marketing the mis during times of resource scarcity

Marketing the MtS

Marketing the MISDuring Times ofResource Scarcity

By: Raymond McLeod, Jr.William L. Fuerst

AbstractMIS managers generally have not slressed Ihemarketing aspects of their operations. A morewidespread concern is with the shortage of systemsanalyst and programmer resources. In an effort to learnhow one group of MIS managers views their marketingresponsibilities and practices in a shortage era, a studywas conducted and the results were used lo describeboth short term and long term MIS marketing plans.These plans are developed by identifying critical areasin the organization ir) light of corporate objectives, userneeds, and MIS resources.

Keywords Corporate computing facility, demarketing,marketing, marketing mix, marketing plan,resource stiortage, marketing strategy,MIS manager, target market

ACM Categories, 2 4, 3 5

IntroductionFor years, MIS departments had monopolies onthe firm's computing resources. There were noserious threats other than service bureaus, andthese were effective alternatives only for smallshops. Gradually, other outside organizationsbegan chipping away at the fertile market of thecentrally controlled corporate computing facilityToday, there are more information processingalternatives than ever, and some are very appeal-ing to the user. Manufacturers of minis and microsare encouraging user departments to "get theirown computer." Such sales pitches strike a softspot for users who have had to wait, often as longas five years, to get an application on the cor-porate computer. In addition, there are softwarehouses selling pre-written packages thatminimize, or even eliminate, a user department'sworry about having to develop programs Add tothese outsiders the resourceful computer utilitieswhich pertorm all of the computing for anorganization. The market for the central MISdepartment is no longer monopolistic, but neitherIS it a market of free competition. It is more amarket of monopolistic competition, with the out-side sources having the edge because they donot operate under the same constraints as thecorporate MIS department

An MIS manager is an entrepreneur, obtainingand allocating resources in the process otmaking available a needed good — an informationproduct The entrepreneur, positioned in acompetitive market, uses all of the skills andtechniques available in an effort to meet competi-tion. Primary among these skills and techniquesare those of the marketing discipline that aim atidentifying and then satisfying consumer needsand wants. It appears that the MIS managersseem to be preoccupied with the shortage oftrained personnel rather than the needs andwants of the users of their information productThis is the situation with MIS managers of Texaslite insurance companies, and it may existelsewhere.

As MIS managers focus on user needs, careshould be taken not to subordinate user welfareto that of the MIS department, MIS managersshould remain aware that the real objective is thesolution of the information needs of the variousmanagers within the firm, and that the source ofthat information is of secondary importance. The

MIS Quarterly/September 1982 45

Marketing the MIS

MIS department shouJcJ not embark on amarketing program designed to stimulate use ofan inferior information product. Rather, theunderlying basis tor the marketing activity is thepremise that the central MIS facility has a dualresponsibility to its users: (1) to provide asuperior infornnation product, and (2) to educatethe users so that informed decisions might bemade concerning information sources.

In this article, the authors indicate that theoperations of the MIS department are not onlyproduction oriented, but also include marketingand consulting activities. These activities are justas important, if not more so, in times of resourcescarcity. In order to deal with the scarcity ofresource problems, MIS managers need todevelop strategies by identifying critical areas inlight of corporate objectives, user needs, and MISresources.

Validating the Need fora Marketing OrientationThe MIS department processes data andproduces information for use by the firm'smanagers and other operational personnel. TheMIS department can be veiwed as a factory, pro-ducing an information product for its marketplace.Such a view is easy to acquire — the computerand peripheral devices serve as productionmachines, data represents the raw materials,work must be scheduled, and so on On theother hand, identifying marketing activities of theMIS operation is much more difficult. Many infor-mation systems have been designed based onuser needs, but many have not. And too often auser is forgotten once the information system isimplemented.

There have been a few attempts to recognize themarketing responsibilities of the MIS manager, butthese arguments have not been developedbeyond the initial stage. Schewe and Wiek [18|described a cycle for marketing the MIS rangingfrom market delineation to post-transactionactivity. Schewe, Calantone, and Wiek |16] andSchewe, Wiek, and Dann [19j recommended

ways to segment the MIS market, and McLeodand Fuerst |13] recommended preparation of aformal, written MIS marketing plan. Although notspecifically identified as marketing-related,several studies have focused on the behavioralcharacteristics of the MIS user. Lucas |11],Schewe [15], Schewe and Dillon |1 7], Barrtff andLusk [2], Vasarheiyi [22], Srinivasan and Dascher[20], Ackoff [1], and Swanson [211 all relateduser characteristics to the degree of MIS useThese studies parallel those in marketing wherean effort has been made to understand consumerbehavior in order to better satisfy needs andwants.

One possible reason for the MIS manager's cur-rent reluctance to consider marketing activities isthe feeling that they are illogical in times olresource shortage. The attitude is "Why spendtime and money encouraging new uses for thecomputer when I can't keep up with the demandthat already exists?" Or managers feel that theyare already doing ail of the marketing that isnecessary — "We're working with the user insystem design That s marketing, isn't it?" In aneffort to learn more about the feelings of MISmanagers toward marketing the information pro-duct, to measure the degree to which resourceshortage is perceived as a serious problem, andto view marketing within the context of theresource constraints, a study was designed andconducted.

The study

Mail questionnaires were sent to 76 life insurancffirms with home offices in Texas. The largest firmswere selected, using insurance in force as tht;criterion. The questionnaire and a follow-up letterprompted 51 managers of the firms' computingfacilities to respond, a 67% response rate.

There were several reasons for selecting Texaslife insurance firms. Life insurance firms in generalhave long been heavy users of computing equip-ment, and the state of Texas is a center of lifeinsurance activity, with more home offices thanany other state. Also, it was felt that a higherresponse rate would be realized with an areasurvey, and the Best's directory [3] provided alisting of the population.

46 M/S Quarterly September 1982

Marketing the MtS

Basic findhgs

The responses of the MtS managers indicate that:

• More MIS managers of Texas lifeinsurance companies regard their jobto be primarily that of a financialmanager (53%) as opposed to amanufacturing (20%) or a marketing(14%) manager. (Percentages do notalways add to 100 due to non-response.)

• A shortage of resources is a muchgreater current problem thanstimulating computer interest, and theresource problem is expected to getworse in the next five years, Seventy-six percent of the respondents iden-tified current resource shortage as themore serious problem, with the numberincreasing to 82% for the 5-yearforecast. Only 18% of the managershave a current problem of stimulatinginterest, and this number drops to 12%for the 5-year projection.

• Systems analysts do not generally usetechniques from marketing research inidentifying user needs. Only 27% ofthe firms make use of questionnaires,and only 20% do so as a regular prac-tice. Less than 8% have ever used amail survey, and less than 18% haveused a telephone survey

• The MIS department makes an effort toverify user satisfaction after implemen-tation, but no set schedule is followed.Such contact, when made, is by per-sonal interview. The review process isnot formalized by setting repetitivereview dates, and mail and telephonesurvey methods are not being used inthose instances where personal con-tact is infeasible.

• Most firms do not promote computeruse to their managers and those that douse personal contact (six firms},meetings (seven firms), bulletins, andmiscellaneous methods. It does notappear that any firm is following a for-mal program of promotion, such as

seminars and executive educationprograms.

When asked to rank the desired traitsof systems applicants, "sales per-sonality" was considered to be theleast important of four possiblechoices. Communications ability,technical competence, and creativity allreceived higher marks. In fewer than10% of the firms has an applicant beenrejected for lack of sales personalityConsidering the resource shortageproblem, fhis is not surprising.

Less than 20% of the firms charge forcomputer use, and only two firms havereduced prices in an effort to increaseuse. The information product is essen-tially a free good. Therefore, fhe MISmanager cannot use price as an ingre-dient in a mix of short term marketingstrategies.

Less than half of the ftrms have awritten plan for the MIS department,updated at least annually, that identifiesgoals and strategies. For the remainingfirms. MIS goats and strategies must beformalized before attention can befocused on marketing the Informationproduct.

General observations

The survey findings support the contention thatresource shortage is perceived to be a moreserious problem than stimulating interest. Thisperception is correct if marketing is viewed asonly useful in stimulating interest. However,marketing has a considerably broader application— how to decide which products and services tooffer, how to distribute those products, whatprices to charge to assure profitability, and how toeducate customers in product use. Thesemarketing dimensions, on the whole, seem to beabsent from fhe operation of fhe corporate MISfacility.

Does the shortage problem have any effect onthe importance of marketing? A good way toanswer is to examine how firms have respondedto resource constraints.


Marketing the MIS

Marketing Practices ina Shortage EconomyWhat do marketers do in times of shortage? Theydo not stop marketing [6, 8]. During the early'70s, when the world faced 'the end of theGlorious Age of Abundance." firms reacted withnew marketing strategies 19]. The immediatereaction of many firms was to reduce theirmarkets to a size that fit their ability to produce, Anew term, demarketing, was coined to describe"that aspect of marketing that deals withdiscouraging customers in general or a certainclass of customers in particular on either a tem-porary or permanent basis" [10). As firms carriedout a demarketing strategy, they adjusted theingredients in their marketing mix to maintain pro-fitability at the lower activity level, Demarketingwas recognized as primarily a short term strategy,and care was taken not to damage long termcustomer relationships [4},

While some firms were reacting with demarketing,others recognized the opportunities foraggressive marketing strategies in a period ofshortage. According to Kotler, "the very definitionot a shortage is that customers' needs are notbeing met. To the resourceful firm, this meansthat new ways must be found to meet theseneeds" [9].

A firm can respond to shortages in one of threeways [9], It can adopt a 'gloom and doom"outlook, giving up any hope that an era of plentywill return. It can follow "return to normal"strategies, regarding the current shortages asonly a temporary lull in business. Or, it can create"new life style" strategies, recognizing that theold days are gone forever but the new ones offernew promises.

It is inconceivable that a viable MIS program couldbe based on the gloom and doom outlook; there-fore, that option will be dismissed as a basis forestablishing an MIS marketing plan. And, sincethe MIS managers of the Texas life insurancecompanies did not believe there would be alessening of the resource scarcity problem in thenear future, the indication is that future planningshould not incorporate return to normalstrategies. Rather, the new life strategy should beused as a basis for future planning. Such astrategy is positive, rather than negative, andrepresents a contingency view of the future. The

assumption is that present day constraints will notsoon disappear, and that the constraints offeropportunities for innovative development anddistribution of the information product. Of majorimportance in these strategies are the marketingmix components of product, price, place, andpromotion. These components are equallyapplicable in times of scarcity as in times of abun-dancy. Managers throughout the firm need toconsider the marketing mix, and in particular, theMIS manager needs to develop marketing mixplans for both the short term and the long term.

An MIS Marketing StrategyIn Times of ShortageThe MIS manager can take active steps in dealingwith a resource shortage much like managers didin the U.S, economy ten years ago. The key areais the development of a marketing orientationleading to the identification of critical MIS areas inlight of corporate objectives, user and potentialuser needs, and available MIS resources. Oncethese critical areas have been identified, shortand long term marketing strategies for the MISdepartment can be deveioped.

Short term marketing plan

The MIS manager needs to gather somemarketing intelligence to determine users andpotential users' needs, and the systems analystsare the best source of this information. Theanalyst is the user's personal contact from theMIS department, representing the department tothe user, and influencing the image that the userhas of the department and its products.

Armed with the information about users, the MISmanager can segment the market into prioritylevel groups based on the importance of theusers' needs in the attainment of corporate objec-tives. Those groups that represent high prioritieswill receive special attention in satisfying theirinformation needs. In making the segmentationdecision, the MIS manager is influenced by acombination of the importance ot the user'sneeds, the corporate needs for goal attainment,and the ability of the MIS department to meetthose needs (see Figure 1), For example, a chief

48 MIS Quarterly/September 1982

Marketing the MIS

High

UserNeeds

Low

High

\ Segments /

IntermediatePriority

Segments

Inadequate

MIS Resources

Adequate

Corporate Needsfor Goal Attainment

Low

Figure 1. Segmenting the Market Into Priority-Ranked Groups


Marketing the MIS

executive with information needs that can besatisfied with existing resources is a top prioritysegment. An operational level manager, on theother hand, desiring information that is not criticalto corporate goal attainment, and that cannot cur-rently be provided by the MIS department,represents a low priority segment.

Shofi term mix strategy

With the market segmented, the strategy can bedevised for allocating the resources to thesegments. The MIS manager should take inven-tory of the mix Ingredients and prepare amarketing plan for each segment The primaryingredient tor all segments is the product. For thetop priority segments, the departmentalresources can be applied to meet needs with acombination of custom designed systems andpre-written, packaged routines (see Figure 2).The analysts immediately should begin promotinguse of packaged routines such as report writers,statistical packages, database management

systems, and query languages. These promotionefforts should be aimed at upper managementlevels as a strategy to protect these criticalmarket segments. On these upper levels, con-gruence of information needs and attainment ofthe firm's goals should be highest. The messageshould be: "We know that you have real informa-tion needs, and we are in the best position torespond to your needs. However, good systemstake time and you should now take advantage ofinformation-producing routines that we canpresently make available." The strategy is one ofthe MIS department responding quickly to theneeds of critical market segments largely withpackaged software.

In addition to product, the place ingredient shouldbe used to its fullest. The MIS department candistribute the product electronically to users via adata communications network. If user terminalshave not been incorporated into the hardwareconfiguration, steps should be taken to do so.Lead times for many of these devices are short,making this a viable short term strategy. The

Marketing MixComponents

Product

Place

Promotion

Price

Short term

Combination of custom designedand packaged routines

Distribution of information viadata communication networks

Communication aimed at makingthe users aware of the resourceshortage and the capabilities ofthe MIS department

Lowering of prices on productsaimed at top priority segments.Price maintenance of existingapplications

Long term

Emphasis on a better product,especially for upper manage-ment. Establishment of a groupwithin the MIS department toconsult with users in evaluatinginformation alternatives

Emphasis on database, datacommunication networks, andmultimedia terminals,

Communication aimed ateducating users in the eval-uation of information alter-natives, cost-benefit analyses,and user responsibilities.

Installation of a chargeoutsystem to provide control overallocation of corporate MISresources.

Figure 2. Marketing Mix Strategies for MIS Departments


f^arketing the MIS

opportunity for this strategy depends on theprocessing and database situation, A computingoperation geared to batch processing with noaccessible database cannot simply add terminals.When data is being processed online, and a com-mercial database management system is in use,some immediate improvements in user servicelevel can be achieved with hardware additions.

The promotion mix should be comprised of"social awareness" communications aimed atmarket segments. The resource shortage prob-lem should be explained, the capabilities of theMIS department should be stressed, and usersshould be encouraged to keep long rangeperspectives in mind. These communicationsshould be planned and designed in the samemanner that firms create promotional campaigns.Attention should be given to consumer behaviorliterature, such as that dealing with attitudechange [5, 7, 12], in developing (ormat andcontent of messages. Also, some particularlyeffective case studies are available to the MISmanager in the form of the promotion strategiesfollovwed by U.S. firms, particularly energy com-panies, in the 1 970s.

If a firm is presently charging users for informationouput, a price strategy can be followed Chargescan be lowered lor processing top priority seg-ment data, such as use ot the "off-the-shelf"packages that are being promoted to the uppermanagers. Charges for low priority segments,such as traditional data processing tasks, can bemaintained at the existing level. The MIS managercan follow a strategy of price discrimination bymaking management information applicationsmore attractive than data processing applications.Thought also should be given to certain non-monetary aspects of price such as the investmentof user time in system design. Design efficiencyshould be stressed by taking advantage ofconcepts such as top-down design, friendlyprogramming languages, and structuredprogramming.

At first glance, the MIS manager appears to berigidly constrained in implementing short termmarketing strategies. However, when the mixingredients are examined within the context of aformal short term marketing plan, it becomesobvious that innovative use of personnel, soft-ware, and hardware resources can be quite effec-tive. Once the strategies have been agreed upon,

they should be put in writing in a typical format tora marketing plan. This format stresses the"Where have we been?," "Where are we now?,"and "Where do we want to go?" aspects of theMIS operation This plan should be reviewed andrevised at least annually.

Long term marketing plan

In the long term, the task of the MIS manager is todevelop a stronger marketing mix, one thatcontributes to the attainment of corporateobjectives by the various target marketsegments. In developing this mix, an appraisalmust be made to determine if resource scarcitywill continue to be a problem affecting userrequirements and attainment of corporate goals.To anticipate the scarcity of resourcesencourages a strategy designed to live within theconstraints of the shortage and to be selective inthe systems projects undertaken. MIS managersshould no longer kid themselves into thinking thatthe centrally controlled MIS facility will satisfyevery user's needs. Further, an ostrich approachot letting the queues of waiting customers growlonger is equally destructive. Those segments otthe market should be identified that provide thecorporate MIS department with the opportunity tocontribute the greatest support to the firm as ilpursues Its long term goals. Then the resourcesmust be acquired that will enable this long termstrategy to be achieved, allowing users tocomplement the central MIS facility with adecentralized, end-user computing concept, asdiscussed by Rockart and Flannery [ 1 4|. Such anend-user system allows the MIS department toconcentrate on the critical areas for corporategoal attainment within the constraints of availableMIS resources. At the same time, it allows theusers the opportunity to complement the MiSdepartment's resources with their own informa-tion producing capabilities, including the use ofmini/microcomputers.

Long term mix strategy

Emphasis should be on providing the bestpossible information product for the firm'smanagers This product can be provided either bythe firm's MIS department or outside sourcesThe MIS department should strengthen its infor-

Quarterly/September 1982 51

Marketing the MIS

mation producing capabilities by assemblingpersonnel who are skilled at addressing managerinformation needs and delivering a solution.Top-down design plans should be built arounduser involvement, and post-installation userfollow-up should be a continuing effort, A betterproduct will be possible with personnel resourcesadequate for the task, combined with hardwareand software capabilities tailored to meet theneeds of top priority user segments In thosecases where information needs can best besatisfied externally, the MIS department shouldwork with the users in a consulting capacity inidentifying and evaluating possible sources.

In the long term, the superiority of the central MISinformation product can be enhanced by theplace ingredient. The short term strategy ofdistribution ot information using a data com-munications network should be continued andexpanded. The communications facility itself willoffer no real advantages over other informationalternatives, but the information product that isdelivered can be superior. Database software forlarger scale computers is considerably morepowerful than for smaller systems, and thispowerful software, combined with the database,will provide an information resource that shouldenable the MIS department to enjoy a competitiveedge in many application areas.

The MIS manager should realize that the userimage of product value is a combination of realproduct characteristics and perceivedcharacteristics. A promotion plan is a key part ofthe long term plan, designed to cultivate a strongperceived value of the information product as wellas a clear understanding of the elements compris-ing its cost. This promotion plan should be basedon an executive education program, using bothinternal and external facilities, intended to firstdevelop interest in the generic information pro-duct leading to an appreciation of the resourcesrequired to produce the information. The firstphase of the education program will employcourses and workshops in information-basedmanagement conducted by management associa-tions and universities. In the second phase,selected executive training courses offered bymainframe and software vendors can promote theuse of information-development techniques thatthe corporate facility can support. The third phaseof the promotion program makes use of thesystems analyst as a promotional representative

providing a personal link between the user andthe MIS department. This link will facilitate theflow of product information to the manager andmarketing intelligence information from themanager. This intelligence is a vital input todefining short term strategies as well as con-tinually fine-tuning the long term MIS marketingplan.

The use of price is encouraged as a potential longterm control over scarce MIS resources. Severalsteps must be taken If the MIS department is tocompete fairly in the price area with outside infor-mation services. First, all information expensesand investments need to be charged to the user'soperating budget, regardless of origin. Second, auser education program aimed at enabling aninformed evaluation of information alternatives,based on cost-benefit analysis, should beoffered. The user can be assisted by a groupwithin the MIS department that is skilled in theevaluation of information approaches. As the MISgroup performs this duty, satisfaction of userneeds for corporate goal attainment is the mostimportant factor.

ConclusionsThe study of life insurance companies in Texassupported the belief that there is a resourcescarcity problem in MIS departments. However,even with such scarcity, there is still a need for amarketing orientation. Just as U.S. firms in the1970s learned to cope with resource scarcityproblems, MIS managers need to follow similarstrategies. These strategies can be broken downinto short term and long term objectives byidentifying critical and noncritical areas in theorganization in view of corporate objectives,users' needs, and MIS resources The MISmanager should determine the target market,develop the marketing mix, and develop themarketing plan that allows the allocation ofresources to best satisfy the information needs ofthe firm s managers.

References

[1] Ackoff, R.A. "Management MisinformationSystems," Management Science.


Marketing the MIS

Volume 14, Number 4, December 1967,pp. 147-158.

[2] Bariff, M.L. and Lusk, E.J. "Cognitive andPersonality Tests for the Design ofManagement Information Systems,"Management Science. Volume 23,Number 8, April 1977, pp. 820-827.

13] Best's Insurance Reports. 74th AnnualEdition, A.M. Best Company, Oldwick, NewYork, 1979.

[4] Cullwick, D. "Positioning DemarketingStrategy," Journal of Marketing.Volume 39, Number 2, April 1975,pp. 51-57.

[5] Faison. E.W.J. "Effectiveness of One-sided and Two-Sided Mass Communicationin Advertising," The Public OpinionQuarterly. Volume 25, Number 3,Fall 1961, pp. 468-469.

[6] Hanna, N., Kizitbash. A.H., and Smart, A,"Marketing Strategy Under Conditions otEconomic Scarcity," Journal of Marketing.Volume 39, Number 1, January 1975,pp. 63-80.

[7] Hovland, C.I., ed. The Order of Presenta-tion in Persuasion. Yale University Press,New Haven, Connecticut, 1957.

|8] Kelley, E.J. and Schewe, L.R. "BuyerBehavior in a Stagflation/ShortagesEconomy," Journal of Marketing.Volume 39, Number 2, April 1975,pp. 44-50.

[9j Kotler, P. "Marketing Dunng Periods ofShortage," Journal of Marketing.Volume 38, Number 3, July 1974,pp. 20-29.

[10] Kotler, P. and Levy, S.J "Demarketing,Yes, Demarketing," Harvard BusinessReview. Volume 49, Number 6, November-December 1971, pp. 74-80,

[11] Lucas, H.C. "Performance and the Use ofan Information System," ManagementScience, Volume 2 1 , Number 8,April 1975, pp, 908-919.

[ 12] McGuire, W.J. "The Nature of Attitudes andAttitude Change," in Lindzey, G. andAronson, E eds.. The Handbook of SocialPsychology. Addison-Wesley, Reading,Massachusetts. 1969, pp 136-314.

[13] McLeod, R.G., Jr, and Fuerst, W.L."Marketing Planning Techniques forIncreased MIS User Satisfaction," Pro-ceedings. Southvi/est Federation ofAmerican Institute of Decision Sciences1981 Conference, New Orleans,Louisiana, March 1981.

[14] Rockart, J.F. and Flannery, L. "TheManagement of End-User Computing,"CSIR Report S76, Sloan School of Manage-ment. MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts,1981,

[15] Schewe, CD. "The Management Informa-tion System User: An ExploratoryBehavioral Analysis, " Academy of Manage-ment Journal. Volume 19, Number 4.December 1976, pp. 577-590,

|16] Schewe, CD., Calantone, R J., and Wiek,J.L. "Using Benefit Segmentation toIncrease Marketing Information SystemUsage." Proceedings. American MarketingAssociation National Conference. LosAngeles, California, June 6-9, 1976,pp. 630-633.

[1 7] Schewe, CD. and Dillion, W,R. "MarketingInformation System Utilization: An Applica-tion of Selt-Concept Theory.' Journal ofBusiness Research. Volume 6, Number 1,January 1978, pp. 67-79.

[18] Sohewe,C.D.andWiek, J.L. "Guide to MISUser Satisfaction," Journal of SystemsManagement. Volume 28, Number 6,June 1977, pp. 6-10.

[19] Schewe. CD,, Wiek, J,L,, and Dann. R.T,"Marketing the MIS," Information andManagement. Volume 1, 1977, pp. 11-20,

[20] Srinivasan, C A. and Dascher, P E. "Infor-mation Systems Design: User PsychologyConsiderations,"' MSU Business Topics.Winter 1976, pp, 51-57.

[21] Swanson, E.B. "Management InformationSystems. Appreciation and Involvement,"Management Science. Volume 2 1 ,Number 2, October 1974, pp. 178-188

[22] Vasarhelyi, MA. "Man-Machine PlanningSystems: A Cognitive Style Examination ofInteractive Decision Making," Journalof Accounting Research. Volume 15,Number 1, Spring 1977, pp. 138-153.


Marketing the MIS

About the Authors

Raymond McLeod, Jr. is Associate Professor ofBusiness Computing Science at Texas A & MUniversity. He has worked for IBM, RecognitionEquipment, and the consulting firm Lifson,Wilson, Ferguson, and Winick. He is co-author ofComputerized Business Information Systems,and author of Management Information Systems,and Management Information Systems CaseBook, Dr. McLeod is a member of ACM and AIDS,and holds the Certificate In Data Processing.

William L. Fuerst is an Assistant Professor ofBusiness Computing Science in the College ofBusiness Administration at Texas A & M Univer-sity. He received his D.B.A. from Texas TechUniversity in management information systems-His major areas of interest include design,implementation, and use of computerizedsystems, behavioral factors affecting MIS suc-cess, and computer simulation. He is a member ofAIDS and DPMA.

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marketing the mis during times of resource scarcity

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