciplines with each sport having unique demands upon
the cardiovascular system. Adaptations achieved will be dependent on both the
characteristics of the sport and the participant’s genetics (Kovacs & Baggish, 2015).
The type of training frequency, intensity and duration of training sessions will vary
between sports and will be different for each. Depending on the athletes sporting
discipline they may have several competitive matches each week whereas some
sports only have a handful of scheduled competitive events each year (Maughan &
Gleeson, 2010).
Therefore, some training programmes may be centred on recovery rather than
preparation for their sport. There may also be variations in trainability amongst
individuals determined by the individuals genetic makeup which can increase or
decrease the susceptibly of attaining favourable adaptations (Maughan & Gleeson,
2010).
Endurance training is defined as physical exercise over a prolonged duration of time
maintaining the same intensity and frequency, leading to aerobic improvement
(Armstrong & McManus 2011, pp. 176). Kovacs & Baggish, (2015), states that
endurance sporting disciplines are characterised predominantly by isotonic stress
including sports such as endurance running which produce the most robust isotonic
physiology. Isotonic physiology causes the four chambers of the heart and
associated great vessels to experience a volume load, which produce chamber
dilation. In contrast, sporting disciplines which involve isometric stress demonstrate
short but intense repetitive bursts of activity and result in the generation of high
intravascular pressures.
Characteristics of exercise-induced remodelling include biventricular dilation, biatrial
dilation, and enhanced left ventricular diastolic function, stimulated by isometric
stress (Kovacs & Baggish, 2015). Evidence of Isotonic and isometric adaptations in
endurance athletes are supported by studies conducted by Hoogsteen et al., (2004)
and Wasfy et al., (2015), as mentioned previously.
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Physiology overlap sports which incorporate elements of high isometric and isotonic
stress producing both pressure and volume mediated remodelling such as rowing
exhibit the most robust cardiac adaptations (Kovacs & Baggish, 2015).
1.8 Rationale
Endurance sport is the umbrella term used for any exercise which incorporates the
maintenance of high cardiac output over a prolonged period. Through extensive
research and countless studies, we now know that the collective abundance of those
adaptations achieved through endurance sports, as mentioned above, altogether,
have a significant impact on the cardiovascular system of a trained athlete.
Henceforth their cardiovascular systems become distinguishable when compared
with non-endurance sports athletes.
Adaptive variations have been discovered within endurance sport disciplines, such
as variability in the volume and load placed upon the heart. Rowing and endurance
running are both considered to be endurance sports. However, they incorporate
different elements of endurance training which may show variations in the significant
cardiovascular variables when measured amongst the two endurance sports. I want
to see how variability in cardiovascular adaptations between the two endurance
sports, achieved through participation in their respective sporting discipline, will
impact upon the both sets of athletes when investigating overall cardiovascular
fitness and resting cardiovascular variables.
1.9 Aims
The objectives of this study are to explore whether the type of endurance sport
participated in and their associated cardiovascular adaptations will produce unique
cardiovascular variables exclusive to their particular discipline when measured.
Additionally, how these physiological adaptations will impact upon their overall
cardiovascular fitness between the two endurance sports.
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2.0 Hypothesis
The hypothesis for this study is that there will be a significant difference between the
type of endurance sport participated in and measurements of cardiovascular
variables and overall cardiovascular fitness. The null hypothesis is that there will be
no significant difference between the type of endurance sport participated in and
measurements of cardiovascular variables and overall cardiovascular fitness.
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Methodology
1.1 Sample Size
Twenty male participants were recruited for the study in total, aged between 18-24
years old. Participants where then allocated to their appropriate groups according to
which sporting discipline they belonged too. Altogether four groups were used,
namely, rowers, endurance runners, a comparison group of short distance runners
and a sedentary control group who did not participate in any competitive sports. In
order to meet the criteria for the group of endurance runners, participants had to of
competed in sports were running distances of 3,000 metres or above, where
completed in a single competition. The criteria for the short distance group required
participants to have competed in sports which involved 60 to 400 metre sprinting,
including 4x100 and 4x400 relay sprints.
A pilot study was conducted, to establish whether central midfield football players
would meet the criteria of 3000 metres or above in a single competition, to qualify for
entry into the group of endurance runners. The continuous motion of the football will
mean that the ball may travel large distances in just a few short seconds. There will
be periods of high intensity explosive sprints, although the vast majority of football
games are focused more on endurance with frequent bouts of moderate intensity
running. A study conducted by Barros et al., (2007), investigated the distances
covered by Brazilian football players throughout ninety minute matches using an
automatic tracking system.
The matches of four Brazilian first division championship games between different
opponents were filmed, with 55 participating player’s altogether. A mean distance of
10,012 metres was covered by the football players over a ninety minute period.
Barros et al., (2007) study, can be used to support the inclusion of football players
for the endurance runners group, with running distances of over 3000 metres
achieved in a single competition.
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In addition to Barros et al., (2007) study, statistics courtesy of the EA Sports player
performance index appear to support these findings. Elite Barclays Premier League
football players have been found to complete distances as high as 11,092 metres, on
average with 20 or more appearances in a single Premier League game (Walker-
Roberts, 2016).
A group of four University of Portsmouth football players were recruited for the pilot
study. A pedometer was clipped onto each of their shorts, to record the distance in
kilometres that each player was able to cover over the course of a ninety minute
football match. A senior over 18 artificial grass pitch was used to host the fixture, 100
metres in length and 64 metres in width excluding the run off area surrounding the
pitch. The match was a competitive 11-aside league game with 20 outfield players in
total excluding goalkeepers and substitutes.
Four central midfield players were used for the study as they will typically have to
cover significant amounts of ground, defending and attacking from box to box. The
game had limited stoppages and was played at a high intensity with few incidences
where players were static.
Running distances of three of the four players were recorded using the pedometer
for one half of forty-five minutes. A fourth participant was then recorded for the
second half of the match. The results shown below in Table 1, found that all of the
distances reordered from the football players surpassed the 3,000 metre threshold to
be considered as endurance running, in forty-five minutes of play. The data recorded
can be considered similar to distances covered by endurance runners during a
competitive race. The findings allowed the inclusion of football players to take part in
the study under the group of endurance runners.
Table 1: Distances covered by football players over 45 minutes
Participant A Participant B Participant C Participant D
3.85 Kilometres
= 3850 Metres
3.62 Kilometres
= 3620 Metres
3.79 Kilometres
= 3790 Metres
3.38 Kilometres
=3380 Metres
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1.2 Recruitment procedure
Volunteers who expressed a willingness to participate in the study where emailed the
participant information sheet (see Appendix 1.5), beforehand outlining the
experiment. Participants were then required to complete a pre-screening health
questionnaire (see Appendix 1.4), which was made mandatory before proceeding
further.
The pre-screening health questionnaire was used to ensure the recruitment of
healthy fit individuals. Questions were based on past and present health.
Participants were required to declare any conditions which may have posed as a risk
factor during participation in the study. Upon successful completion of the pre-
screening health questionnaire with participants declaring a clean bill of health,
participants then had to complete an International physical activity questionnaire
(IPAQ), (see Appendix 1.3). The IPAQ is an instrument primarily used to investigate,
how physically active adult populations are in general, with an age range between
15-69 years old.
Physical activities across a wide range of fields were assessed using the IPAQ tool,
activities included leisure time and transport related activities. Walking, moderate-
intensity activities and vigorous intensity activities, were the specific types of activity
evaluated. Each activity provided separate scores, which were then combined to
providing a total score to give an overall level of physical activity (IPAQ, 2005).
The IPAQ instrument was used in the study as a tool in providing an overview of how
physically active participants where. The information from the IPAQ was then used
for analyses alongside results from the Harvard step test and measurements from
key cardiovascular variables.
1.3 IPAQ scoring system
The short form of the IPAQ instrument was chosen for the study. Classification
groups for the IPAQ included inactive category 1 group, whereby individuals fail to
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meet the minimal requirements for categories 2 and 3 or no physical activity is
reported. The inactive category is subsequently the lowest level of physical activity.
Category 2 is the minimally active group where three criteria points will need to be
meet to qualify for this category. These include at least 20 minutes per day of
vigorous activity for 3 or more days, or, at least, 30 minutes per day of moderate-
intensity activity. Alternatively, walking for 5 or more days, or, a combination of
walking and moderate intensity or vigorous intensity at least 5 or more days
achieving 600 MET-min/week at minimum, to fall under the minimally active group.
Individuals who achieve one out of the three criteria stated above will be achieving
the minimum.
The third and final category is the HEPA active group, which consists of two criteria
for classification. Firstly, achieving a minimum of 1500 MET-minutes/week at least,
of vigorous intensity activity, or, obtaining a minimum of 3000 MET-minutes/week at
least, with any combination of walking, moderate intensity or vigorous intensity
activities for 7 or more days. The MET-minutes/week scores amount to around 1.4-2
hours per day in total of at least moderate intensity activities (IPAQ, 2005). As the
IPAQ assesses a broad range of domains of physical activity, a large proportion of
the population may fall under the minimally active category. Therefore, the HEPA
category is essential in identifying those who participate in a higher threshold of
activity and variations in sub-population groups become distinguishable (IPAQ,
2005).
1.4 Procedure
Resting heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure where the key
cardiovascular variables measured, for each participant in their respective groups.
The readings were recorded five minutes after each of the participant’s arrival,
allowing time for participant’s cardiovascular variables to return to normal resting
values. Following on from the recordings of cardiovascular variables participants
then proceeded to the Harvard step test, and a warm up was not permitted.
The purpose of the Harvard step test was to acquire immediate knowledge of the
level of cardiovascular efficiency for each individual. Assuming that for all
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submaximal work the person with a higher level of cardiovascular fitness will have a
smaller increase in heart rate as well as a heart rate that returns to normal faster
after the task than it would do in a person with a normal level of cardiovascular
fitness. The Harvard step test was able to provide an overview of dynamic individual
physical fitness, the ability to perform and to recover from brief, vigorous exercise,
measured through the deceleration of the heart after exercise (J. Roswell Gallagher,
1943).
A 20-inch bench in length was used for the study which required a stepping rate no
more or less than 30 steps/min. The stepping rate was measured using a
metronome, totalling 150 steps (Mackenzie, 2005).For every step up the same foot
had to be used maintaining an erect posture at all times. The test duration lasted for
5 minutes, using a stopwatch to measure the time or until the participant was unable
to maintain the stepping rate.
The participant was immediately seated once the Harvard step test had been
completed. From exactly 1 minute after the completion of the last step to 1½
minutes, the heart rate was counted for a 30-second period by measuring the
participants pulse rate. The pulse rate was then counted from 2 to 2½ minutes and
from 3 to 3½ minutes (Mackenzie, 2005).
Using the cardiovascular classification for physical fitness index as shown in Table 2,
participant’s fitness index scores where then calculated. The equation for this was
(Long form) = (100 x test duration in seconds) divided by (2 x sum of heart beats in
the recovery periods). The calculation was then used to provide participants with a
score rating ranging from poor to excellent (see appendix 1.6).
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Table 2: Fox, Billings, Bartels, Bason & Mathews, 1973 (Cardiovascular fitness index)
The
cardiovascular variable measurements obtained, where then used for analysis
across the three sporting disciplines and control group alongside results from the
Harvard strep test and IPAQ. The data obtained was used to determine whether
significant differences would be found concerning the type of endurance sport
participated in and the effects on cardiovascular fitness overall and cardiovascular
variables.
1.5 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Only male participants aged between 18-24 years old where considered for the
study. Participants with ongoing injuries were excluded from the study, with the pre-
screening health questionnaire ensuring the recruitment of healthy personnel.
Participants had to of already been participating competitively, in 1 out of the three
sports in the study or lead a sedentary lifestyle.
Participants who competed competitively in more than one of the three sports being
investigated were excluded from the study. The study would be stopped for
precautionary measures in the event that a participant was to fall unwell or
abnormalities existed in measurements of cardiovascular variables. All participants
were entitled to leave at any given time during the study if they felt uncomfortable to
continue, to prevent any harm being caused. Failure to maintain the mandatory
stepping rate of 30 steps per minute for the 5 minute duration would also result in the
termination of the study.
21 | P a g e
Rating Fitness index (long form)
Excellent > 96
Good 83 – 96
Average 68 – 82
low average 54 – 67
Poor < 54
1.5 Data Analysis
The data collected from the experiment underwent statistical analysis to see if data
collected was significant (see Appendix 1.7). A normality test was used to explore
whether the data collected was normally distributed and provide a clear indication on
whether the null hypothesis of population normality would be accepted or not. The
distribution of residuals from the ANOVA was examined. Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS)
test was used for the assessment of data normality.
The maximum difference between two cumulative distributions are outlined through
the KS test. A P value is then calculated from sample sizes and the maximum
differences ("Testing for Normality using SPSS Statistics when you have only one
independent variable.", 2013).
1.6 Ethics
Informed consent and the right to withdraw was given to everyone who volunteered
to participate in the study (see Appendix 1.3). Participants where coded
alphabetically and access to computerised records of the data were password
protected to safeguard participant’s identities and confidentiality in the event that the
data from the study became lost, stolen, etc. The participant information form (see
Appendix 1.5), was used to inform participants beforehand outlining the study.
Precautionary measures were taken to ensure the confidentiality of the data and
data was stored in a secure location. There was limiting access to identifiable
information and to who would have access to information from the study i.e.
supervisor, University of Portsmouth.
22 | P a g e
Figure 1: Mean scores achieved in the Harvard step test by
the experimental groups
Results
1.1 ANOVA
Factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted in order to test the
hypothesis for this study that there will be a significant difference in the type of
endurance sport participated in, and the Harvard step test scores and cardiovascular
variables recorded. Calculations of the mean scores from each of the four groups
revealed that rowers had the highest mean score (M=141.32, SD=18.94) with
endurance runners achieving the second highest mean score (M=129.78, SD=6.75).
Out of the four study groups involved, the controls had the lowest mean score for the
Harvard step test (M=69.62, SD=6.60) as shown in figure 2.
23 | P a g e
Figure 2 shows that all variances within their groups are relatively small with the
endurance runners and controls showing the smallest variances within groups. A
large variance can be seen between groups of the rowers and endurance runners
when compared to the controls. There is a large variance between groups when
comparing rowers with short distance runners.
Conversely, a small variance between groups can be seen when comparing rowers
with endurance runners. However further statistical analyse was required to
determine how significant the results plotted on the graph actually are.
1.2 Test for Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.
Studentized Residual for HST
.146 20 .200* .965 20 .653
Table 3: Tests of Normality
The Test for Normality was carried out, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, using the residuals
from the Analysis of variance (ANOVA) model. The Tests of Normality found no
significant difference between the dataset across the four study groups as the P
value of .200 is > 0.05 * as shown in Table 3. The results from the KS test show that
there was no significant deviation from a normal population.
The ANOVA model was used to test the difference between and within the groups
mean and variations in the Harvard step test scores. The Significance was less than
the critical value of alpha (F=(3,16)= 29.04, P<.05), which indicates that the results
where statistically significant. The range of values from the sample mean of all 4
conditions fell between 95% confidence intervals.
24 | P a g e
1.3 Post-hoc test
A Post-hoc test was run (see Appendix 1.7,) in order to establish where the
differences between the groups lay. Post-hoc test revealed that there was a
significant difference from rowers and endurance runners when compared to the
controls (p<0.05) on the Harvard step test. However, there was no significant
difference found between rowers and endurance runners on Harvard step test
scores (p=1.000). A significant difference was observed between rowers and short
distance runners (p=.001), and between endurance runners and short distance
runners (p=.019).
SourceType III Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 16242.599a 6 2707.100 17.142 .000
Intercept 2031.568 1 2031.568 12.864 .003
REST_HR 75.178 1 75.178 .476 .502
REST_SBP 326.576 1 326.576 2.068 .174
REST_DBP 123.436 1 123.436 .782 .393
GROUP 335.597 3 111.866 .708 .564
Error 2052.973 13 157.921
Total 261705.620 20
Corrected Total 18295.572 19
Table 4: ANCOVA, Tests of Between-Subjects Effects (Dependant variable: Harvard step test)
Furthermore a significant difference was observed between the short distance
runners and the controls (p=.012). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) found no
significant difference (F(3,13)=0.71, P=0.56), when the physical parameters where
controlled for and the effect of the experimental groups goes away, as shown in
Table 5.
25 | P a g e
Figure 4: Negative correlation seen between Harvard step test score & Resting heart rate
1.4 Correlation coefficient
Analysis of the correlation coefficient found that there is a negative correlation
between the Harvard step test score and cardiovascular variables (-1 to 0). A strong
relationship exists between the Harvard step test scores and each of the
cardiovascular variables measured (p<.05).
Fig. 4 r(n=20)= -0.830, p= <0.001(2-Tailed); the is a strong relationship between the
scoring of the Harvard step test and resting heart rate. Resting (bpm) is inversely
proportional to the Harvard step test score. The lower the resting heart rate the
greater the score on the Harvard step test.
26 | P a g e
Fig. 5 r(n=20)= -0.850, p= <0.001 (2-Tailed); there is a strong relationship between
the scoring of the Harvard step test and resting systolic blood pressure. Resting
systolic blood pressure, is inversely proportional to the Harvard step test score. The
lower the resting systolic blood pressure the greater the score on the Harvard step
test.
Figure 5 Negative correlation shown between Harvard step test score and resting systolic blood pressure
Fig. 6 r(n=20)= -0.823, p= <0.001 (2-Tailed); there is a strong relationship between
the scoring of the Harvard step test and resting diastolic blood pressure. Resting
diastolic blood pressure is inversely proportional to the Harvard step test score. The
lower the resting diastolic blood pressure the greater the score on the Harvard step
test.27 | P a g e
Figure 6 Negative correlation between Harvard step test score and resting dyostolic pressure
1.5 IPAQ results
28 | P a g e
Rowers Endurance runners
Short distance runners
Sedentary controls
M= 4746 M= 3534 M= 3141.6 M=1197.9
HEPA active HEPA active HEPA active Minimally Active
Table 5: Mean scores from International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), Short form
Table 6 shows the scores from the IPAQ from each group, with the rowers achieving
the highest mean score (M= 4746). The sedentary control group scored the lowest
out of the four groups on the IPAQ (M=1197.9). Sedentary controls do not meet the
weekly recommendations for physical activity and so fall under the minimally active
group. Rowers, endurance runners and short distance runners were found to
participate in a higher threshold of activity than the normal weekly recommendations
as they all fall under the HEPA active group.
Discussion
1.1 Cardiovascular adaptations & efficiency
29 | P a g e
The Spirito et al., (1994) study can be used to explain why rowers achieved the
highest mean score on the Harvard step test (M=141.32, SD=18.94). This is
because rowers were found to have the largest left ventricular diastolic cavity
dimension and wall thickness. The Harvard step test assesses cardiovascular fitness
and efficiency of the individual. Therefore, with the rowers mean scores being the
highest, this may suggest that favourable adaptations to the rower’s heart such as,
having the largest left ventricular diastolic cavity dimension and wall thickness out of
endurance sports as seen in Spirito et al., (1994) study, that the rowing sporting
discipline indeed provides better improvement in cardiovascular fitness in
comparison to endurance runners.
Corresponding evidence from Wasfy et al., (2015), and Hoogsteen et al., (2004)
studies, again emphasise the variability in cardiac adaptations in relation to the type
of endurance sport participated. Both studies found adaptations to left ventricular
mass and volume in rowers and endurance runners, however, rowers showed the
most significant adaptions with greater increases in both ventricular mass and
volume.
Spirito et al., (1994) study found track sprinting athletes ranked at the lower end of
the cardiac adaptations spectrum from athletics training. The few cardiac adaptations
acquired through track sprinting may be the reason why significant differences are
observed by rowers and endurance runners when compared with short distance
runners (p=.001), (p=.019) respectively, on the results from the Harvard step test.
Cardiac adaptations such as larger increases in left ventricular volume, which
produce greater stroke volumes, therefore, could prove to be advantageous to the
athlete in relation to overall cardiovascular fitness.
However the findings from the study do not allow a conclusion to be drawn based on
our hypothesis. Although the rowers had the highest Harvard step test scores and
the lowest cardiovascular measurements (see Appendix 1.6), the study found no
significant difference between the two endurance disciplines (p=1.000).
Alternatively, the Null hypothesis can be accepted based on the findings, that there
will be no significant difference between the type of endurance sport participated in
and measurements of cardiovascular variables and overall cardiovascular fitness.
30 | P a g e
Analysis of covariance was used to establish whether the means of the independent
groups showed any significant differences. The effect of the experimental groups
goes away when the physical parameters of heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood
pressure are controlled for, which shows no significant difference (F(3,13)=0.71,
P=0.56). This may suggest that the strong relationship between the measurements
of subject’s cardiovascular variables and Harvard step test scores may provide a
better indication of how well the participant is likely to score on the Harvard step test
and subsequent measure of cardiovascular fitness, rather than the type of sport
participated in.
1.2 Cardiovascular variables & Harvard step test scoring
Analyses of the correlation coefficient, found a strong negative correlation between
scores achieved on the Harvard step test and the resting heart rate which is
inversely proportional. These findings show that lower the resting heart rate, the
greater the score on the Harvard step test. The findings can be explained through
changes to vagal tone and increases in parasympathetic stimulation during rest as a
result of endurance training, as stated by Aaronson & Ward, (2007) and Carter,
Banister & Blaber, (2003). Endurance athletes were found to have the lowest resting
heart rates in the study (Appendix 1.6).
Furthermore, endurance athlete’s lowered resting heart rates demonstrate a highly
trained heart with improved efficiency. The improved efficiency of the heart is
accomplished through the Frank-starling mechanism. A greater stretch to the
myocardial walls through increased filling times will cause a more forceful ejection of
blood.
The increased filling times will mean greater stoke volumes and, therefore, a larger
cardiac output. Larger volumes of oxygenated blood will be pumped out by the left
ventricle, and the demands of respiring cells are met, as explained by Brown, Miller
& Eason, (2006).
Sedentary controls had the highest resting heart rate and scored the lowest on the
Harvard step test. As stated by McArdle, Katch & Katch, (2015), there are only small
increases in stroke volume from rest to exercise in untrained individuals in
31 | P a g e
comparison to the larger volumes seen in trained endurance athletes. Henceforth,
we see a greater rise in heart rate to produce a larger cardiac output to meet the
demands of working cells nearer towards the controls maximum heart rate. The
greater increase in heart rate to compensate for small increases in stroke volume,
may best explain why the controls recovery period back towards their normal resting
heart rate, took the longest time and ultimately lead towards the lowest scores on the
Harvard step test. Contrary to endurance athletes untrained sedentary individuals
demonstrate poor cardiovascular efficiency.
1.3 IPAQ Analysis
The highest mean average score on the International Physical Activity Questionnaire
(IPAQ) was scored by the rowing group (M= 4746), which fall under the HEPA active
group, who participate in enough physical activity to lead a healthy lifestyle. This may
suggest that the rowers are more physically active in general out of the four study
groups. The IPAQ takes into consideration a combined total of vigorous and
moderate intensity activities and walking, 7 or more days a week.
That greater general fitness seen in the rowers would greatly contribute to their
mean scores achieved on the Harvard step test as well as low cardiovascular
variables. This is because there would be an improved cardiovascular fitness which
would be greater than those who are generally less active. A more efficient
cardiovascular system will affect the resting cardiovascular variables as a result of a
highly trained heart and so rowers also have the lowest cardiovascular variables
(see Appendix 1.6)
Sedentary controls had the lowest mean score out of the four study groups on the
IPAQ (M=1197.9), falling under the minimally active group. The controls did not meet
the recommendations for the minimal requirement for activity undertaken by adults
each week. This will mean overall cardiovascular fitness is reduced and their
cardiovascular system will not be as efficient when compared to a trained athletes.
Therefore, with the controls being the least physically active group this may have
contributed to the scoring the lowest on the Harvard step test and having the highest
cardiovascular variables.
32 | P a g e
Moreover, it could be argued that genetics could prove to be more of a determining
factor, for overall cardiovascular and cardiovascular variables. This is because
individuals may be limited by their genetic makeup from achieving favourable
adaptations, regardless of the type of endurance sport participated in and the
amount of physical activity, as stated by Maughan & Glesson, (2010).
1.4 Limitations & Advantages
A cause and effect relationship was able to be established to a certain degree, as
extraneous variables such as characteristic variations between participants of height
and weight may present an unfair advantage for some. Participants taller in height
with longer legs, require less strenuous effort to step onto the 20 inch step. Similarly,
participants who weigh considerably less may require less vigorous effort when
carrying out the Harvard step test. Therefore, height and weight would need to be
controlled for better in order to eliminate this factor, with the recruitment of
participants who are of similar height and weight for each of the four study groups.
The pulse recordings where recorded by finding the participants pulse rate and
measuring it for thirty second intervals over a three minute period. The method used
to record the pulse rate was open to human error, with difficulties finding the pulse
rate for some participants, misjudgements made as a result of a weak pulse, and
occasional movement from the participant. Additionally, due to repetition of each
experiment on participants, overtime fatigue and distractions may have become an
issue.
The use of pulse recording instruments would be able to control for these factors and
provide a more accurate measure of each participants pulse rate free from human
error. Moreover, cardiovascular variable measurements, such as resting heart rate
and blood pressure may be affected by exercise performed days prior to the study,
which may affect the reliability of the results obtained.
There would need to be strict rules in place for the adherence of participants to not
carry out exercise a set number days before the study.
Furthermore, study only used male participants recruited from the University of
Portsmouth. The studies generalisability will be reduced, as it would be hard to
33 | P a g e
generalise the findings from the study towards the wider population and therefore
effect the validity of the study. A much larger sample size would need to be used to
give a clearer indication on significant differences between the two endurance sports
of rowing and endurance running. The participants were all full-time university
students, unable to give their full commitment and dedication to their sports as
professional elite athletes are able to. Moreover, university sports, although very
competitive, are recreational sports and are not played at the same standard and
intensity as elite athletes who receive professional training. Subsequently, the
recruitment of elite athletes who compete professionally in rowing, endurance
running and short distance running, would increase the reliability and validity of the
results.
On the other hand, the Harvard step test was cost effective and convenient to carry
out, requiring limited resources to assess cardiovascular fitness and record key
cardiovascular measurements. Limited equipment was required to safely perform
this procedure. The experiment was carried out in a well-controlled environment
using standardised procedure therefore it would be easy for the study to be
replicated. Participants were given a debrief about the purpose and objectives of the
study at the end, in order to avoid demand characteristics by participants.
Participants may alter their behaviour due to interpretations of what they think the
experimenter expects to find.
Conclusion
All the cardiovascular variables measured showed a strong negative relationship,
inversely proportional to Harvard step test scores. These findings suggest that the
34 | P a g e
lower the individuals cardiovascular variables at rest, the better they score on the
Harvard step test which demonstrates a high level of cardiovascular fitness.
Although the question remains on how significant a role the athletes sporting
discipline, or their genetic profile or both actually play in determining the athlete’s
cardiovascular variables and overall cardiovascular fitness.
Furthermore, the controls scored the lowest in the Harvard step test and had the
highest resting cardiovascular variables. The control group also had the lowest mean
score for the IPAQ. Therefore there is reason to suggest that cardiovascular fitness
is dependent, to an extent, on the type of sport participated in. This is because there
was a significant difference observed between the controls and both the rowers and
endurance runners when compared.
Additionally the study also found endurance runners and rowers to have a greater
overall cardiovascular fitness and lower cardiovascular variables than the
comparison and control groups. The significant differences observed in the study
between endurance sport and non-endurance athletes also support previous findings
that endurance athletes become distinguishable from non-endurance athletes
through favourable adaptations which better improve their cardiovascular fitness and
lowered cardiovascular variables. Moreover, the study found that differences in
cardiovascular fitness and variables do exists between the two endurance sporting
disciplines, namely, rowers and endurance runners. However these differences are
not significant and would require further investigation to establish if there is in fact
significant differences between the two endurance disciplines.
References
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Aaronson, P., & Ward, J. (2007). The cardiovascular system at a glance (3rd
ed., pp. 64-65). Malden, Mass.: Blackwell.
Barros, R., Misuta, M., Menezes, R., Figueroa, P., Moura, F., & Cunha, S. et
al. (2007). Analysis of the Distances Covered by First Division Brazilian
Soccer Players Obtained with an Automatic Tracking Method. Journal Of
Sports Science & Medicine, 6(2), 233–242.
Bell, C. (2008). Cardiovascular physiology in exercise and sport. Edinburgh:
Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone.
Brown, S., Miller, W., & Eason, J. (2006). Exercise physiology. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Carter, J., Banister, E., & Blaber, A. (2003). Effect of Endurance Exercise on
Autonomic Control of Heart Rate. Sports Medicine, 33(1), 33-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200333010-00003
Fox, E., Billings, C., Bartels, R., Bason, R., & Mathews, D. (1973). Fitness
standards for male college students. Internationale Zeitschrift FuR
Angewandte Physiologie EinschliebLich Arbeitsphysiologie, 31(3), 231-236.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00697601
Hoogsteen, J., Hoogeveen, A., Schaffers, H., Wijn, P., van Hemel, N., & van
der Wall, E. (2004). Myocardial adaptation in different endurance sports: an
echocardiographic study. The International Journal Of Cardiovascular Imaging
Formerly The International Journal Of Cardiac Imaging, 20(1), 19-26.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/b:caim.0000013160.79903.19
Kenney, W., Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (2012). Physiology of sport and
exercise (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Klabunde, R. (2005). Cardiovascular physiology concepts (pp. 186-187).
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Kovacs, R., & Baggish, A. (2015). Cardiovascular adaptation in athletes.
Trends In Cardiovascular Medicine.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2015.04.003
Levick, J. (2010). An introduction to cardiovascular physiology (5th ed., pp.
333-335, 339-340). London: Hodder Arnold.
Mackenzie, B. (2005). 101 performance eveluation tests. London: Peak
Performance Publishing.
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Maughan, R., & Gleeson, M. (2010). The biochemical basis of sports
performance (2nd ed., pp. 227-230, 238-242). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
McArdle, W., Katch, F., & Katch, V. (2015). Exercise physiology (8th
ed.).Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Moore, K. (2012). How is Bradley Wiggins different from the average man? -
BBC News. BBC News. Retrieved 21 April 2016, from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-18959642
Noble, A. (2005). The cardiovascular system. Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill
Livingstone.
Testing for Normality using SPSS Statistics when you have only one
independent variable.. (2013). Statistics.laerd.com. Retrieved 21 April 2016,
from https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/testing-for-normality-using-spss-
statistics.php
Tortora, G., & Derrickson, B. (2010). Essentials of anatomy and physiology
(8th ed., pp. 424-425). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
Spirito, P., Pelliccia, A., Proschan, M., Granata, M., Spataro, A., & Bellone, P.
et al. (1994). Morphology of the “athlete's heart” assessed by
echocardiography in 947 elite athletes representing 27 sports. The American
Journal Of Cardiology, 74(8), 802-806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-
9149(94)90439-1
Turner, p. (1985). The Cardiovascular System (2nd ed., pp. 1-7). CHURCHILL
LIVINGSTONE.
Walker-Roberts, J. (2016). Which Premier League players have run the
furthest this season?. Sky Sports. Retrieved 11 March 2016, from
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players
Wasfy, M., Weiner, R., Wang, F., Berkstresser, B., Lewis, G., & DeLuca, J. et
al. (2015). Endurance Exercise-Induced Cardiac Remodeling: Not All Sports
Are Created Equal. Journal Of The American Society Of
Echocardiography, 28(12), 1434-1440.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2015.08.002
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Appendices
1.1 Ethics application form
School of Health Sciences and Social Work38 | P a g e
Research at all levels in the University of Portsmouth must be subjected to ethical review
Ethical consideration serves to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct in the research
process. It involves discussion of what is right or wrong in particular contexts. Responsibility
for ethical review is shared between the School of Health Sciences and Social Work
(SHSSW) Research Ethics and Peer Review Committee and the Science Faculty Ethics
Committee. All research must be subject to both ethical and peer review, especially that
involving human participants and/or sensitive subjects. Ethics and peer review applies to
work at every academic level, including student projects and dissertations as well as doctoral
theses and staff research and consultancy. All associated fieldwork is covered so that every
(quantitative or qualitative) questionnaire, interview, experimental test, sampling or
observation that directly or indirectly involves one or more human participants needs to be
reviewed against ethics criteria. Review is also relevant where potentially sensitive issues or
physical, biological, cultural or historic features or artefacts are the subjects of research.
All projects should observe the principle of DO NO HARM
Research projects that involve human participants and sensitive subjects have the potential
to do harm, particularly if the participants/subjects are vulnerable. All researchers have a
duty of care to the subjects of their research. The care that the researcher needs to exercise
also extends to the data processing stage because of the need to ensure that anonymity and
confidentiality are protected. It is important for the researcher to provide a reliable
assessment of the likely risks and to identify measures to minimize/address any significant
risks.
All projects should observe the principle of DO GOOD
Since, at the very least, participants will be giving up some of their time to take part in
research, or sensitive features will be intruded upon it is probable that some small harm, at
least, will be caused. It is therefore important that a project has the potential to generate
some benefits and that the researcher has been trained in the methods to be used. It is
39 | P a g e
important that the researcher is honest and unbiased in the reporting of the findings.
All projects involving human participants need to provide an information sheet and consider
the need for a consent form
All research projects involving human participants should aim to produce an information
sheet for participants using the guidance supplied. If potentially “risky” testing or procedures
are to be applied, it may also be necessary to provide a consent form that requires a
signature from the participant. Example forms are available via the link below.
Further information
More information can be found regarding the University’s research ethics policy and useful
external research council and NHS links by visiting the University website at
http://www.port.ac.uk/research/ethics/
RESEARCH ETHICS GUIDANCE FOR STAFF & STUDENTS
School of Health Sciences and Social Work
Staff and research students:
All staff and research students undertaking research projects must ensure their
proposals have been peer reviewed at School level before submission to the
Science Faculty Ethics Committee (SFEC), using the Faculty’s application form (see
Moodle link: http://moodle.port.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=3461).
Further advice is available from the chair of SHSSW’s Peer Review and Ethics
Committee (contact [email protected]).
40 | P a g e
Please note: undergraduate and taught postgraduate dissertations that form part of (or contribute to) a research project managed by lecturing staff must be treated as staff research for the purposes of ethical review.
Undergraduate and taught postgraduate students
Many undergraduate and taught postgraduate students will choose to undertake a
literature review for their research projects and dissertations. Dissertation unit
coordinators should keep a record of students undertaking literature reviews and
individual tutors must ensure students understand the boundaries of such studies.
Undergraduate and taught postgraduate students wishing to undertake primary
research must complete this checklist in collaboration with their tutor/supervisor. It
aims to identify possible risks and indicate whether an application for a more detailed
ethical review needs to be submitted to the SHSSW Peer Review and Ethics
Committee. Where tutors/supervisors are satisfied there are no significant ethical
concerns they may give the project a favourable opinion. However, if there is any
doubt then please refer to the chair of the SHSSW committee.
Before completing this form, please refer to the University code of practice on
general ethical standards and any relevant subject specific ethical guidelines.
It is the researcher that is responsible for ensuring the accuracy and completeness
of this review. In the case of a project or dissertation, a student can consult their
tutor/supervisor for guidance, but it is their own responsibility to submit an accurate
assessment and adhere to its details.
Guidance—How to fill in the form
Questions 1-3:
Answer Questions 1-3 on the Checklist (see later section).
41 | P a g e
Questions 4-15:
Answer YES/NO to the following questions – insert your answers on the Checklist. If you answer ‘YES’ to any of the questions below, provide a response beneath the italicised guidance or on a separate sheet.
4. Will the research involve the collection and analysis of primary data? Primary
data includes interviews, surveys, self-completion questionnaires, empirical
data, etc. that you have collected)
If Yes, you will need to consider the ethical issues involved in the collection,
use, analysis and storage of data from human informants and non-human
subjects, especially if your research requires access to personal, confidential or
sensitive data. How will you assure confidentiality? How will you anonymise
personal, confidential and sensitive data? Have you gained permission from
appropriate data protection officers? Have you made arrangements for the
destruction or safekeeping of raw data on completion of the research? Who will
have access to, or own, the data? Will you need to ask permission to use
stored data for additional research at a later stage? If yes, you need to ask for
explicit consent for data storage and data sharing.
5. Will you be using any data collection instruments?
If Yes, you need to supply details of the data collection instruments (e.g.
copy of the interview schedule, survey, questionnaire or empirical test
materials). You need to discuss your data collection instrument with your
tutor/supervisor. You tutor/supervisor will need to approve it before the data
collection exercise begins.
6. Is the research likely to involve any risk to potential subjects, third parties, you
as an individual, or to the University of Portsmouth? Third parties may be
teachers, health care professionals, spouses, etc. who are directly involved in
42 | P a g e
the care, education or treatment of the potential subjects.
If Yes, how do you plan to minimize/justify risks? You need to safe-guard the
well-being and privacy of potential subjects and any third parties. You need to
also make sure that you minimize the risks to yourself and anyone else who
may be assisting with the data collection. In addition, you need to ensure that
your proposed research is not likely to affect adversely the University’s
reputation and that no-one will be disadvantaged as a result of your research.
Will it be possible to ensure that participating persons / organizations remain
completely anonymous? Will you take measures to ensure confidentiality of
data collected? Do the benefits outweigh the disadvantages?
7. Is the study likely to involve observing human subjects, informants or
participants? A participant is defined as: (i) a person giving personal and/or
behavioural data (ii) a person that is the subject of your research (iii) a person
that you plan to experiment upon. It includes those answering structured
interviews or questionnaires, but not casual enquiries. It also includes covert
observation of people, especially if in a non-public place.
If Yes, confirm whether and explain how you will apply/use (i) recruitment
letters (ii) participant information sheets, (iii) informed consent, (iv) maintenance
of participant anonymity and (v) maintenance of confidentiality of data
collected. You will need to produce and attach the recruitment letter (on
headed University paper) and the information sheet for participants (see
Appendix). If potential risks are identified, it may be necessary to provide an
informed consent form that requires a signature from all the participants (see
Appendix).
8. Will the study involve National Health Service patients or staff?
If Yes, you will need to apply for NHS ethical review. If you answered ‘yes’ to
questions 1 and 2, an application must be submitted to the appropriate
research ethics committee (NHS REC). David Carpenter, Faculty of Humanities
43 | P a g e
and Social Sciences ([email protected]) is chair of the Isle of Wight,
Portsmouth and SE Hants NHS REC and is able to advise you.
9. Do human participants/subjects take part in studies without their
knowledge/consent at the time? Will deception of any sort be involved? (e.g. by
covert observation of people, especially if in a non-public place, or by not being
clear about the purpose of the research at the outset, etc.)
If Yes, how do you plan to minimize risks? You will need to provide an
extremely strong scientific justification for the use of non-voluntary participation
and deception. Will it be possible to ensure the participants remain completely
anonymous? Will you take measures to ensure confidentiality of data collected?
Will you reveal the purpose of the research after data collection to the
participants? Will you ensure the right to withdraw at any time during and after
the research?
10. Does the study involve vulnerable participants who are unable to give informed
consent or in are in a dependent position (e.g. infants, children, people with
learning disabilities, people with special needs, unconscious patients,
adolescents, offenders, atypical populations, other people ‘at risk’)? Please note the requirements of the Mental Capacity Act for researchers. Studies
involving people with constrained capacity to make their own decisions must be
referred to either NRES or the National Social Care Research Ethics
Committee.
If Yes, how do you plan to minimize risks? You must safeguard the well-being
of your participants by considering any special precautions and procedures that
will minimize the risk to these people. e.g. ask for informed consent from their
carers or parents, explain whether you will require the co-operation of a
“gatekeeper” for initial/continuing access to the groups or individuals to be
recruited? (e.g. children/students at school, residents of nursing home,
members of a tribe).
44 | P a g e
11. Could the study induce psychological distress or anxiety in participants or third
parties?
If Yes, how will you minimize the risks? You will need to have an informed
consent form signed by all participants and third parties.
12. Does the study involve face-to-face contact with members of the community?
If Yes, you must make sure you have procedures in place to reduce the
potential risks to you or any other person involved in the data collection. Will
you be contacting your subjects directly or will you be gaining access via an
intermediary (either an individual or an organization)? Research typically takes
place on University premises. Special procedures must be put in place if research is conducted off University premises. Where will the research take place?
13. Will financial inducements (other than reasonable expenses and compensation
for time) be offered to participants?
If Yes, identify any risks associated. How do you plan to minimize risks and
preempt complaints? Will your research incur any financial costs to participants
– travel, postage, etc.? How will you inform them of this? If you consider
compensation necessary, explain the nature of it and why you think it is
needed.
14. Is there any potential role conflict for you in the research? Potential role conflict
arises when your research involves people to whom you owe other duties, e.g.
they are your students, clients, patients, employees, etc.
If Yes, how do you plan to minimize/justify risks? You will need to justify the
reasons why it is necessary to conduct research with participants to whom you
owe other duties. Special procedures are required when the researcher is in a
position of authority, power or influence with respect to participants. You will 45 | P a g e
have to show what safeguards (steps) will be taken to minimize inducements,
coercion or potential harm, especially for non-participation and how the dual-
role relationship and the safeguards will be explained to potential participants.
15. Will the research involve sensitive issues (topics likely to cause offence to an
individual or group, such as sexual activity, death and illness, physical and
mental health or condition, religious beliefs, political affiliations, race and
ethnicity, criminal records, issues around cultural or gender or other
differences, etc.)?
If Yes, how will you ensure a balanced appraisal of the topic and issues
involved? You will need to consider reducing potential risks by managing the
topics appropriately and by not being subject to undue influences. You will
need to discuss any political considerations in taking a critical stand on any
sensitive issue with your tutor/supervisor.
If you are in any doubt in respect of your responsibilities and the procedures you
need to follow, please contact Dr John Crossland, [email protected] for
guidance. If the supervisor / assessor of this form is in any doubt about your
application they shall refer your application for DETAILED review by the SHSSW
Peer Review and Ethics Committee.
If you have answered ‘yes’ to any of questions 4 to 15 you must present details of
how you plan to minimize any risks identified.
If you have answered ‘no’ to all questions in questions 4 to15, it is still your
responsibility to follow the University Code of Practice on Ethical Standards and any
Department/School or subject specific professional guidelines in the conduct of your
study including relevant guidelines regarding health and safety of researchers.
This form constitutes a record of agreed actions that could be subject to review in
cases of variation in research procedures and receipt of complaints. It is therefore
important to submit an accurate assessment and adhere to or update its details.
46 | P a g e
.
All materials submitted will be treated confidentially.
47 | P a g e
School of Health Sciences and Social Work
RESEARCH ETHICS CHECKLIST
Student / Principal Investigator: Marlon McFarlane
E-mail address or other contact information: [email protected] TEL:
07796005953
Project Title: To compare the effects which different types of endurance sports have
upon the cardiovascular system of trained male athletes aged between 18-24 years
old?
Main objectives and aim(s) of study: • Aim: To investigate whether endurance
athletes show marked differences in cardiovascular variables depending on the type
of endurance sport participated in
Objective: To conduct an experiment in order to compare the cardiovascular
variables of athletes who participate in endurance sports, to determine
whether differences in cardiovascular variables between the athletes can be
attributed to endurance sports and the type of endurance sport participated in
Methods of data collection: IPAQ Questionnaire, Pre-testing health questionnaire,
Harvard step test, Measurements of key cardiovascular variables using specialist
equipment
Tutor / Supervisor: Dr Matt Parker
Degree and type of research (project, dissertation, fieldwork, etc.): BSc Human
Physiology, Dissertation experiment
Proposed Dates/Timescale: April 2016
48 | P a g e
Yes
No
1. I have read the relevant section in the Unit Handbook on research ethics (for
students only)
x
2. I am familiar with the relevant subject discipline ethical guidelines x
3. I have attended the session on research ethics (for students only) x
4. My research will involve the collection of primary data x
5. I have supplied details of my data collection instruments (interview schedule,
survey, questionnaire, test materials, etc.)
x
6. Could the research potentially be harmful to subjects, third parties, you as an
individual, or the University of Portsmouth?
x
Physical x
Psychological/mental/emotional x
Reputational x
Other social risk (possible stigmatization, loss of status or
privacy, risk to community, etc.)
x
Compromising situations x
Material x
Economic (e.g. job security, job loss, etc.) x
7. Is the study likely to involve human subjects, informants or participants? x
8. Will the study involve NHS patients or staff? X
9. Do human participants/subjects take part in the study without their
knowledge/consent at the time? Will deception of any other form be used?
x
49 | P a g e
10. Does the study involve vulnerable or dependent participants e.g. children,
learning disabilities?
x
11. Could the study induce psychological distress or anxiety in participants or third
parties?
x
12. Does the study involve face-to-face contact with members of the community? x
13. Will financial inducements other than reasonable expenses be offered to
participants?
x
14. Is there any potential role conflict for you in the research? x
15. Will the research involve sensitive issues (topics likely to cause offence to an
individual or group)?
x
If you have answered ‘yes’ to any of questions 6 to 15 you must attach additional
details of how you plan to minimize any risks identified. Please see earlier sections
for questions you may need to address and suggestions on how to address them.
4) Primary data will be collected over the course of the study. Participant will be
coded within their sporting discipline, this will be achieved through the labelling of
participants with an alphabet letter, and this will ensure participants remain
anonymous during the study.
In the event that a data document is lost, stolen, etc. having the data protected by
coding subjects will prevent participants from being identified. Measures will be taken
to ensure the data collected will remain confidential. This will include security codes
to computerized records of the data collected, limiting the access to identifiable
information and the storage of data in a secure location. Participants will be informed
beforehand about these precautionary measures taken to ensure the confidentiality 50 | P a g e
of the data, whilst subjects will also be briefed about who will have access to
information from the study i.e. supervisor, university of Portsmouth.
5) Controlled indoor experiment
• Online IPAQ questionnaire
• Prescreening health questionnaire
• 20-inch bench (Harvard step test)
• Stopwatch
• Metronome
• Blood pressure monitor
• Finger Pulse Oximeter and Heart Rate Monitor
6) An information sheet and Informed consent will be presented to participants, they
will have a choice whether to participate or not and opt out at any given time. Data
collected from each participant will be labeled as an alphabet letter according to their
sporting discipline, to uphold anonymity. Personal will be given a brief before the
experiment is conducted and debrief will follow upon completion. A healthy history
questionnaire will be made mandatory for all participants to complete before
undertaking the experiment. The questionnaire ensure the recruitment of healthy fit
individuals and will ask questions based on present and past health and whether
there may be any conditions which may cause harm to the participants. Personal
who fail to meet the required standards will be excluded from the study and will not
be allowed to participate.
7) Recruitment letters will be posted on the Facebook page of the athletics union. My
Facebook and email address will be made available for those who are willing to
participate to contact me. Invitation letters will be emailed to members of the Athletics
and the Rowing team squad pages. Once participants have read the Invitation letter
those who are interested in taking part will be emailed the information sheets,
outlining the experiment being conducted.
11) Psychological distress may occur through the participant feeling that once
they’ve begun the study they have to continue until the end regardless of physical or
51 | P a g e
mental health during the study. In order to minimize this risk informed consent must
be read and signed which allows the personal to opt out at any time during the study.
Risks will be minimized through the completion of a general health questionnaire, to
exclude participants who may suffer from condition which the study may cause harm
too. Participants will be briefed on how to carry out Harvard step test I.e. maintain
upright posture. Dry clean surfaces; making sure participants wear correct footwear
i.e. Astro turf, whilst participants will be briefed and debriefed at the end of the study
so they are aware of what they are participating in.
12) Participants will be recruited via advertisements posted on the Facebook pages
of the athletic union and rowing team. A participant invitation sheet will also be sent
out via email to the presidents of the rowing, and athletics unions inviting them and
potential participants to take part in the study. The study will also be advertised
through the universities website. Once volunteers come forward, they will be
contacted individually via email with the information sheet on what the experiment
consists of. A time and date of the experiment will also be sent to participants. The
experiment will be conducted within the university premises, along with my allocated
supervisor using the university equipment provided for the experiment. The IPAQ
questionnaire will be completed and submitted online along with a pre testing health
questionnaire. Consent forms will be completed before participants begin the study.
52 | P a g e
I confirm that the information provided is a complete and accurate record of my plans
at present and that I shall resubmit an amended version of this form should my
research alter significantly such that there is any significant variation of ethical risk.
Signed: ………………………………………..…..Student or Principal Investigator
Signed: ……………………………………………. Countersignature of
Supervisor (if student research)
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASSESSMENT RECORD (completion by Supervisor or SHSSW Research Ethics &
Peer Review Committee)
Favorable opinion -
Favorable opinion with provision –
Risks assessed as SIGNIFICANT (undergraduate and taught
postgraduate only)
Referred for DETAILED Ethical Review by SHSSW Peer Review
and Ethics Committee
53 | P a g e
Unfavorable opinion – see reasons specified below
Referred back to researcher to clarify/add detail. You must meet
with your supervisor, tutor or mentor to discuss the issues and
concerns and then resubmit.
No opinion possible – see reasons specified below
Date received: ……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………
Date reviewed: .........................……………………..
Signed................................................
..........…..... (Supervisor or SHSSW
Research Ethics & Peer Review
Committee)
Additional Conditions/Comments:
If you are resubmitting a proposal that was not approved, you need to include:
1. a new research ethics checklist
2. a sheet explaining how the conditions/comments and other feedback have
been incorporated into the revised proposal
3. the original proposal that was not approved
4. the revised proposal with any required additional documents
Please note:54 | P a g e
Applicants should submit the completed checklist and accompanying documents to
the Chair of the SHSSW Peer Review and Ethics Committee:
Dr John CrosslandSchool of Health Sciences and Social Work
University of Portsmouth
James Watson Hall (West)
2 King Richard 1st Road
Portsmouth
PO1 2FR
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 023 9284 2837
IMPORTANT ADDITIONAL APPROVAL REQUIREMENTS:
In addition to ethical review procedures, you will also need to:
follow additional agency approval/governance procedures from the
organisation hosting the research e.g. NHS R & D approval etc.
Check whether your research requires approval from any additional bodies
ensure you are complying with all other required procedures e.g. storage of
human tissue for research, offender health research etc.
Sept 2013
55 | P a g e
1.3 CONSENT FORM
School of Health Sciences and Social Work, Winston Churchill Ave, Portsmouth, PO1 2UP
Principal Investigator: Marlon McFarlaneTelephone: 07796005953Email: [email protected] Principal Investigator is a student please also give:Supervisor: Matthew Parker Telephone: 02392 842850Email: [email protected]
STUDY TITLE:
SFEC Reference No:
Please initial each box if content
1. I confirm that I have read and understood the attached information sheet for the above study. I confirm that I have had the opportunity to consider the information, ask questions and that these have been answered satisfactorily.
2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving any reason.
3. I understand that the results of this study may be published and / or presented at meetings, and may be provided to research sponsors (Give the name of the Company / Organisation here, or remove the research sponsor reference if not applicable). I give my permission for my anonymous data, which does not identify me, to be disseminated in this way.
4. Data collected during this study could be requested by regulatory authorities. I give my permission to any such regulatory authority with legal authority to review the study to have access to my data, which may identify me.
5. I agree to the data I contribute being retained for any future research that has been approved by a Research Ethics Committee.
6. I agree to take part in this study
56 | P a g e
Example Additional Optional Consents - Delete these if not appropriate, or add others.
7. I consent for photographs of me to be taken during the experiment foruse in scientific presentations and publications (with my identity obscured).
8. I consent for video of me to be taken during the experiment for use by thestudy team only (my image will not be shown to others / and will be destroyedafter the data has been analysed).
or9. I consent for video of me to be taken during the experiment for use in scientific presentation and publications (my identity may not be obscured)
Name of Participant: Date: Signature:
Name of Person taking Consent: Date: Signature:
Note: When completed, one copy to be given to the participant, one copy to be retained in the study file
57 | P a g e
1.3 INTERNATIONAL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE
(August 2002)
SHORT LAST 7 DAYS SELF-ADMINISTERED FORMAT
FOR USE WITH YOUNG AND MIDDLE-AGED ADULTS (15-69 years)
The International Physical Activity Questionnaires (IPAQ) comprises a set of 4
questionnaires. Long (5 activity domains asked independently) and short (4 generic
items) versions for use by either telephone or self-administered methods are
available. The purpose of the questionnaires is to provide common instruments that
can be used to obtain internationally comparable data on health–related physical
activity.
Background on IPAQThe development of an international measure for physical activity commenced in
Geneva in 1998 and was followed by extensive reliability and validity testing
undertaken across 12 countries (14 sites) during 2000. The final results suggest that
these measures have acceptable measurement properties for use in many settings
and in different languages, and are suitable for national population-based prevalence
studies of participation in physical activity.
Using IPAQ
Use of the IPAQ instruments for monitoring and research purposes is encouraged. It
is recommended that no changes be made to the order or wording of the questions
as this will affect the psychometric properties of the instruments.
58 | P a g e
Translation from English and Cultural Adaptation
Translation from English is supported to facilitate worldwide use of IPAQ. Information
on the availability of IPAQ in different languages can be obtained at www.ipaq.ki.se.
If a new translation is undertaken we highly recommend using the prescribed back
translation methods available on the IPAQ website. If possible please consider
making your translated version of IPAQ available to others by contributing it to the
IPAQ website. Further details on translation and cultural adaptation can be
downloaded from the website.
Further Developments of IPAQ
International collaboration on IPAQ is on-going and an International Physical Activity Prevalence Study is in progress. For further information see the IPAQ
website.
More Information
More detailed information on the IPAQ process and the research methods used in
the development of IPAQ instruments is available at www.ipaq.ki.se and Booth, M.L.
(2000). Assessment of Physical Activity: An International Perspective. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71 (2): s114-20. Other scientific publications and
presentations on the use of IPAQ are summarized on the website.
59 | P a g e
INTERNATIONAL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE
We are interested in finding out about the kinds of physical activities that people do
as part of their everyday lives. The questions will ask you about the time you spent
being physically active in the last 7 days. Please answer each question even if you
do not consider yourself to be an active person. Please think about the activities you
do at work, as part of your house and yard work, to get from place to place, and in
your spare time for recreation, exercise or sport.
Think about all the vigorous activities that you did in the last 7 days. Vigorous
physical activities refer to activities that take hard physical effort and make you
breathe much harder than normal. Think only about those physical activities that you
did for at least 10 minutes at a time.
1. During the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical
activities like heavy lifting, digging, aerobics, or fast bicycling?
_____ days per week
No vigorous physical activities Skip to question 3
2. How much time did you usually spend doing vigorous physical activities on
one of those days?
_____ hours per day_____ minutes per day
60 | P a g e
Don’t know/Not sure
Think about all the moderate activities that you did in the last 7 days. Moderate
activities refer to activities that take moderate physical effort and make you breathe
somewhat harder than normal. Think only about those physical activities that you
did for at least 10 minutes at a time.
3. During the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical
activities like carrying light loads, bicycling at a regular pace, or doubles
tennis? Do not include walking.
_____ days per week
No moderate physical activities Skip to question 5
4. How much time did you usually spend doing moderate physical activities on
one of those days?
_____ hours per day_____ minutes per day
Don’t know/Not sure
61 | P a g e
Think about the time you spent walking in the last 7 days. This includes at work
and at home, walking to travel from place to place, and any other walking that you
have done solely for recreation, sport, exercise, or leisure.
5. During the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10
minutes at a time?
_____ days per week
No walking Skip to question 7
6. How much time did you usually spend walking on one of those days?
_____ hours per day_____ minutes per day
Don’t know/Not sure
The last question is about the time you spent sitting on weekdays during the last 7 days. Include time spent at work, at home, while doing course work and during
leisure time. This may include time spent sitting at a desk, visiting friends, reading,
or sitting or lying down to watch television.
7. During the last 7 days, how much time did you spend sitting on a week day?
_____ hours per day_____ minutes per day
62 | P a g e
Don’t know/Not sure
This is the end of the questionnaire, thank you for participating.
63 | P a g e
1.4 Exercise and Health History Questionnaire
School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences
All pages of this questionnaire should be completed by all volunteers participating in
taught laboratories, student projects, or experiments conducted by the School of
Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth. This information
allows the project/laboratory leader/supervisor to determine if it is safe for the
volunteer to participate, or whether medical advice is required before proceeding.
The information provided also gives a suitable history should a medical examination
be required for particular studies. If required, the additional medical examination
report is completed by the Independent Medical Officer and stapled to this document
as pages (7 and 8)
.It is very important that all volunteers answer all of the questions fully, and to the
best of their knowledge.
VOLUNTEERS ARE NOT TO PARTICIPATE IN ANY STUDY UNTIL THE DETAILS
IN THIS COMPLETED FORM HAVE BEEN CHECKED AND COUNTERSIGNED BY
A MEMBER OF THE DEPARTMENT’S TECHNICAL OR ACADEMIC STAFF (PAGE
6)
All information provided is treated as medical-in-confidence (the same as your
personal medical records). Note for questions marked *, please delete as necessary
Participant’s Details
Full Name ………………………………………………………… Telephone Number.
…………………..…….. Date of Birth ………………………………………
Age……………… Email………………………………… Date of completing this
questionnaire………………………………….
For UoP Students Only:
Year of study*: 1 2 3 Masters Student ID Number…………….. Personal
Tutor………………………
64 | P a g e
Q1 How would you describe your current physical fitness status?
Very unfit (sedentary) / Unfit / Moderately Fit / Very Fit (e.g. competitive
sportsperson)*
Q2 Do you undertake regular physical exercise? Yes / No* If Yes Please tell us
what type of exercise?
Light activities: heart beats slightly faster than usual, you can talk/sing while you are
active (walking leisurely, stretching, vacuuming or light gardening)
Moderate activities: your heart beats faster than normal, you can talk while you are
active (fast walking, aerobics, strength training, swimming gently)
Vigorous activities: your heart rate increases a lot, you cannot talk or your talking is
broken up by large breaths while you are active (stair machine, jogging or running,
tennis, squash, badminton, basketball, cycling)
Q3 How frequently do you exercise?
Q4 How often do you undertake exercise of a maximal nature?
Never / Sometimes / Often*
Q5 How would you consider your present body weight?
Underweight / Ideal weight / Slightly overweight / Very overweight*
Q6 Are you a regular smoker? Yes / No* – if yes number per day………
Q7 Are you an occasional smoker? Yes / No* – if yes average per week…….
Q8 Are you a previous smoker? Yes / No* – if yes how long since stopping ..
… years
Q9
Do you drink alcoholic drinks?
Yes / No*
65 | P a g e
If yes do you:have the occasional drink? have a drink every day? Yes / No* Yes /
No*
Q10 Have you had to consult your doctor within the last 6 months? Yes / No*
– if yes give details
Q11 Do you have any allergies? Yes / No*
If Yes, please give details. Please include any allergies to dressings e.g.
elastoplasts.
Q12 Are you currently taking any form of medication including both prescribed and
over the counter preparations? Yes / No* – if yes give details
Q13 Have you routinely taken any medication in the past 2 years? Yes / No*
– if yes give details
Q14 Have you ever been told to give up sports because of health problems? Yes /
No* – if yes give details
Q15 Do you get tired more quickly than your friends do during exercise? Yes / No*
– if yes give details
Q16 Have you ever suffered from any of the following?
Asthma Yes / No*
Diabetes Yes / No*
Hypertension (high blood pressure) Yes / No* Any form of heart disorder
Yes / No*
High blood cholesterol Yes / No*
Epilepsy Yes / No*
Have you ever had a seizure Yes / No* If yes to any of the above, please give
details
66 | P a g e
Q17 Have you ever been told you have a heart murmur? Yes / No* – if yes give
details
Q18 Have you ever been told you have a heart arrhythmia? Yes / No* – if
yes give details
Q19 Do you have any other history of heart problems? Yes / No* – if yes give
details
Q20 Have you had a severe viral infection (e.g. myocarditis or mononucleosis)
within the last month?
Yes / No* – if yes give details
Q21 Have you ever been told you had rheumatic fever? Yes / No* – if yes give
details
Q22 Have you ever suffered from the following?
Heat stroke, heat exhaustion or sunstroke Yes / No*
Cold Illness or injury (non freezing cold injury or frostbite)
Poor Circulation (including Raynauds phenomenon) Peripheral neuropathy
Yes / No*
Yes / No* Yes / No*
If yes, please give details
Q23 Please give details of any hospital admissions you have had.
Q24 Have you any other past medical history we have not already asked you
about? Yes / No* – if yes give details
Q25 Do you have any muscle, joint or back injury at present? Yes / No* – if yes
give details
67 | P a g e
Q26 Have you had to suspend any normal activity due to ill health or injury in the
last month? Yes / No*
– if yes give details
Q27 Is there a history of heart disease or sudden cardiac death in your family?
Yes / No* – if yes give details
Q28 Are both parents still alive? Yes / No* If No, please give cause of death and
age.
Q29 Does any of your parents or siblings suffer from a serious medical condition?
If so please can you provide details.
Q30 Has anyone in your family less than 50 years of age:
Died suddenly and unexpectedly? Yes / No*
Been treated for recurrent fainting? Yes / No*
Had unexplained seizure problems? Yes / No* Had unexplained drowning while
swimming? Yes / No* Had unexplained car accident? Yes / No*
Had heart transplant? Yes / No* Had pacemaker or defibrillator implanted?
Yes / No* Been treated for irregular heart beat?Yes / No* Had heart surgery?
Yes / No*
If you have answered yes to any of the above questions, please give details.
68 | P a g e
Q31 Do you suffer from, or have you ever suffered from the following
Chest pain Yes / No*
Chest pain on exercising Yes / No*
Breathlessness on exertion Yes / No*
Dizziness on exertion Yes / No*
Collapse whilst exercising Yes / No*
Palpitations Yes / No*
If you have answered yes to any of the above questions, please give details.
Q32 Are you a blood donor? Yes / No*
If yes, have you donated blood in the last week? Yes / No*
Q33 For females (only required for studies involving thermal stress, hypoxia and
arduous exercise)
Please confirm here whether you may be pregnant: Not pregnant
Unsure Pregnant*
If unsure, please give the date of last menstrual period and details of current
contraception:
Q34 To the best of your knowledge are there any other reason(s) that may prevent
you from successfully completing the tasks that have been explained to you by the
lead academic / principal investigator and as described in the Participant Information
Sheet?
Yes / No* If yes, please give details
69 | P a g e
Emergency Contact Details
Please supply the name, address and telephone number of an emergency contact:
(please print) Name …….………………………………… Relationship
……………………….……
Address
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….. Telephone number(s)
…………………………………………………………….
DECLARATION
I understand that it is my responsibility to fully disclose information about my health
in this questionnaire and that knowingly failing to do so may place me at risk during
trial experiments.
I also understand that if anything changes in my health circumstances between this
screening questionnaire and / or medical examination and the date of my
participation in the laboratory, student project or research study, it is my
responsibility to fully inform the laboratory leader, the student research project
supervisor, or principle investigator, and that failure to do so, whether knowingly or
unknowingly may place me at risk during tests or experiments.
Signature of Participant ………………………………………………….. Date
…………………………
VOLUNTEERS ARE NOT TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY UNTIL THE DETAILS
COMPLETED ABOVE HAVE BEEN CHECKED AND COUNTERSIGNED BY A
MEMBER OF THE DEPARTMENT’S TECHNICAL OR ACADEMIC STAFF BELOW
70 | P a g e
Note to Technical/Academic checker: Please check that the details above do not
show any contra- indications that might jeopardise the volunteer’s health or safety. If
in any doubt whatsoever, please seek the advice of colleagues, and ultimately a
member of the BioSciences Research Ethics Committee (BSREC). If there are any
contra-indications, or remaining doubt please thank the volunteer for their time BUT
ADVISE THEM THAT THEY CANNOT PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY AT THE
MOMENT UNTIL FURTHER
MEDICAL ADVICE IS SOUGHT. In that case, please send this form, with details to
the Chair of the BSREC
Name of Academic / Technical Staff ………………………………
Signature of Academic / Technical Staff …………………………. Date
………………………..
71 | P a g e
1.5 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET
School of Health Sciences and Social Work,
Winston Churchill Ave,
Portsmouth
PO1 2UP
Principal Investigator: Marlon McFarlane
Telephone: 07796005953
Email: [email protected]
Supervisor: Matthew Parker
Telephone: 02392 842850
Email: [email protected]
STUDY TITLE: To compare the effects which different types of endurance sports
have upon the cardiovascular system of trained male athletes aged between 18-24
years old
SFEC Reference No:
We would like to invite you to take part in our research study. Before you decide we
would like you to understand why the research is being done and what it would
involve for you. Please ask us if there is anything that is not clear.
The study will require fit and healthy athletic male participants aged between 18-24
years old, who participate competitively in one out the three sports as followed.
Volunteers will be recruited from students within the University of Portsmouth and
must be use to maximal exercise. A Pre-testing health questionnaire will be made
mandatory for all potential participants to complete before they progress onto the
experiment. Any participants with medical history of serious conditions will be 72 | P a g e
excluded from the study. Participants should be free of injuries, not suffer from
shortness of breath or chest pains upon exertion, or no previous history of serious
heart or respiratory conditions.
What is the purpose of the study?
The research is being carried out for educational purposes for a dissertation project.
The athlete’s cardiovascular system is truly fascinating to explore, research will be
conducted in order to explore the specific effects endurance sports have upon the
cardiovascular system. This research may prove to be beneficial for future athletes
who may angle their training regimes more towards a particular sport i.e. rowing
which produces unique cardiovascular adaptations which may better aid them in
their own participation in sports.
The study will involve cardiovascular variables (i.e. heart rate, blood pressure), being
measured, participants will then complete the Harvard step test lasting for no more
than 5 minutes of continuous stepping up and down at a rate of 30 steps a minute.
Why have I been invited?
You have been invited to participate in this study because you have matched the
requirements for participation in the study. Personnel from the university of
Portsmouth This is fit and healthy male athletes aged between 18-24 years old, who
compete competitively in rowing, long distance or short distance running. The study
will include a maximum of 30 participants, with 10 participants recruited from each of
the three sports involved in the research named above.
Do I have to take part? 73 | P a g e
No, taking part in this research is entirely voluntary. It is up to you to decide if you
want to volunteer for the study. We will describe the study in this information sheet. If
you agree to take part, we will then ask you to sign the attached consent form.
What will happen to me if I take part?Measures will be taken to ensure the data collected will remain confidential. This will
include security codes to computerized records of the data collected, limiting the
access to identifiable information and the storage of data in a secure location.
You will be assigned to one of the 3 groups according to the sport you participate in.
Every participant will be given an alphabet letter within your sporting discipline in
order to protect your identity. Group 1 will be long distance runners, group 2 being
rowers and group 3 will be short distance runners. Time slots will be allocated for
you to attend on the day, with the experiment running over a course of two days
ensuring the correct number of participants are tested. The experiment will take no
longer than 30 minutes to complete. Key cardiovascular variables will be measured,
these include resting heart and pulse rate, blood pressure and the calculation of
heart rate maximum. These measurements will be used to compare across the three
sporting disciplines along with results from the Harvard strep test to determine if any
significant differences can be observed in relation to the type of endurance sport
participated in and the effects to the cardiovascular system.
You will then progress onto the Harvard step test. You will not be allowed to perform
any activities before the study including no warmup. A 20-inch bench will be used.
Stepping speed up and down from the bench will occur at a rate of 30 steps/min and
will be measured using a metronome. The same foot must start the step-up each
time, and an erect posture must be maintained at all times. The activity is to be
continued for a maximum of 5 minutes or until you are unable to maintain the
stepping rate, using a stopwatch.
You must sit down immediately once the Harvard step test is complete. From exactly
1 minute after the completion of the last step to 1½ minutes your heart rate will be
counted for a 30-second period measuring your pulse rate. This will continue from 2
to 2½ minutes and 3 to 3½ minutes after finishing.
74 | P a g e
Expenses and payments N/A
Anything else I will have to do?
Participants will be briefed on how to carry out Harvard step test I.e. maintain upright
posture. The correct footwear must be worn when participating in the study i.e. Astro
turf, this will include appropriate loose clothing I.e. sports kit. Maximal exercise
cannot be performed 24 hours before the study I.e. competitive game, or warm up
prior to undergoing the Harvard step test.
What measurements will be taken (or data collected)?Participant’s blood pressure, heart rate maximum, resting heart rate and pulse rate
will be measured and recorded. Cardiovascular fitness will then be measured
through the Harvard step test. The participants pulse rate will be measured after
completion of the last step after one minute for 1-1.5mins, 2-2.5mins and 3-3.5mins
respectively. Calculations will then be carried out in order to obtain the participants
PEI score which will then be used to find the participants cardiovascular fitness score
using a cardiovascular fitness classification table.
•Stopwatch (Used to measure the 5 minute duration of Harvard step test & Pulse
rate recording once complete)
•Metronome (Counts stepping rate of 30 steps per minute)
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•Blood pressure monitor (Attached to your arm, will inflate and deflate whilst you
remain still and quite)
•Finger Pulse Oximeter and Heart Rate Monitor (Placed on the tip of your index
finger before and after exercise)
What are the possible disadvantages and risks of taking part?
Stress due to the physical demands of the study, risk of injury during the study,
underlying conditions may surface, psychological effects, incorrect footwear, and
slippery wet stepping surfaces. Measure will be taken to ensure these risk will be
kept to a minimum through participants being briefed on how to carry out Harvard
step test safely I.e. maintain upright posture. Dry clean surfaces; making sure
participants wear correct footwear and clothing i.e. Astro turf , sports kit, pre-testing
health questionnaire to identify any participants with medical conditions, opt out
option for participants at any time during the study and participants will be briefed
and debriefed at the end of the study.
Participants will be required to make hand gestures every now and then to indicate
they are ok and free of discomfort or pain to continue. Check participant is wearing
the correct footwear; before every participant make sure the bench and the stepping
surface are dry and clean.
If injury occurs during the study the participant will be required to stop immediately
and the supervisor/medical staff will examine the extent of the injury. If further
medical attention is required or the participant is in a serious condition then the
emergency services will be called immediately for further review.
What are the possible benefits of taking part?
76 | P a g e
This study will allow you to take a proactive approach in discovering some of the
benefits your chosen sport has on the efficiency and fitness of your cardiovascular
system.
Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?The raw data, which identifies you, will be kept securely by the Principal Investigator
and / or the Supervisor.
In the event that a data document is lost, stolen, etc. having the data protected by
coding subjects will prevent participants from being identified. Measures will be taken
to ensure the data collected will remain confidential. This will include security codes
to computerized records of the data collected, limiting the access to identifiable
information and the storage of data in a secure location. Participants will be informed
beforehand about these precautionary measures taken to ensure the confidentiality
of the data, whilst subjects will also be briefed about who will have access to
information from the study i.e. supervisor, university of Portsmouth. Data will be
recorded using paper records through the IPAQ questionnaire and the pre-testing
health questionnaire, whilst data recorded from the Harvard step test and other
measurements will be recorded electronically on computers.
The data, when made anonymous, may be presented to others at scientific
meetings, or published as a project report, academic dissertation or scientific paper
or book. It could also be made available to any sponsor of the research. Anonymous
data, which does not identify you, may be used in future research studies approved
by an Appropriate Research Ethics Committee.
The raw data, which would identify you, will not be passed to anyone outside the
study team without your express written permission. The exception to this will be any
regulatory authority who may have the legal right to access the data for the purposes
of conducting an investigation in exceptional cases.
The raw data will be retained for up to 30 years. When it is no longer required, the
data will be disposed of securely (e.g. electronic media and paper records / images)
77 | P a g e
destroyed.
What will happen if I don’t want to carry on with the study? As a volunteer you can stop any test at any time, or withdraw from the study at any
time before finishing all experiments, without giving a reason if you do not wish to. If
you do withdraw from a study after some data has been collected you will be asked if
you are content for the data collected thus far to be retained and included in the
study. If you prefer, the data collected can be destroyed and not included in the
study. Once the experiment has been completed, and the data analysed, it will not
be possible for you to withdraw your data from the study.
What if there is a problem?If you have a query, concern or complaint about any aspect of this study, in the first
instance you should contact the Principal Investigator (PI) if appropriate. If the PI is a
student, there will also be an academic member of staff listed as the Supervisor
whom you can contact. If there is a complaint and there is a Supervisor listed, please
contact the Supervisor with details of the complaint. The contact details for both the
PI and any Supervisor are detailed on page 1.
If your concern or complaint is not resolved by the PI or Supervisor, you should
contact the Head of Department:
The Head of Department Dr Matt Parker
Department / School of….. 02392 842850
Health Sciences and Social Work [email protected]
University of Portsmouth
Winston Churchill Ave,
Portsmouth
PO1 2UP
If the complaint remains unresolved, please contact:
78 | P a g e
The University Complaints Officer
023 9284 3642 [email protected]
Who is funding the research? This research is being funded by The University of Portsmouth. None of the
researchers or study staff will receive any financial reward by conducting this study,
other than their normal salary / bursary as an employee / student of the University
Who has reviewed the study?This study has been scientifically reviewed within the submitting Department / School
and then ethically reviewed and been given favourable ethical opinion by the
Science Faculty Ethics Committee.
Thank you
Thank you for taking time to read this information sheet and for considering
volunteering for this experiment. If you do volunteer for this experiment your consent
will be sought on the following page. You will then be given a copy of this information
sheet and your signed consent form, for you to keep.
79 | P a g e
1.6 Cardiovascular variables & Harvard step test results
Rowers Endurance Runners Short distance
runners
Controls
Participant A
(39+37+34=110)
=136.4
Excellent: >90
Resting BP= 120/77
Resting HR=66
Participant A
(40+37+36=113)
=132.7
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=115/75
Resting HR=58
Participant A
(45+42+39=126)
=119.0
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=144/103
Resting HR=68
Participant A
(76+72+72=220)
=68.2
High average: 65-79
Resting BP=151/88
Resting HR=70
Participant B
(38+35+32=105)
=170.5
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=115/70
Resting HR=58
Participant B
(42+39+37=118)
=127.1
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=118/80
Resting HR=64
Participant B
(48+45+44=137)
=109.5
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=148/83
Resting HR=66
Participant B
(79+79+77=235)
=63.8
Low average: 55-64
Resting BP=174/96
Resting HR=77
Participant C
(43+40+39=122)
=123.0
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=123/72
Resting HR=59
Participant C
(38+35+34=107)
=140.1
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=117/78
Resting HR=57
Participant C
(62+61+61=184)
=81.5
Good: 80-89
Resting BP=151/87
Resting HR=67
Participant C
(75+75+73=223)
=67.3
High average: 65-79
Resting BP=156/91
Resting HR=72
Participant D
(36+33+32=101)
=148.5
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=114/64
Resting HR=54
Participant D
(41+40+38=119)
=126.0
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=119/74
Resting HR=57
Participant D
(62+57+56=175)
=85.7
Good: 80-89
Resting BP=149/93
Resting HR=
Participant D
(74+74+73=221)
=67.8
High average: 65-79
Resting BP=158/91
Resting HR=74
Participant E Participant E Participant E Participant E
80 | P a g e
(41+39+37=117)
=128.2
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=124/77
Resting HR=60
(44+40+38=122)
=123.0
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=121/79
Resting HR=59
(48+47+45=140)
=107.1
Excellent: >90
Resting BP=128/88
Resting HR=58
(64+61+60=185)
=81.0
Good: 80-89
Resting BP=148/90
Resting HR=69
1.7 SPSS results
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Studentized Residual for HST
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
82 | P a g e
Between-Subjects Factors
Value Label N
GROUP 1.00 rowers 5
2.00 endurance runners 5
3.00short distance runners 5
4.00 controls 5
Dependent Variable: Harvard step test
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 15457.196a 3 5152.399 29.044 .000
Intercept 243410.048 1 243410.048 1372.109 .000
GROUP 15457.196 3 5152.399 29.044 .000
Error 2838.376 16 177.398
Total 261705.620 20
Corrected Total 18295.572 19
a. R Squared = .845 (Adjusted R Squared = .816)
Estimated Marginal Means
GROUP post-hoc tests
EstimatesDependent Variable: Harvard step test
GROUP Mean Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
rowers 141.320 5.956 128.693 153.947
endurance runners 129.780 5.956 117.153 142.407
short distance runners 100.560 5.956 87.933 113.187
controls 69.620 5.956 56.993 82.247
Pairwise ComparisonsDependent Variable: Harvard step test
(I) GROUP (J) GROUP Mean
Difference
Std.
Error
Sig.b 95% Confidence
Interval for Differenceb
83 | P a g e
(I-J)
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
rowers endurance
runners11.540 8.424 1.000 -13.801 36.881
short distance
runners40.760* 8.424 .001 15.419 66.101
controls 71.700* 8.424 .000 46.359 97.041
endurance
runners
rowers -11.540 8.424 1.000 -36.881 13.801
short distance
runners29.220* 8.424 .019 3.879 54.561
controls 60.160* 8.424 .000 34.819 85.501
short distance
runners
rowers -40.760* 8.424 .001 -66.101 -15.419
endurance
runners-29.220* 8.424 .019 -54.561 -3.879
controls 30.940* 8.424 .012 5.599 56.281
controls rowers -71.700* 8.424 .000 -97.041 -46.359
endurance
runners-60.160* 8.424 .000 -85.501 -34.819
short distance
runners-30.940* 8.424 .012 -56.281 -5.599
Based on estimated marginal means
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
b. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni.
Univariate TestsDependent Variable: Harvard step test
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Contrast 15457.196 3 5152.399 29.044 .000
Error 2838.376 16 177.398
84 | P a g e
The F tests the effect of GROUP. This test is based on the linearly
independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal means.
Post Hoc TestsGROUP
Multiple ComparisonsDependent Variable: Harvard step test
Bonferroni
(I) GROUP (J) GROUP
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
Std.
Error Sig.
95% Confidence
Interval
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
rowers endurance
runners11.5400
8.4237
41.000 -13.8014 36.8814
short distance
runners40.7600*
8.4237
4.001 15.4186 66.1014
controls71.7000*
8.4237
4.000 46.3586 97.0414
endurance
runners
rowers-11.5400
8.4237
41.000 -36.8814 13.8014
short distance
runners29.2200*
8.4237
4.019 3.8786 54.5614
controls60.1600*
8.4237
4.000 34.8186 85.5014
short distance
runners
rowers-40.7600*
8.4237
4.001 -66.1014 -15.4186
endurance
runners-29.2200*
8.4237
4.019 -54.5614 -3.8786
controls30.9400*
8.4237
4.012 5.5986 56.2814
controls rowers -71.7000* 8.4237
4
.000 -97.0414 -46.3586
85 | P a g e
endurance
runners-60.1600*
8.4237
4.000 -85.5014 -34.8186
short distance
runners-30.9400*
8.4237
4.012 -56.2814 -5.5986
Based on observed means.
The error term is Mean Square(Error) = 177.398.
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Profile Plots
86 | P a g e
UNIANOVA HST BY GROUP WITH REST_HR REST_SBP REST_DBP
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/SAVE=SRESID
/PLOT=PROFILE(GROUP)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(GROUP) WITH(REST_HR=MEAN REST_SBP=MEAN
REST_DBP=MEAN) COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=REST_HR REST_SBP REST_DBP GROUP.
Univariate Analysis of Variance
87 | P a g e
Between-Subjects Factors
Value Label N
GROUP 1.00 rowers 5
2.00 endurance
runners5
3.00 short distance
runners5
4.00 controls 5
Tests of Between-Subjects EffectsDependent Variable: Harvard step test
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 16242.599a 6 2707.100 17.142 .000
Intercept 2031.568 1 2031.568 12.864 .003
REST_HR 75.178 1 75.178 .476 .502
REST_SBP 326.576 1 326.576 2.068 .174
REST_DBP 123.436 1 123.436 .782 .393
GROUP 335.597 3 111.866 .708 .564
Error 2052.973 13 157.921
Total 261705.620 20
Corrected Total 18295.572 19
a. R Squared = .888 (Adjusted R Squared = .836)
Estimated Marginal Means
88 | P a g e
GROUPEstimates
Dependent Variable: Harvard step test
GROUP Mean Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
rowers 123.901a 10.387 101.461 146.341
endurance runners 117.507a 8.475 99.197 135.816
short distance runners 103.423a 12.387 76.663 130.184
controls 96.449a 16.587 60.616 132.282
a. Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values:
Resting heart (bpm) = 63.9000, Resting systolic blood pressure = 129.7000,
Resting dyostolic pressure = 82.9000.
Pairwise ComparisonsDependent Variable: Harvard step test
(I) GROUP (J) GROUP
Mean
Differenc
e (I-J)
Std.
Error Sig.a
95% Confidence
Interval for
Differencea
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
rowers endurance
runners6.394 10.821 1.000 -27.227 40.015
short distance
runners20.478 19.139 1.000 -38.988 79.944
controls 27.452 22.210 1.000 -41.555 96.459
endurance
runners
rowers -6.394 10.821 1.000 -40.015 27.227
short distance
runners14.084 13.334 1.000 -27.346 55.513
controls 21.058 23.185 1.000 -50.978 93.094
short distance rowers -20.478 19.139 1.000 -79.944 38.988
89 | P a g e
runners endurance
runners-14.084 13.334 1.000 -55.513 27.346
controls 6.974 24.794 1.000 -70.062 84.011
controls rowers -27.452 22.210 1.000 -96.459 41.555
endurance
runners-21.058 23.185 1.000 -93.094 50.978
short distance
runners-6.974 24.794 1.000 -84.011 70.062
Based on estimated marginal means
a. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni.
Univariate TestsDependent Variable: Harvard step test
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Contrast 335.597 3 111.866 .708 .564
Error 2052.973 13 157.921
The F tests the effect of GROUP. This test is based on the linearly
independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal means.
Profile Plots
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CORRELATIONS
/VARIABLES=HST REST_HR REST_SBP REST_DBP
/PRINT=TWOTAIL NOSIG
/MISSING=PAIRWISE.
Correlations
Correlations
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Harvard
step test
Resting
heart (bpm)
Resting
systolic
blood
pressure
Resting
dyostolic
pressure
Harvard step test Pearson
Correlation1 -.830** -.850** -.823**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 20 20 20 20
Resting heart (bpm) Pearson
Correlation-.830** 1 .876** .842**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 20 20 20 20
Resting systolic
blood pressure
Pearson
Correlation-.850** .876** 1 .647**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .002
N 20 20 20 20
Resting dyostolic
pressure
Pearson
Correlation-.823** .842** .647** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .002
N 20 20 20 20
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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