marketing fragment 6 x 11assets.cambridge.org/97805218/40064/index/... · ags accelerator, 492 air...
TRANSCRIPT
Index
Underlined page numbers identify a page citation that continues on the pages thatfollow.
absorbed dose, 72, 79, 354, 516absorber, 233
crystal, 263layer
thick, 9thin, 7, 10, 18, 233
material, 257uranium, 255
plate, 295absorption, 35
coefficient, 38, 515cross section, 35, 38edge, 32energy, physical, 72full-, peak, 486muon
detector, 488measurement, 466
of electrons, 27of hadrons, 41of photons, intensity, 515shower, 233total-
peak, calibration, 259scintillator calorimeter, 312, 495
X-ray, high, 291abundance, elemental,
cosmic-ray, 180
accelerator, 82AGS, 492charged particles, 516circular, 517cosmic, 87linear, 82, 517test beam, 79, 259
acceptanceelectron, 294range of, 489
acceptor level, 114accident
dosimetry, 503radiation, 81, 503
accommodation period of theeye, 122
accuracy, see resolutionacetone, 351acoustic detection techniques, 258activation
function, 457neutron, 484of hair, 503
activator centre, 124activity, 516
of 1 g radium, 72ADC, 188, 275, 392, 531
conversion time, 422, 423, 425
599
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
600 Index
ADC (cont.)differential non-linearity, 423, 425flash, 188, 422–423parameters, 421successive approximation, 423Wilkinson, 423–425
adiabatic light guide, 130aerial survey, 484aerogel
as Cherenkov medium, 282, 286, 367Cherenkov-counter system (ACC),
367, 369silica, 144, 145, 367
AES, 480after-discharge, 108ageing, xxi, 68, 346, 347, 530
constructional features, 351rate, 349tests, 350wire chamber, 346, 349, 350
AGS accelerator, 492air
capacitor, cylindrical, 97Cherenkov telescope, 504gap magnet, 332, 336light guide, 146range of particles, 26shower
Auger experiment, 498extensive, see extensive air shower
(EAS)albedo, 238
fluctuations, leakagedue to, 238
ALEPHdetector, 450experiment, 445, 461time-projection chamber, 211,
281, 282ALICE, 328alignment data, 437α particles, 26, 298
energy loss, 7range, 26
α spectroscopy, 117alternative hypotheses, 281
aluminiumcalorimeter, 257granules, 266scattering foil, 481
AMANDA, 320-II layout, 321
ambiguityexclusion, 191left–right, 192, 444
americium-241, decay-levelscheme, 597
amplificationcurrent, 132gas, see gas amplification
amplifier, 397–401bandwidth, 399–400charge-sensitive, 116,
398–401feedback, 398frequency response, 399–400input impedance, 400–401low-noise, 116rise time, 416simple, 399–400virtual ground, 401
amplitudedistribution, 294, 295signal, 92-to-digital converter, 275
AMS experiment, 292analogue-to-digital converter, see
ADCanalysis
classical cut stream, 460cut, 460neural-net, 460of data, 436, 532of detector system, electronic noise,
409–413of pictures, bubble chamber, 163pulse height, 392selection criteria, 439
AND, 417Anger camera, 468angiography, dual-energy subtraction,
472
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 601
angleCherenkov, see Cherenkov anglecritical, for internal reflection, 145deflection, 330, 331Lorentz, 48, 201, 205multiple scattering, 18, 333, 514of emission
scintillation photons, 276transition-radiation photons, 148
photon, 287measurement, 243scattering, 34
polar, 339scattering, distribution, 18solid, coverage, 197stereo, 201
Belle CDC, 364zenith, 79
angular distribution, see distribution,angular
angular resolution, see resolution,angular
annealing, 355, 356annihilation, 11, 77
cross section, 12radiation, 475
anodecharge deposition, 347coating, 347current, rapidly increasing, 276segmented, 277wire, 198
deposits, 352electrostatic repulsion, 189gain change, 349gold-plated tungsten, 188, 351,
365spacing, 192thick, 107, 351thin, 97, 351
ANTARES detector, 320anti-coincidence
counter, 297requirement, 495
antineutrino, 309antiparticle, 82
APD, 138, 242application-specific IC, 421approximation, empirical, 253archaeology, 466area density, 5, 32argon
liquid, 110, 211, 256, 257counter, 110ionisation detector, 246sampling, 247
solid, 112ultrapure, 211
ARIADNE Monte Carlo, 584arrival time, 63, 277
photon, 287astronomy, γ-ray, 287, 495astroparticle experiments, 292astrophysical neutrinos, 121astrophysics, 36ATLAS
detector, 341energy resolution, 257
experiment, 328, 442transition-radiation tracker
(TRT), 289atmospheric neutrinos, 308, 319atom, pionic, 478atomic number, 19attachment of positive ions, 194attenuation
coefficient, 32, 38, 472, 515length, light, 276of photons, intensity, 21
Augerair-shower experiment, 498effect, 33electron, 33, 76, 480
spectroscopy, 480automatic pattern
recognition, 300reconstruction, 176, 180
autoradiographic techniques, 484avalanche, 276
chambermultistep, 196parallel-plate, 278
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
602 Index
avalanche (cont.)development, 100, 101, 106electron, 97, 103formation, 188, 346photodiode (APD), 138, 242propagation, 106secondary and tertiary, 105
averageenergy loss, see energy lossmean free path, 44, 49photon path, 238refractive index, 145
Avogadro number, 4, 578axis of a shower, 235Ayre–Thompson technique, 169
B factory, 360�B field, see magnetic fieldb parameters, 25BaBar, 328
detector, 287, 288angular resolution, 244
back-end electronics, 363background
beam, 362cosmic-ray, 294processes, 61radiation, microwave, 122reduction, 460rejection, 439WIMP searches, 265
backpropagation, 449, 458backscattering, 35Baikal detector, 320Bakelite, 277band
conduction, 112, 123forbidden, 112structure, 112valence, 112, 114, 123
bandwidth, amplifier, 399–400barn, 300baryon number, conservation, 500beam
background, 362diagnostics, 83
-dump experiment, 309energy, known, 260heavy-ion, monitoring, 476loss
monitors, 83uncontrolled, 88
mixed-particle, 281momentum, 260monoenergetic
collinear, 285neutrino, 493pencil, 476secondary, 336test, 79, 259
beams, counterrotating, 84beamstrahlung, 586Becquerel (Bq), 72, 516Belle, 328
central drift chamber (CDC), 362,364–367
detector, 361components, 361data-acquisition electronics,
382–384level-1 trigger, 382particle identification, 367, 379,
380performance, 385
ECL, 372–376energy calibration, 374experiment, 360KLM, 377–381luminosity measurement, 385TOF, 369–372trigger system, 360, 382, 383
bending radius, magnetic, 273, 330, 333Bernoulli distribution, 60β decay, 76
inverse, threshold, 307nuclear, 308
β-raydose constant, 74emitters, 77, 486
β spectroscopy, 117Bethe–Bloch relation, 3, 5, 512, 517Bhabha scattering, 86, 260
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 603
bialkali cathode, 131bias, 440
neuron, 457reverse, see reverse bias
Big Bangneutrinos, 264, 309, 322remnants, 230
Big European Bubble Chamber(BEBC), 314, 316
binding energynuclear, 252of the electron, 34
binomial distribution, 60biological
cortical neural systems, 456effect, 71–73effectiveness, 476
neutron, relative, 299, 300relative, 72, 516
half-life, 80Birks’ constant, 127bismuth
-207, 259decay-level scheme, 596
-germanate (BGO) crystal, 362blackening, photometrically measured
and radial distribution, 177blood vessels, imaging, 471,
474Blumlein circuit, 168boiling temperature, 163bolometer, 120, 263
two-component, 120bond
covalent, molecule, 347nuclear, break up, 252
borehole investigations andtechnique, 483
Born approximation, 32boron
coating, 298trifluoride
counter, 297, 483gas, 297
borosilicate glass, 145Bose condensate, 262
boundary between media, 146emission, 147
Bragg peak, 475brain, PET scan, 470, 471branching ratio, 440breakdown voltage, static, 276bremsstrahlung, 1, 19, 77, 231,
481, 512cross section, 20energy loss, 19, 513magnetic, 77muon, 296, 336
brilliance, 31bubble chamber, 163, 518
BEBC, 314, 316bubble density, 164electronic, 211events of high complexity, 163expansion, 163hydrogen, 163large-volume, 314liquid, 165neutrino observation, 316pictures, analysis, 163size of bubbles, 166superheated state, 163synchronisation, 163vertex, holographic readout, 511
bubble formation, 163bulk
damage, 355resistivity, 277
14C method, 501cable
driver, 427impedance, 427propagation delay, 427reflections, 427–429termination, 428–429
cadmium-109, decay-level scheme, 595calcium-fluoride crystal, 177, 284, 286calibrated reference signals, 260calibration
calorimeter, 258coefficient, 259, 261
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
604 Index
calibration (cont.)constants, 260, 261, 374, 437, 454data, 437energy, 79, 259
Belle, 374function, 61monitoring, 259, 526of detectors, 61of time, 502on-line, 454parameters, 61pedestal, 259, 261relative, 259time dependence and stability, 260with a laser, 260, 503with cosmic-ray muons, 260with light-emitting diodes, 260with radioactive sources (e.g. noble
gases, uranium), 259calorimeter, 90, 510
aluminium, 257angular resolution, 243BaBar detector, angular
resolution, 244calibration and monitoring, 258calibration with radioactive
sources, 259cells, 438compact, 249completely contained
electromagnetic cascades, 245cryogenic, 261–263, 266, 526crystal, 239
disadvantage, 242separation capability, 294
CsI crystal, 295, 372electromagnetic, 166, 231, 438,
524, see also Belle ECLcalibration, 260CMS detector, 241, 242crystal, 294monitoring, 454parameters, 238
electron forward (EFC), 362element, response, 261energy resolution, 257, 261
escape from, 252granularity, 438hadron, 166, 249, 438, 525
compensation, 255, 256energy resolution, 257overcompensation, 256performance check, 260
high-resolution, 372homogeneity, 238ionisation, 243iron–scintillator, 249, 250, 253KTEV, 241lead-glass, 242linearity, 259longitudinal segmentation, 293marble, 257measured energy spectrum, 239micro-, 120muon, 296
efficiency determination, 454non-uniformity, 259resolution, energy dependence,
240sampling, 161, 244, 245, 312, 438
accordion type, 247calibration, 260elements, 257energy resolution, 245–247fluctuation, 246hadron, 256
scintillation counters in, 249scintillator
calibration, 260total-absorption, 312, 495
sensitive volume, 237shashlik type, 249spaghetti, 249, 525spiralling electrons, 259streamer tube, 247, 292–296temperature rise, 262thickness, 233, 238
effective, 238tile, 249tungsten, 253uranium, 259wavelength-shifter readout, 248–250
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 605
calorimetricdetector, 211measurement, 296, 531neutrino detector, 312particle identification, 292, 529
calorimetry, 230, 524electromagnetic, Belle, 372–374
cameraAnger, 468CCD, 174Compton, 469gamma, 468, 469radiation, 467
capacitance per unit length, 99, 189capacitor, air, cylindrical, 97carbon
-14 method, 501fibre, 351ions, energy loss, 475
carrier foil, 300cascade, see also shower and extensive
air shower (EAS)electromagnetic, 178, 233, 293
Cherenkov rings, 286completely contained, 245counter, 249in the Earth atmosphere, 251, 257lateral development, 238lateral width, 234, 235longitudinal development,
234–236, 238electron-induced, 236electron–photon, 231hadron, 178, 250, 293, 297
centre of gravity, 293electromagnetic subcascades, 251in the Earth atmosphere,
251, 257invisible energy, 252, 255ionisation loss, 252lateral distribution, 255lateral width, 250length, 253longitudinal development, 250longitudinal energy
distribution, 253
lost energy, 256neutral particles, 252radius, 95 % containment, 256secondary particles, 251
in the Earth atmosphere, 250photon- and proton-induced, 250radial width, 255
cathodebialkali, 131continuous, 351deposits, 347pad, 194, 217segmentation, 106, 109strips, 190
cavityaccelerating, 83reflecting, 265
CCD detector, 174, 217CDHS experiment, 313, 314cell
killing rate, 476nucleus, 475
cellulose acetate and nitrate, 300central drift chamber (CDC), 362, 364centre of gravity
charges, 190energy deposition, 243shower, 254
longitudinal, 293centre of mass, energy and system,
336, 337ceramic substrate, 213cerium-doped glasses, 354cesium, 80, 541
-137, decay-level scheme, 595-iodide
crystal, 372, 495crystal calorimeter, 295photocathode, 286
CGRO, 497chain of resistors, 193chamber
bubble, see bubble chambercloud, see cloud chamberdischarge, 169drift, see drift chamber
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
606 Index
chamber (cont.)emulsion, 176flash, 257gas
-filled, 246Freon, 165
hyperbolic, 201ionisation, see ionisation chamberlifetime, 347material, outgassing, 348multistep avalanche, 196multiwire, see multiwire
(proportional) chamberneon flash, 169, 519
plastic tubes, extruded, 169parallel-plate, 257
avalanche, 278resistive plate, 277, 278, 327,
362, 377spark, see spark chamberstraw, 202, 521streamer, 167, 518time expansion, 196, 521time projection, see time-projection
chamber (TPC)tracking, 476Wilson, see cloud chamberwire, see wire chamber
chance coincidences, 63channel control, electronics, 259channel plates, 135channelling, 12characteristic times, 61, 62characteristic X rays, 33, 77,
260, 480characteristic, shower, 236, 254charge
carriergenerations, 100mobility, 44, 117number, fluctuations, 15
centre of gravity, 190colour, 447-coupled device, 174, 217deposition, anode, 347-division method, 200, 206
equivalent noise, 410–415induced, 110ion, 75mirror, 147nuclear, screening, 37particle, 273projectile, 285-sensitive amplifier, 116, 398–401space, see space, charge-to-time conversion (QTC), 366,
384charged-current interaction, 309, 317charged particle, see particle, chargedcharging resistor, 105charging-up
electrostatic, 213time, 194
Charm experiment, 314chemical abundance in a borehole, 484chemical composition of high-energy
cosmic rays, 292Cheops pyramid, 487Chephren pyramid, 487, 488Cherenkov
angle, 143, 288reconstructed, 286resolution, 286
counter, 142, 281, 287, 438, 528aerogel (ACC), 367, 369differential, 145, 282discriminating (DISC), 146gas, 144radiation hardness, 354sea water and ice, 501water, 327, 497water, large-volume, 318, 319, 500
light, 237, 258, 276, 287,500, 527
cone, 282medium
aerogel, 282, 286, 367water and ice, 258
pattern, 319photons, 143
number, 288number, total, 242
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 607
radiation, xxi, 28, 142particle identification, 281, 528threshold energy, 242
radiator, 144, 145, 283quartz, 355
ring, 283, 285, 287, 289, 438, 500, 501distribution of radii, 284elliptically distorted, 287from electromagnetic
cascades, 286intersecting, 286technique, 288
telescope, air, 499, 504Chernobyl (isotopes), 486χ2
distribution, 444minimisation, 374
chlorine experiment, 311circuit
Blumlein, 168digital, 417–421electronic, delay, 197equivalent, 409–410integrated, see integrated circuits
civil engineering, 466cladding-fibre light guide, 249classical cut stream analysis, 460classical electron radius, 4clearance level, 76clearing field, 168, 172cloud chamber, 160, 163, 517
diffusion, 161expansion, 161
cycle, 161fast, 161
multiplate, 161cluster
KTEV calorimeter, 241model, 447of crystals, 260of energy depositions, 239, 446silver, 176
CMD-2 detector, 294, 295CMOS
inverter, 419power dissipation, 419
CMS detector, 241, 328, 338, 340coating
anode, 347boron and uranium, 298lithium-fluoride, 298
cobalt, 541-57, decay-level scheme, 592-60, decay-level scheme, 593
coilcompensation, 338pickup, 262
coincidenceanti-, counter, 297chance, 63majority, 64, 66
efficiency, 66random, 63
q-fold, 64threefold, 65twofold, 64, 65
collectiontime, electrons, 93efficiency, light, 127
collidercounterrotating beams, 84electron–positron,
particle–antiparticle,proton–antiproton, 85
linear, 84low-rate, 350muon, 85
collimator, multichannel, 469collision
cross section, 44, 45electron–electron, 11friction and stochastic force,
47, 48length, 42, 515multiple, 43µ+µ−, 85of gas molecules, 47
colourcharge, 447factor, 448
combined parameter distributions, 293compactness parameter, shower, 293
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
608 Index
compensationcoil, 338hadron calorimeter, 255, 256
Comptoncamera, 469edge, 128effect, 31, 33, 231
inverse, 35Gamma Ray Observatory
(CGRO), 497scattering, 1, 514
cross section, 38telescope, 50
conduction band, 112, 123confidence
interval, 58, 59level, 58, 59, 61, 445limit, 444
conservationbaryon number, 500lepton number, 492, 500particle tracks, 176
constantfine structure, 5Planck, 45, 577Rydberg, 33
containment95 % energy, 25495 % longitudinal, length, 254radius 95 %, 235, 255, 293
contaminants, 346, 347dissolve, 351silicon, 351
contamination, 46surface, 81, 503with pions, 293
contrast, image, 471controlled areas, 76, 516Conversi tubes, 169, 519conversion
charge-to-time (QTC), 366, 384electrons, 76
monoenergetic, 79flash, 422photon, 208, 450, 451point, photon, 243
reaction, neutron, 297time, ADC, 422, 423, 425
converteramplitude-to-digital, 275analogue-to-digital, see ADCdigital-to-analogue, 393photo-, 286time-to-digital, 275, 425
Cooper pairsbinding, 261break-up, 262in superconductors, 120tunnelling, 262
coordinatesdetermination, 291ghost, 191photon, 284two- or three-dimensional, 437
copper, 257braid syndrome, 431
correction function, 243corrections, radiative, 260CORSIKA EAS generation,
453, 587COS-B satellite, 496cosmic accelerators, 87cosmic radiation, 75, 491
high-energy, chemicalcomposition, 292
highest-energy, 258primary, (heavy) nuclei and
photons, 257sources, 466
cosmic-raybackground, 294elemental abundance, 180experiments, 257, 292Monte Carlo event generators, 587muons, 79
calibration with, 260high-energy, 258
neutrinohigh-energy, 258low-energy, 261
cosmological neutrinos, 510Coulomb potential and scattering, 18
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 609
count ratehigh, 278true, 63
counteranti-coincidence, 297boron trifluoride, 297, 483Cherenkov, see Cherenkov counterDIRC, 287, 288
working principle, 289DISC, 146electromagnetic cascade, 249end-window, 503Geiger–Muller, 62, 104, 105, 257ionisation, 90, 517
cylindrical, 94large-size, 276liquid argon, 110low-level, 502methane-flow, 502mosaic, 190neutron, 296–298, 529Pestov, 277proportional, see
proportional counterRICH, see RICH counterscintillation, see scintillation
counterself-quenching, 106spark
large-area, 277planar, 276, 277
strip, superconducting, 267TDC, 425–426threshold, gaseous, 281time-of-flight, 274, 276, 527
Belle, 369–371time-of-propagation (TOP),
288trigger, 438
counterrotating beams, 84counting
gas, 91, 189medium, 112, 211statistics, 61track, 247
covalent molecule bond, 347
covariance matrix, 444helix, 445independent measurements, 444
Crab Nebula, 496critical angle, internal
reflection, 145critical energy, 21, 232, 235, 244, 513critical field strength of
superconductivity, 266cross-coupling strip detectors, 401cross section
annihilation, 12atomic, 38, 43Born approximation, 32bremsstrahlung, 20collision, 45
energy dependence, 44Compton effect, 38, 514electron scattering, 110energy
absorption, 35, 38dependence, 33scattering, 35
hadronic, 41interference effect, 45Klein–Nishina, 34neutrino–nucleon scattering, 307neutron, 297neutron–proton scattering, 300nuclear, 43of photons, 38pair production, 32, 36, 514photoelectric, 32, 514photon absorption, total, 38proton–proton, 41Ramsauer effect, 45recoil proton, 299Thomson, 32total, 32, 42
cross-talk, 429–433cryogenic
calorimeter, 261–263, 266, 526detector, 264, 265
experimental set-up, 266equipment, 111temperatures, 120
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
610 Index
cryptographic key and treatment,489
crystalAgCl, 175absorber, 263bismuth-germanate (BGO), 362CaF2, 177, 284, 286calorimeter, 239
CsI, 295, 372disadvantage, 242separation capability, 294
CaWO4, 264, 265CdWO4, 264cluster, 260CsI, 495dielectric, scintillating, 264germanium, high-purity, 118,
470, 486heavy transparent, 237lattice, excitation, 122LiF, 177non-uniformity, 237, 242scintillation, 237, 264
heavy, 239silver-halide, 175TeO2, 263UV-transparent, 283window, 284ZnWO4, 264
Curie (Ci), 72current
amplification, 132anode, rapidly increasing, 276dark, 68leakage, 355, 362-limited spark chamber, 172mode, 96paths, shared, 430–432reverse-bias, 355, 356surface, 355tunnel, interference
effect, 262curvature, radius of, 273cut, 439
analysis, 460likelihood ratio, 381
cycle time, 161cyclotron frequency, 48Cygnus X3, 496cylindrical
drift chamber, 196, 198, 522ionisation counter, 94proportional chamber,
198, 522wire chamber, 197, 522
damagebulk, 355local, by sparks, 350metallic surface, 277radiation, see radiation damagesurface, 355
dark currents, 68dark, non-luminous matter, 261darkness, structure, 177data
-acquisitionelectronics, Belle detector,
382–384system, 275, 436
alignment, 437analysis, 436, 532calibration, 437detector, raw, 436–438digitised, 258event, raw, 439-taking time, 437
dating, 180radio-carbon, 501
dead time, 62, 63, 170effects, 259
decaybeta
inverse, threshold, 307nuclear, 308
channel, 492constant, 71law, 516length, 166level schemes, 79, 591–597nucleon, 170
experiment, 134
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 611
positron in nucleus, 76proton, 500
Cherenkov counter, 500radioactive, 489, 516time, 123
scintillator, 124vertex, 318, 451
decontamination procedure, 81decoration of particle
tracks, 176dE/dx, see energy lossdeflection
angle, 330, 331by multiple scattering, 333
delay, 63circuits, electronic, 197gas, 197line
magnetostrictive, 173spiral-wire, 200
propagation, 419cable, 427
δ rays, 7, 10, 279, 285, 291, 512dense media, shower development,
236density
bubble, 164effect, 4, 279, 280of radicals, 347times thickness, 5, 32
deoxyribonucleic acid, 475depletion region (layer), 114deposition
charge on anode, 347energy, see energy deposition
depositsanode wire, 352burning off, 351cathode, 347macroscopic on wires, 351
depth–intensity relation, 50
muon, 488of shower, 236, 255profile, 479
destruction, local, 179
detectioncharged particle, Belle KLM, 377efficiency, see efficiencyindividual particle, 263KL and muon, 377, 378light, 264limits, 395–397minimum-ionising particle, 267neutron, see neutron detectionντ , 318, 319of muons, 327photon in RICH counter,
efficiency, 284techniques, acoustic, 258threshold, 245
reducing, 261detector
ALEPH, 450AMANDA, 320ANTARES, 320applications, 466, 532array readout, 393–395ATLAS, 341
energy resolution, 257BaBar, 287, 288
angular resolution, 244Baikal, 320Belle, see Belle detectorcalorimetric, 211CCD, 174, 217CDHS, 313characteristic properties, 56Cherenkov, see Cherenkov counterCMD-2, 294, 295CMS, 241, 328, 338, 340concept, 1cryogenic, 262, 264
experimental set-up, 266description, 437DONUT, 318efficiency, 455endcap, 209flexible, 213Fly’s Eye, 498gallium-arsenide, 120γ-ray, 468
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
612 Index
detector (cont.)gas, 65, 77, 347
ageing effect, 346pressure, 280
general-purpose, 274, 360, 531homogeneity, 67IceCube, 320, 324, 501isotropy of response, 67KARMEN, 314KEDR, 243KLOE, energy resolution, 249layers
number, 257saturation effects, 256
linear, 61micropattern gaseous, 212, 213, 286,
474, 523microstrip, 213, 443microvertex, 267multipurpose, 510muon absorption, 488NEMO, 320NESTOR, 320neutrino, see neutrino detectorneutron, see neutron, counter and
detectionnon-linear, 61nuclear-track, plastic, 179of internally reflected Cherenkov
light (DIRC), 287peak, 424phonon, 262, 264phosphate glass, 179photon, entrance window, 285, 286plastic, 176, 179, 300, 520position-sensitive, 284, 287proportional, 3He recoil, 298, 299prototype, ageing test, 350pulsed, 62quality, 515radiation, medicine, 466radiophotoluminescence, 178raw data, 436–439response, simulation, 439, 453RICH
HERA-B, 286
photon sensor, 286scintillation, 392, 402semiconductor, 466, 481, 486
track, 215, 523signal vs. capacitance, 397–398silicon
microstrip, 216, 437oxygenated, 356pixel, 443radiation damage, 356radiation hardness, 355strip, double-sided, 363
silver chloride, 176solenoid, 339solid-state, xxii, 14, 112, 279,
298, 517strip, signal cross-coupling, 401SuperKamiokande, 320surface-barrier, 117test, 77thermal, 263thermoluminescence, 177threshold, for neutrons, 300time-of-flight, 438track, see track detectortransition radiation, 146, 149, 289,
292, 438, 528uniformity, 67, 455vertex, see vertex detectorvisual, 163
determinationof coordinates, 291of efficiency, 60of muon energy, 258of neutrino energy, 258, 446particle mass, 283, 528
deuteron, energy loss, 7diagnostics
beam, 83X-ray, 75
diamond, 145dielectric
scintillating crystal, 264surface, 212
differential non-linearity,423, 425
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 613
diffusion, 43, 44cloud chamber, 161coefficient, 43constant, 44linear and volume, 43longitudinal and transverse, 45
digitalcircuits, 417–421hit pattern, 295, 296signature schemes, 489-to-analogue converter, 393
digitisation of time, 384dimensions, 57
molecular, 45diode, 114
light-emitting, calibration with, 260PIN, structure, 116semiconductor, 116
dipolefield, time variation, 142magnet, 82, 338
self-compensating, 338moment
radicals, 347resulting, 142
DIRC counter, 287, 288working principle, 289
direction of incidence, 287DISC counter, 146discharge
after-, 108chamber, 169channel, 171Geiger, 107glow, 109, 169localised, 107, 278microplasma, 346, 530of electrodes, 277spark, 171–173transverse propagation, 106
discriminating Cherenkov counter(DISC), 146
discriminator, 275, 370dislocations, 354, 355dispersion, 143displaced vertices, 449
displacement, electric, 147dissipation of power, 419distribution
amplitude, 294, 295angular
flat, 260muon, 79scattering, 18shower, 234
binomial (Bernoulli), 60χ2, 444continuous and discrete, 59energy
longitudinal, 253thermal, 43
energy loss, 7, 10, 60, 279FWHM, 279truncated, 282
expectation value, 57function, 56
normalisation, 56variance, 56–58
Gaussian, 9, 18, 58, 59logarithmic, 239
half width, 59invariant-mass
Belle ECL, 376K+K−, 441
Landau, 8, 9, 60, 513lateral
extensive air shower at sealevel, 257
hadronic cascade, 255mass, 372Maxwell–Boltzmann, 43normal, 57–59normalised, 58of Cherenkov ring radii, 284parameter, combined, 293Poisson, 59
error, 60rectangular, 56scattering angle, 18
donor level, 114DONUT experiment, 311, 318,
319
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
614 Index
doseabsorbed, 72, 79, 354, 516constant, 74–depth curve, 478, 480equivalent, 73, 516
commitment, 50-year, 539effective, 73, 74
per-capita, annual, 75personal radiation, 97profile, 478–480rate, equivalent whole-body, 74surface, 475whole-body, 76
lethal, 76dosimeter
ionisation, 97neutron, 299pocket, 80, 97thermoluminescence, 177, 178
dosimetry, accident, 503double-focussing spectrometer, 343double-sided silicon strip
detector, 363double-strand break, 476drift, 44, 515
cell, Belle CDC, 364chamber, 45, 67, 347, 474
central (CDC), 362, 364cylindrical, 196, 198, 522electrodeless, 195, 521energy-loss resolution, 280induction, 196, 521jet, 197, 205, 522jet, Mark II, 206large-area, 194planar, 191, 521solid state, 218
field configuration, 194gas dependence, 44mode, 213module, multiwire, 202properties, 111time, 192
measurement, 57, 291trajectory, 201, 206tube, 196, 290
velocity, 44, 45, 48, 92,192, 515
field dependence, 46, 95volume, 196, 197, 210
dual-energy subtractionangiography, 472
DURHAM algorithm, 448dynode, 131
continuous, 135
E scheme, 448Earth
atmosphere, see (extensive) airshower and cascade
magnetic field, 134EC emitter, 79effect
Auger, 33biological, 71–73Compton, 31, 33, 231
inverse, 35dead and recovery time, 259density, 4, 279, 280interference, 45, 148
tunnel current, 262Josephson, 262Landau–Pomeranchuk–Migdal, 236Malter, 348, 349Meissner, 262nuclear counter, 138of magnetic fields, 136photoelectric, 1, 31, 32, 231, 287,
472, 486, 514radiation, 346Ramsauer, 45saturation, 101
in detector layers, 256screening, 11, 20space charge, 350, 355threshold, 143, 176tunnel, one-electron, 262
effectivecalorimeter thickness, 237equivalent dose, 73, 74ionisation potential, 14light speed, 276
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 615
sampling thickness, 246threshold behaviour, 148
effectiveness, biological, see biologicaleffectiveness
efficiency, 60, 65, 452detection, 440
Belle KLM, 378, 380, 381muon, Belle KLM, 379neutron, 298, 300photon in RICH
counter, 284electron, 292, 293extracting from data, 454for majority coincidence, 66for pion/kaon separation, 290identification, 274light collection, 127multiparticle, 67multitrack, 67,
172, 277of a detector, 455plateau, 108quantum, 131reconstruction, 454
multitrack, 67track, 454
scintillation, 123separation, 292signal, 439track, 454
e/h ratio, 257elastic scattering, 504
e+e−, 386neutron, 297, 299
electrodedischarge, 277gap, small, 278material, 351pickup, 169, 196structure, 213
on thin plastic foils, 213electrodeless drift chamber, 195, 521electroencephalogram, 470electromagnetic
calorimeter, see calorimeter,electromagnetic
calorimetry, Belle, 372–374cascade, see cascade,
electromagneticenergy, 252shower, see cascade, electromagneticsubcascades, 251
electronabsorption, 27acceptance, 294Auger, 33, 76, 480avalanche, 97, 103binding energy, 34capture, 76, 79, 91, 308
of the K shell, 77cascade
lateral development, 235longitudinal development, 293
cloud, 45collection time, 93component, 93
rise time, 102conversion, 76δ, 7, 10, 279, 285, 291, 512detection efficiency, Belle KLM, 380efficiency, 292, 293–electron collisions, 11emitter, 77energy, 100
loss, 7, 10, 11, 20, 22, 231, 278,279, 282, 527
forward calorimeter (EFC), 362/hadron separation, 292/hadron/muon separation, 161high-energy, 287, 294–hole pair, 14, 112hypothesis, 293identification, Belle detector, 379-induced cascade, 236–ion pair, formation, production, 13knock-on, 7, 10, 279, 285, 291, 512
energy dependence andspectrum, 10
lithography, 213mobility, 45, 102monoenergetic, 76, 259multiplier, gas, 214
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
616 Index
electron (cont.)/muon misidentification, 296/muon separation, 295neutrino, 309, 310, 492neutrino-induced, 287, 320number, 244
in shower, 236relative fluctuation, 244
–photon cascade, 231/pion misidentification probability,
292–294/pion separation, 290, 291,
293, 294–positron
annihilation, 202collider, 85interaction, 202pair production, 231
primary, 11radius, classical, 4range, 27
low-energy, 27rays, 475recoil, 264, 265scattering
cross section, 110quasi-free, 32
secondary, 11emission coefficient, 131
signature, 320spectra, linearised, 486spectroscopy, 117spiralling in calorimeter, 259synchrotrons, 84track, 291, 292-volt (eV), 538
electronegative gas, 110chlorine and oxygen, 49quencher, 168
electronic circuit, delay, 197electronic filter techniques, 263electronic noise, see noise, electronicelectronic readout
Belle ECL, 374, 375detector array, 393–395
electronic recording, 169
electronics, 390, 531back-end, 363channel control, 259data acquisition, Belle detector,
382–384electrostatic
charging-up, 213repulsion, 189
elements, periodic table, 598ELOISATRON, 296emission
anglescintillation photons, 276transition-radiation photons, 148
at boundaries, 147coefficient, secondary electrons,
131positron, see positronspectrum, 123, 126
emulsionchamber, 176nuclear, see nuclear emulsion
ENC, 410end-window counter, 503endcap detector, 209energy
absorption, physical, 72balance in events, 446bands, 123beam, known, 260calibration, 79, 259
Belle, 374containment, 95 %, 254critical, 21, 22, 232, 235, 244, 513cross section
absorption, 35, 38scattering, 35
dependence, cross section, 33deposited, 276deposition, 10, 290, 291, 294, 446,
513by transition radiation, 149centre of gravity, 243difference in longitudinal and
lateral distributions, 292in clusters, 446
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 617
in insulators, 262of shower in clusters, 239sample measurement, 245total, 260
distributionlongitudinal, 253thermal, 43
electromagnetic, 252electron, 100
binding, 34extremely low, particle, 261-flow object, 439, 448fluctuation
discontinuous, thermal, 263leakage, 237
gain between two collisions, 97gap, 112high, see high energyinvisible, 252, 255
fraction, 252ionisation, 5kinetic, 273, 527known, of particle, 261leakage, lateral and rear, 233,
237, 238lost in hadron cascade, 256low, see low energymaximum transferable, 2measurement, see measurement,
energymissing, 446, 447
technique, 310, 455nuclear binding, 252of extensive air shower, 257of muons, 296
determination, 258maximum transferable, 3
of neutrinos, determination,258, 446
partition, pair production, 37, 38plasma, 147quantum transition, 261–range relations, 26reconstruction, 446reduced, of photons, 32resolution, see resolution, energy
shower, 235lateral structure, 250
spectrummeasured, 239neutron, 300
threshold, see threshold energytotal, 2, 274
of event, 446transfer
high, exclusion, 280large, 296
visible, 252energy loss, 512
atomic corrections, 10average, 3, 7, 13, 14, 24, 278, 527by bremsstrahlung, 19, 513by Cherenkov radiation, 142by excitation, 273by ionisation, 7, 273by pair production, 24by radiation, 7by transition radiation, 147catastrophic, 26charged particles, 5, 252cut value, 10distribution, 7, 10, 60, 279
FWHM, 279truncated, 282
Fermi plateau, 4, 10fluctuation, 7, 10, 18, 26
statistical, 15high-energy muons, 296information, 438large samples, 280logarithmic rise, 7measurement, 205, 278, 281
Belle CDC, 367minimum, 582, 583
of ionisation, 281most probable, 8, 9of α particles in air, 7of carbon ions, 475of deuterons in air, 7of electrons, 11, 22, 279
by bremsstrahlung, 20by ionisation, 10
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
618 Index
energy loss (cont.)by radiation, 231in air, 7
of kaons, 278–280, 282of muons, 7, 22, 25, 278
in air, 7of pions, 278–280, 282
in air, 7of positrons, 11of protons, 278, 280, 282
in air, 7parameter, muon, 25relativistic rise, 7, 281resolution, 280spin dependence, 10total, 24trident production, 22, 336truncated, 10
engineering, civil andunderground, 466
entrance window, 285, 286epoxy resin, glass-fibre reinforced,
351equivalent circuit, 409–410equivalent commitment dose,
50-year, 539equivalent dose, 73, 516
effective, 73, 74equivalent noise charge, 410–415equivalent whole-body dose rate, 74error
Gaussian, 443momentum measurement, 333multiple scattering, 332, 339, 342normal, 60Poisson-like, 60, 66Poissonian, 60square root, 61standard, 58, 59track measurement, 331, 334,
339, 342escape
from calorimeter, 252peak, 104
estimate, maximum likelihood, 456etch cone, 179
etchingprocess, 179technique, 300
Euler’s Γ function, 234event
BB creation, 387bubble chamber, high
complexity, 163builder, 383display, 450elastic e+e− scattering, 386energy balance, 446generators, Monte Carlo, 452, 584
cosmic rays, 587specific, 584
interpretation, 67random trigger, 259reconstruction, 337, 383, 437, 439
three-dimensional, 166, 211separation, quality, 294simulated, 291, 341
excitation, 1, 2, 231, 512, 517energy loss, 273of phonons, 262of the crystal lattice, 122
exciton, 124level, 124
exclusive OR (XOR), 417exemption limit, 76, 490expansion
bubble chamber, 163cloud chamber, 161
cycle, 161fast, 161
expectation value, 56, 57experiment
ALEPH, 445, 461AMS, 292astroparticle, 292ATLAS, 328, 442Auger, air-shower, 498beam dump, 309Belle, 360, see also BelleCDHS, 313, 314Charm, 314chlorine, 311
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 619
cosmic-ray, 257, 292DONUT, 311, 318, 319fixed-target, 166Fly’s Eye, 498GALLEX, 311, 312GlueX, 276HEAT, 292heavy-ion, 67high-rate, 196, 202IMB, 500in space, 466KamiokaNDE, 134, 500, 501KARMEN, 312, 314KOPIO, 249KTEV, 241NA48, 243neutrino, 134, 170NOMAD, 314, 315nucleon decay, 134OPAL, 242PAMELA, 292‘Poltergeist’, 310radiochemical, 311random, 60satellite, γ rays, 495SELEX, 243SNO, 287, 288, 501STAR, 67storage ring, 166, 197SuperKamiokande, 501two-neutrino, 310, 492
experimental systematicuncertainty, 440
extensive air shower (EAS), 327, 497acoustic detection techniques, 258CORSIKA, 453, 587energy, 257geosynchrotron radiation, 258, 499lateral distribution at sea level, 257measurement principle, 498measurement with Fly’s Eye, 497simulations, 453
external muon identifier, 314extraction of light, 126extragalactic neutrinos, 320
eye, accommodation period andsensitivity, 122
factoryB , 360neutrino, 73, 85
FADC, see ADC, flashfake rate, Belle KLM, 379–381fallout, radioactive, 486Fano factor, 15, 17, 18, 118feed-forward network, multilayer, 449feedback amplifier, 398Fermi
–Kurie plot, 486motion, 84plateau, 4, 10
ferrite core, 173fibre
carbon, 351cladding-, light guide, 249light guide, 248, 249
principle of operation, 248scintillating, 219, 249
tracker, 219, 524single- and multicladding, 248, 249
fieldclearing, 168, 172gradient, 83magnetic, see magnetic fieldstrength
critical, of superconductivity, 266electric, 44quadrupole, 543
filmthermoluminescence, 178
scanning, 178X-ray, 176
industrial, 177filter technique, electronic, 263fine-mesh-type photomultiplier tube,
368, 369fine-structure constant, 5fish tail, 130fission
reaction, 298spontaneous, 180
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
620 Index
fitgeometrical, 451kinematical, 451straight line, 443
fixed-targetexperiments, 166magnetic spectrometer, 328mode, 84
flammability, 111flash, see also light flash
ADC, 188, 422–423chamber, 257conversion, 422
flint glass, 145flip-flop, 417
toggle, 490fluctuation
albedo, leakage due to, 237energy
discontinuous, thermal, 263leakage, 237loss, see energy loss, fluctuation
first interaction point, 238hadron-shower development, 255ionisation loss, 279Landau, 18, 246number
of charge carriers, 15of electrons, relative, 244of neutral pions, 252, 255
path length, 134, 276Poisson, 18primary ionisation, statistical,
192sampling, 245, 246, 257
correlations, 246FLUKA simulation, 453fluorescence radiation, 178flux tube, ion, 105Fly’s Eye, measurement of extensive
air showers, 497, 498foil
carrier and plastic, 300scattering, aluminium, 481
foils, periodic arrangement, 148forbidden band, 112
forcefriction and stochastic, 47, 48Lorentz, 47, 82
formationof avalanches, 188, 346of bubbles, 163of polymers, 347of silver nuclei, 176of sparks, 172, 350of stars in pion capture, 475, 478of streamers, 247, 350zone, 237
4π geometry, 166FPGA, 421fragment, nuclear, short-range, 252Freon, 165, 283frequency
cyclotron, 48response, amplifier, 399–400
friction force, 48Frisch grid, 93
ionisation chamber, 94full-absorption peak, 486full width at half maximum
(FWHM), 59fusion, proton–proton, 308FWHM, 59
energy-loss distribution, 279
gainlosses, 68, 349, 350variation, 348, 349
galacticneutrinos, 319particles and γ rays, 466
GALLEX experiment,311, 312
gallium-arsenide detector, 120gamma-backscatter method, 482gamma camera, 468, 469Γ function, 234γ radiation, 475
galactic, 466monochromatic, 76, 77, 259satellite experiment, 495solar, 466
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 621
γ-rayastronomy, 287, 495detector, 468dose constant, 74high-energy, direction of
incidence, 287imaging, 468line, 486point sources, 496, 499
gapair, magnet, 332, 336electrode, small, 278energy, 112spark, 168
gasamplification, 277, 278
factor, 97, 99in liquids, 112low, 278photoelectrons, 276, 284, 286,
301region, 196
boron trifluoride, 297Cherenkov
counters, 144radiator, 144
counting, 91, 189delays, 197detectors, 65, 77, 212, 213, 286,
347, 474, 523ageing effect, 346
diffusion in, 43electron multiplier (GEM), 214electronegative, 49, 110
quencher, 168-filled chamber, 246for high-rate applications, 350heavy, 283impurities, 14low-Z, 365mixture, 91noble, see noble gaspressure, 280purification, 351quenching, 106
scintillation counter(scintillator), 127
temperature, 43ultrapure, 348vapour mixture, 160
gating principle, 210gauge particles, virtual, 24Gaussian
distribution, 9, 18, 58, 59logarithmic, 239
errors, 443noise distribution, 404
GEANT simulation, 453gedankenexperiment, 16Geiger
discharges, 107mode, 105
locally limited, 106, 257(–Muller) counter, 62, 104, 257
Geminga, 496generations of produced charge
carriers, 100generator
Marx, 168Monte Carlo, see Monte Carlo
generatorrandom number, 489, 491, 492
geometrical fit, 451geoneutrinos, 323geophysics, 466geosynchrotron radiation, 258, 499germanium crystal, high-purity, 118,
470, 486ghost coordinates, 191glaciophone, 501glass
borosilicate, 145cerium-doped, 354flint, 145lead, see lead glassphosphate, silver-activated, 178plate, graphite-covered, 277spark chamber, 172Yokota, 179
glow discharge, 109, 169GlueX experiment, 276
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
622 Index
gluon jets, 447gradient
of the quadrupole, 543temperature, constant, 162
granularity, 438, 439granules
superheated superconducting, 262,265–267
tin, zinc, aluminium, 266gravitational wave, 510Gray, 72, 516grid (‘gate’), 210‘ground loop’, 430ground, virtual, 401grounding, 432GUT theory, 500
hadron, 251absorption, 41calorimeter, see calorimeter, hadroncascade, see cascade, hadronenergy resolution, 252, 255interaction, 41jet, 447signal, 253therapy, 476
hadronic cross section, 41hadronic processes, inelastic, 251hadronisation of partons, 260, 447,
584hair activation, 503half-life, 71, 516
biological and physical, 80half width, 59harsh radiation environments, 68,
346heat
capacity, 120signal, 263specific, capacity, 263
HEAT experiment, 292heavy flavour physics, 449heavy-ion
beam, monitoring, 476experiments, 67therapy, 475
heavy ions, 475fast, 285
heavy nuclei, primary cosmicradiation, 257
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, 237helium-3 recoil detector, 298, 299helix, 445
parameters, 445, 446HERA-B RICH detector, 286hermeticity, 197, 337, 439HERWIG Monte Carlo, 447, 584hidden layers, 457Higgs
candidate, 461mechanism, 459production, 67-strahlung, 459
high-energycosmic radiation, 258
chemical composition, 292electron, 287, 294γ-ray, direction of incidence, 287hit, 292ion, 292muon, 294
cosmic, 258energy loss, 296range, 28
neutrino, cosmic, 258neutron, 297particle, 274photon, 287pion, 294transfer, exclusion, 280
high-purity germanium crystal, 118,470, 486
high-rateapplications, gases for, 350experiment, 196, 202
high-resolutioncalorimeter, 372scintillation counter, 470
High Resolution (HiRes)telescope, 498
high-voltagecontact, 117
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 623
pulse, 168rise time, 172
HiRes, 498hit
high-energy, 292mirror, 445multiple, readout, 67pattern
digital, 295, 296lateral, 296
single, readout, 67transition-radiation, 291
hodoscope, 239holographic readout technique, 511holographic recording, 166homogeneity, 67, 237HPMT, 136hybrid photomultiplier tube,
136, 286hydrogen bubble chamber, 163hyperbolic chamber, 201hypothesis
alternative, 281of particles, 293
Iarocci tubes, 107ice
Cherenkov counter, 501polar, as Cherenkov medium, 258
IceCube, 320, 324, 501identification
charged particle, 274, 527, 531by Cherenkov radiation, 281, 528by ionisation loss, 278, 279, 527by transition radiation, 289, 528transition radiation, 289
efficiency, 274electron, Belle detector, 379neutrino-induced muons and
electrons, 287of isotopes in radioactive fallout, 486of muons, 166particle, 273, 274, 340, 438, 449,
450, 526Belle ACC, 367Belle detector, 379
with calorimeters, 292, 292, 529pion and kaon, Belle detector, 380
imagecontrast, 471quality, 472
imaging, 466γ rays, 468air Cherenkov telescopes, 499of blood vessels, 471, 474X rays, 467, 468
IMB experiment, 500impact-parameter resolution, 363,
364impedance
cable, 427input, 400–401
improvement of energy resolution,18, 257
impurities, 113, 124electronegative, 110gas, 14
incandescent mantle, 490incidence, direction of, 287incorporation, 75independence, statistical, 280independent measurements, 444index of refraction, 142, 582, 583
average, 145induced radioactivity, 466induction drift chamber, 196, 521inefficient zone, locally, 189inelastic hadronic processes, 251inelasticity, average, 251inhalation and ingestion, 75initial partons, 447initial-state radiation, 260inorganic scintillator, 123, 353, 468input
impedance, 400–401layer, 457
insulator, 116energy deposition, 262
integrated circuit, 395application-specific, 421readout, 393
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
624 Index
interaction, 1charged current, 309, 317electron–positron, 202inelastic, 24, 41
neutron, 297length, 41, 42, 515, 582, 583
nuclear, 249, 292photon, 232
mechanism, 1neutral current, 309ντ , 317nuclear, 24, 296
cross section, 43of charged particles, 2, 41of hadrons, 41of neutrinos, 163, 309, 318,
319probability, 307with nucleons, 320, 493with nucleons, cross section,
307of neutrons, 296of photons, 1, 31photonuclear, 24, 336point, 449
fluctuation, 237probability, 42rate, 85strong, 41vertex, 168, 445weak, 308WIMP, simulation, 265with matter, 1, 512
interference effect, 45, 148tunnel current, 262
interferometer, quantum, 262interlock systems, 480internal conversion, 76internal reflection, 130, 249, 287
critical angle, 145interstitials, 355intrinsically conducting, 116invariant-mass distribution, 376
K+K−, 441inverse beta decay, threshold, 307inverter, CMOS, 419
investigationof boreholes, 482surface, non-destructive, 480
invisible energy, 252, 255fraction, 252
ioncarbon, energy loss, 475charge, 75flux tube, 105heavy, 475
fast, 285high-energy, 292mobility, 44, 110pair, 14positive, attachment, 194
ionisation, 1, 2, 231, 237, 512calorimeter, 243chamber, 91
filled with liquids, 110Frisch grid, 94liquid-argon, 246liquid-noble-gas, 111solid-state, 91, 112under high pressure, 257
constant, 4counter, 90, 517
cylindrical, 94dosimeters, 97energy, 5
loss, 7, 10, 273loss, 286
fluctuation, 279hadron shower, 252of electrons and positrons, 11of heavy particles, 3particle identification, 278,
279, 527measurement, 160minimum, 6, 267, 281, 291potential, effective, 14primary, see primary
ionisationsecondary, 13, 91specific, 197statistics, 17structure, 188
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 625
total, 13trail, 438yield, 13
iron, 257-55, decay-level scheme, 591pions in, 254–scintillator calorimeter, 249,
250, 253solid, magnet, 332
ISAJET Monte Carlo, 584isotope, 79
Chernobyl, 486identification, 486neutron threshold
reaction, 300technology, 485
isotropy of response, 67
JADE algorithm, 448jet
clustering algorithms, 448drift chamber, 197, 205, 522
Mark II, 206gluon, 447of hadrons, 447quark, 447shape, 448two-, structure, 202
JETSET Monte Carlo, 447, 584jitter, 416
time, 134, 416Johnson noise, 403–405Josephson effect and junction, 262
K-edge subtraction technique, 472K-line emitter, 259KamiokaNDE experiment, 134,
500, 501kaon, 251, 252
detection, efficiency, Belle KLM, 381energy loss, 278–280, 282identification, Belle detector, 380mass, 562neutral, 252/pion separation see pion/kaon
separation
KARMEN experiment, 312, 314KEDR detector, 243kinematical
fit, 451refit, 454
kinetic energy, 273, 527maximum transferable, 2
KL detection system, 377, 378Klein–Nishina formula, 34KLOE detector, energy resolution,
249klystron, 83knock-on electron, 7, 10, 279, 285,
291, 512KOPIO experiment, 249KTEV experiment and
calorimeter, 241
laboratory system, 337Landau
distribution, 8, 10, 60, 513fluctuation, 18, 246–Pomeranchuk–Migdal effect,
236large-area
drift chamber, 194scintillation counter, 484spark counters, 277
Large Electron–Positron collider(LEP), 31, 206, 350, 453
Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 67,296, 327, 342, 346, 453
large-size counter, 276large-volume
bubble chamber, 314neutrino detector, 287water Cherenkov counter, 318,
319, 500Larmor radius, 209laser calibration, 260, 503
UV, 211latch, 418lateral
development of electromagneticcascade, 238
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
626 Index
lateral (cont.)distribution
extensive air shower at sealevel, 257
hadronic cascade, 255hit pattern, 296leakage, 233, 238shower
position, resolution, 243profile, 253, 254shape, 449
widthelectromagnetic shower, 235hadron cascade, 250
lattice contribution to the specificheat, 263
layer, 457depletion, 114input, output, and hidden, 457number, of detector, 257oxide, thin, 347sampling, 245saturation, 256sensitive, 295thick, absorber, 9thin, absorber, 7, 10, 18, 233
leadfluoride, 145glass, 145, 237
block, 242calorimeter, 242cerium-doped, 354plate, 135
matrix, 249leading-edge trigger, 415leakage
current, 355, 362due to albedo fluctuations, 237energy, lateral and rear, 233, 238
learningalgorithm, 449scheme, 457
least-squares method, 444, 451left–right ambiguity, 192, 444length
attenuation, light, 276
collision, 42, 515decay, 166interaction, see interaction lengthlongitudinal containment, 95%, 254measurement, 510path, see path lengthradiation, see radiation lengthshower, 253track, see track length
LEP, 31, 206, 350, 453lepton
number, conservation, 492, 500tau, 317
lethal whole-body dose, 76level
acceptor, 114clearance, 76confidence, 58, 59, 61, 445donor, 114exciton, 124schemes, decay, 79, 591–597trigger, 439, 532
LHC, 67, 296, 327, 342, 346, 453LHCb, 328lifetime, 71, 445, 516
chamber, 347proton, 500
lightattenuation length, 276Cherenkov, 237, 258, 276, 287,
500, 527collection efficiency, 127cone, Cherenkov, 282detection, 264-emitting diode, calibration with,
260extraction, 126flash
Cherenkov light, 276duration, 276
guide, 129adiabatic, 130air, 146fibre, 248, 249fibre, cladding, 249fish-tail, 130
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 627
loss, 248, 352output, 123
reduction, 353relative, 354
receiver, spectral sensitivity, 126scintillation, 237, 258, 264, 276, 498speed, effective, 276transfer, 247yield, 264
lightest supersymmetric particle, 455likelihood, see also maximum
likelihoodfunction, 280
combined, 293joint, 274separation parameter, 293
probability, Belle, 379ratio, 281
cut, 381limit
confidence, 444detection, 395–397exemption, 76, 490lower and upper, 59
linearaccelerators, 82, 517collider, 84detector, 61diffusion, 43
Liouville’s theorem, 130liquid, 163
argon, see argon, liquidbubble chamber, 165Cherenkov radiator, 144counting medium, 110neutron, 165noble gas, 237
ionisation chambers, 111scintillator, 127
radiation resistance, 354state, superheated, 163warm, 111, 246, 257xenon, 110, 257
lithium-fluoride
coating, 298
crystal, 177-iodide scintillation counter, 298,
483lithography, electron, 213local damage
by radiation, 180by sparks, 350
local destruction, 179logarithmic Gaussian
distribution, 239logic
arrays, 421CMOS, 419external, 197FPGA, 421functions, 417inverter, 418–419power dissipation, 419symbols, 418synchronous, 421timing, 418
longitudinalcentre of gravity, shower,
254, 293containment length,
95 %, 254development
electromagnetic cascade,234–236, 238
electron shower, 293hadron cascade, 250pion shower, 254, 293
diffusion, 45energy distribution, hadronic
shower, 253magnetic field, 197shower shape, 449
Lorentzangle, 48, 201, 205factor, 2, 274, 528force, 47, 82
low-energycalibration, with radioactive
sources, 259electrons, range, 27neutrino, cosmic, 261
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
628 Index
low-energy (cont.)neutron, 297particle, 261
range, 26separation, 294
photon, 2recoil proton, 256
low-level counter, 502low-noise
amplifier, 116preamplifier, 211
low-rate collider, 350lower limit, 59luminescence, 2
radiation, 124spectrum, 125
luminosity, 86measurement, 360, 504
Belle, 385Lund string model, 584
macaroni, 219magnet
air gap, 332, 336dipole, 82, 338quadrupole, 82solid-iron, 332toroidal, 338
magneticbremsstrahlung, 77field, 47
bending radius, 273, 330, 333configuration, 338longitudinal, 197orientation of granules, 266solenoidal, 205, 338
flux quanta, 262monopole, 121, 180spectrometer, see spectrometer,
magneticmagnetostriction, 173magnetostrictive delay line and
readout, 173majority coincidence, 64, 66
efficiency, 66Malter effect, 348, 349
marble calorimeter, 257Mark II jet chamber, 206Marx generator, 168mass
constraint, 453refits, 453
determination, 283, 528distribution, 372invariant, distribution
Belle ECL, 376K+K−, 441
kaon, muon, pion, 561, 562resolution, 453, 454
Belle ECL, 375separation, 275
materials, composite, properties, 582matrix
covariance, see covariance matrixof photomultipliers, 468
matter, dark (non-luminous), 261maximum detectable momentum,
332maximum likelihood, 455
techniques and estimates, 456maximum transferable
energy, muon, 3kinetic energy, 2
maximum, shower, 233, 234Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, 43mean free path, 44, 49mean, truncated, 279–281, 367measurement
calorimetric, 296, 531drift time, 57, 291energy, 230, 273, 295
loss, 205, 278, 281, 367neutron, 300photon, 244sample of deposition, 245
error, track, 331, 334, 339, 342extensive air shower with Fly’s
Eye, 497independent, covariance matrix,
444ionisation, 160length, 510
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 629
luminosity, 360, 504Belle, 385
momentum, 327, 530, 531error, 333sagitta method, 334
muon absorption, 466neutron, 299non-ionising particles, 526optimum number, 280particle velocity, 283, 528photon angle, 243position, 446radiation, 71
units, 71, 516range, 296rate, 63reference, 260time, 276time of flight, 273, 275, 527
mass distribution, 372timing, 415–416track, 160width, 59
medicinenuclear, 75radiation detectors, 466
Meissner effect, 262memory time, 63, 170, 172mental process, task, 470methane-flow counter, 502method
14C, 501calorimetric, 230charge division, 200, 206gamma-backscatter, 482hair-activation, 503least squares, 444, 451likelihood ratio, 281non-destructive, 480photometric, 177road, 443, 444sagitta, momentum
measurement, 334separation, 292track-following, 445truncated mean, 279–281, 367
microcalorimeter, 120microchannel photomultiplier, 135Micromegas, 214micropattern gaseous detector, 212,
213, 286, 474, 523microplasma discharge, 346, 530microstrip gas detector, 213microvertex detector, 267microwave background radiation,
122milli-Kelvin range, 262minimisation, χ2, 374minimum detectable signal, 395minimum of ionisation, 6, 281, 291
muon, 259particle, detection, 267
minimum wire tension, 189mirror
charge, 147hits, 445spherical, 283
misidentification probability, 65, 274,290, 292–294, 296
fake rate, Belle KLM, 379–381missing
energy, 446, 447technique, 310, 455
momentum, technique, 310, 455mobility
of charge carriers, 44, 117of electrons, 45, 102of ions, 44, 110
moderationneutrons, non-thermal, 297paraffin, 298polyethylene spheres, 298
molecular sieve, 351molecule
bond, covalent, 347fragments, 346
Moliere’s theory, 18Moliere radius, 234momentum
beam, 260known, 260maximum detectable, 332
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
630 Index
momentum (cont.)measurement, 327, 530, 531
error, 333sagitta method, 334
missing, technique, 310, 455particle, 273, 526resolution, see resolution,
momentumspectrometer, 257transverse, see transverse
momentummonitor, beam loss, 83monitoring
Belle ECL, 373calorimeter, 258heavy-ion beam, 476on-line, 68stability of calibration, 259, 526
monochromatic γ rays, 76, 77, 259monoenergetic collinear particle
beam, 285monoenergetic electrons, 76, 259monopole, magnetic, 121, 180Monte Carlo
generator, 452, 584ARIADNE, 584cosmic rays, 587HERWIG, 447, 584ISAJET, 584JETSET, 447, 584PYTHIA, 584specific, 584
simulation, 246, 250, 251, 253,254, 439
shower development, 234, 235techniques, 452, 453
mosaic counter, 190Moseley’s law, 33, 482mu-metal cylinder, 131multi-anode photomultiplier, 286multichannel collimator, 469multicladding fibre and scintillation,
248, 249multigap spark chambers, 197multilayer feed-forward network, 449multiparticle efficiency, 67
multiplate cloud chamber, 161multiple collisions, 43multiple reflections, 287multiple scattering, 18, 26, 208, 234,
250, 333, 514angle, 18, 333, 514error, 332, 339, 342
multiplicationof shower particles, 232system, 131
multiplicity, 251track, 448
multipurpose detector, 510multistep avalanche chamber,
196multitrack efficiency, 67, 172, 277
reconstruction, 67multivariate techniques, 439,
452, 455multiwire
chamber, thin-gap, 279drift module, 202proportional chamber, 56, 186, 257,
284, 347, 437, 474, 520cylindrical, 198, 522miniaturised, 213neutron detection, 298, 299
muon, 252absorption
detector, 488measurement, 466
angular distribution, 79bremsstrahlung, 296, 336calorimeter, 296
efficiency determination, 454colliders, 85cosmic radiation, 260depth–intensity relation, 488detection, 327
efficiency, Belle KLM, 379system, 377, 378
energy, 296determination, 258loss, 7, 22, 25, 278maximum transferable, 3
flux of cosmic rays, 79
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 631
high-energy, 294cosmic, 258energy loss, 296
identification, 166identifier, external, 314/kaon separation, 377mass, 561minimum-ionising, 259neutrino, 289, 310, 317, 492, 494neutrino-induced, 287, 288,
321, 322pair production, 260/pion separation, 278production, 494range, 27
high-energy, 28in rock, 28system, 295
signature, 321trident production, 336, 337X-ray photography, 488, 489
µ+µ− collision, 85
NA48 experiment, 243NAND, 418natural
radiation load, 75radioactivity, 259, 466, 516
negative temperaturecoefficient, 263
NEMO detector, 320neon
-flash chamber, 169, 519plastic tubes, extruded, 169
tubes, spherical, 170NESTOR detector, 320network, multilayer feed-forward,
449neural networks, 449, 455, 456,
458, 460learning scheme, 457overtraining, 458training cycles, 458training, testing, and validation
samples, 457–459neural-net analysis, 460
neuron, 449, 457bias, 457
neutral-current interactions, 309neutrino, 252
anti-, 309astrophysical, 121atmospheric, 308, 319beam, 493Big Bang, 264, 309, 322cosmological, 510detector, 307, 311, 529
calorimetric, 312deep water, 258ice or water, 320, 501large-volume, 287
electron, 309, 310, 492energy determination, 258, 446experiment, 134, 170
two-, 310, 492extragalactic, 320factory, 73, 85galactic, 319geo-, 323high-energy cosmic, 258higher energy, 318-induced electron, 287, 320-induced muon, 287, 288, 321, 322interactions, 163, 309, 318, 319
probability, 307low-energy cosmic, 261muon, 289, 310, 317, 492, 494–nucleon interactions, 320, 493, 494
cross section, 307observation in bubble
chamber, 316oscillations, 323, 501physics, 287primordial, 322radiation exposure, 323reactor, 308solar, 307, 308, 318, 323, 501sources, 307spectrum, 324supernova, 318tau, 311, 317, 319telescope, 258, 296, 501
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
632 Index
neutron, 252, 255activation, 484-backscatter technique, 483conversion reaction, 297counter, 296–298, 529cross section, 297detection
efficiency, 298, 300scintillation counter, 298sensitivity, 299
dosimeter, 299elastic scattering, 297, 299energy, measurement and
spectrum, 300high-energy, 297inelastic interaction, 297interaction, 296liquid, 165low-energy, 297measurement, 299moderation, 297, 298non-thermal, 298quasi-thermal, 298reaction, threshold, 300relative biological effectiveness,
299, 300slow, 298thermal, 297, 298treatment, 475, 479
nitrogen scintillation, 258noble gas
liquid, 237ionisation chambers, 111
radioactive, 259node, 457noise
1/f , 404, 411electronic, 242, 362, 403–406
analysis of detector system,409–413
contribution to energyresolution, 240
equivalent noise charge, 410–415Gaussian distribution, 404parallel and series, 410shot, 404–405
thermal (Johnson), 403–405white, 403
NOMAD experiment, 314, 315non-destructive methods, 480non-ionising particles, measurement,
526non-linearity
differential, 423, 425of a detector, 61
non-uniform scintillator response, 352non-uniformity
of calorimeter, 259of crystals, 237, 242
NOR, 418normal-conducting state, 266, 267normal distribution, 57–59normal error, 60normalisation, distribution
function, 56normalised distribution, 58NTC resistor, 263n-type semiconductor, 114nuclear
beta decay, 308binding energy, 252bond, break up, 252charge, screening, 37counter effect, 138emulsion, 173, 317, 520
stacks, 174fragment, short-range, 252interaction, 24, 296
cross section, 43length, 249, 292
medicine, 75physics, 466recoil, 264, 265, 355track detector, plastic, 179weapon test, 502
nucleon, 251decay, 170
experiment, 134heavy, primary cosmic radiation,
257number
atomic, 19
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 633
Avogadro, 4, 578baryon, conservation, 500lepton, conservation, 492, 500of charge carriers, fluctuations, 15of Cherenkov photons, 288
total, 242of detected particles, 245of detector layers, 257of electrons, 244
and photons in a shower, 236relative fluctuation, 244
of high-energy hits, 292of intersection points, 245of measurements, optimum, 280of neutral pions, fluctuation, 252,
255of photoelectrons, 286
effective and total, 276of track segments, 245of transition-radiation photons, 292
object-oriented language, 439occupancy, 67ocean, as Cherenkov medium, 258on-line
calibration, 454monitoring, 68
one-electron tunnel effect, 262OPAL experiment, 242operating voltage, 355optical recording, 163optical spark chambers, 493OR, 417
exclusive (XOR), 417organ
malfunctions, 468–470picture, 468
organic scintillator, 126as neutron detector, 299compounds, 123
oscillation, neutrino, 323, 501output layer, 457overcharging, 195overcompensation, hadron
calorimeter, 256overtraining, 458
oxide layer, thin, 347oxygenated silicon detector, 356
pad, 194, 216pair of ions, 14pair production, 1, 15, 31, 36
by muons, 22cross section, 32, 36, 514direct, 22–24, 296, 336electron–positron, 231energy loss, 24energy-partition parameter, 37, 38of muons, 260threshold energy, 36
PAMELA experiment, 292paraffin as moderator, 297parallel noise, 410parallel-plate
avalanche chamber, 278chamber, 257
parametercombined distribution, 293electromagnetic calorimeter, 237energy partition, pair production,
37, 38helix, 445, 446impact, resolution, 363, 364most efficient, 281muon energy loss, 25of separation, 291, 293
parametrisationenergy resolution, 239, 257shower, 231
particle–antiparticle colliders, 85beam
mixed, 281monoenergetic collinear, 285
charge, 273charged
accelerator, 516detection, Belle KLM, 377energy loss, 5, 252interaction, 2, 41ionisation and excitation, 231spatial resolution, 277
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
634 Index
particle (cont.)tracking, 290trajectory, 329, 442
extremely low energy, 261gauge, virtual, 24heavy, ionisation loss, 3high-energy, 274identification, see
identificationindividual, detection, 263known energy, 261location, resolution, 438measurement
energy, 230in liquids, 110
minimum-ionising, 6, 291detection, 267
missing, reconstruction, 455momentum, 273, 526multiplicity, 251neutral, in hadron cascade, 252non-ionising, measurement, 526number, detected, 245quasi-, 261, 262radiation, solar and
galactic, 466range
in air, 26low-energy, 26
rate, 259relativistic, 3secondary, in hadron
cascade, transversemomentum, 251
separation, see separationshower
multiplication, 232track segments, 245
supersymmetric, lightest, 455therapy, 475track, conservation and
decoration, 176unstable, reconstruction, 449velocity, 274
measurement, 283, 528
weakly interacting massive(WIMP), 261, 264, 265
partons, initial, 447path
average mean free, 44, 49length, 134
differences, 134fluctuation, 134, 276
photon average, 237pattern, 457
Cherenkov, 319hit, digital, 295, 296of ‘wire shadows’, 347recognition, 443
automatic, 300reconstruction, automatic,
176, 180PDF, 56, 280peak
Bragg, 475detector, 424escape, 104full-absorption, 486total-absorption, calibration, 259
peaking time, 406pedestal determination, 259pencil beam, 476per-capita dose, annual, 75period of accommodation, eye, 122periodic table of elements, 598personal radiation dose, 97Pestov counters, 277PET, 469, 470, 475, 476
scan, 470, 471phonon, 261
detector, 262, 264excitation, 262, 264pulse height, 265
phosphate glass, silver-activated, 178photocathode, 130
cesium-iodide, 286photo-converter, 286photodiode
avalanche (APD), 138, 242silicon, 137
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 635
photoelectric effect, 1, 31, 32, 231,287, 472, 486, 514
photoelectroneffective and total number, 276gas-amplified, 100number, 286production, 105statistics, 237, 242transit-time spread, 276
photographic recording, 162photoluminescence centre, 178photometric methods, 177photomultiplier, 130
in RICH counters, 286matrix, 468microchannel, 135multi-anode, 286readout, 275, 287rise time, 134silicon, 142transit time, 134, 276tube
fine-mesh-type, 368, 369hybrid, 136, 286
window, transparency, 131photon, 1
absorption, total cross section, 38angle, 287
measurement, 243scattering, 34
arrival time, 287Cherenkov, 143
number, 288number, total, 242
conversion, 208, 450, 451point, 243
coordinates, 284cross section, 38detection efficiency, RICH
counter, 284detector, entrance window, 285,
286emission angle, 276energy
measurement, 244reduced, 32
high-energy, 287-induced cascade, 250intensity
absorption, 515attenuation, 21
interaction length, 232interactions, 1, 31low-energy, 2number in shower, 236path, average, 237–photon scattering, 38primary cosmic radiation, 257pulse height, 265range, 31, 106sensor, RICH, 286single optical, spectroscopy, 261spatial resolution, 243starlight, 36synchrotron, 77timing, 249transition radiation, see transition
radiationvirtual, 24yield, 143, 480
photonuclear interactions, 24, 336photopeak, 128, 486photoproduction on protons, 165photosensitive vapour, 284phototetrode, 137phototriode, 137
vacuum (VPT), 242physical constants, 577physical half-life, 80physical units, 580physics
heavy flavour, 449neutrino, 287nuclear, 466
pickup, 429coil, 262electrode, 169, 196signal, 429–433
picture of an organ, 468pile-up, 406PIN diode structure, 116
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
636 Index
pion, 252capture, star formation, 475, 478charged and neutral, 251contamination, 293energy loss, 7, 278–280, 282high-energy, 294hypothesis, 293identification, Belle detector, 380in iron or tungsten, 254/kaon separation, 205, 275, 282,
284, 288, 290, 368, 380, 381/kaon/proton separation, 278mass, 561neutral, 251
fluctuation in number, 252, 255range, 27shower, longitudinal development,
254, 293track, 291, 292treatment, 477
pionic atoms, 478PIXE technique, 480, 481
applications in geology and materialscience, 482
pixel3D (voxel), 477and silicon tracker, 443size, 68system, 217, 221
planar drift chamber, 191, 521planar spark counter, 276, 277Planck’s constant, 45, 577plasma
channel, 169, 171, 276energy, 147
plasticdetector, 176, 179, 300, 520foil, 300polymerised, 126scintillator, 127, 275, 353
material, 126structure, 213
Plexiglas, 145pn junction, 114pocket dosimeter, 80
directly readable, 97
Poissondistribution, 59
error, 60fluctuation, 18-like error, 60, 66statistics, 15
square-root error, 61polar angle, 339‘Poltergeist’ experiment, 310polyethylene as moderator, 298polymerisation, 346, 347
structure, hair-like, 351polymerised plastics, 126polyvinyltoluene, 353position
centre of gravity, 254lateral, resolution, shower, 243measurement, 446monitors, 83resolution, 237
high, 277, 278-sensitive detector, 284, 287
positrondecay in nucleus, 76emission tomography, 469–471, 475,
476emitters, 469, 470, 476energy loss, 11
potentialCoulomb, 18distribution, 94ionisation, effective, 14wire, 198
power dissipation, 419preamplifier, low-noise, 211pressure
gas, detector, 280high, ionisation chamber, 257vapour, saturation, 160
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 489primary ionisation, 13, 100
processes, statistical fluctuation,192
statistics, 193, 206primary vertex, 493primordial neutrinos, 322
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 637
probabilitydensity function (PDF), 56, 280distribution, normalised, 58electron/muon misidentification,
296electron/pion misidentification,
292–294electron–positron pair production,
231interaction, 42likelihood, Belle, 379neutrino interaction, 307of particle misidentification, 65, 274
fake rate, Belle KLM, 379–381pion/kaon misidentification, 290transfer, mean, 197
production vertex, 318projectile charge, 285propagation
avalanche, 106delay, 419
cable, 427time, counter (TOP), 288
proportionalchamber, multiwire, see multiwire
(proportional) chambercounter, 97, 100, 298, 490
3He recoil, 298xenon, 104
mode, 278tube, 257
proton–antiproton collider, 85decay, 500
Cherenkov counter, 500energy loss, 7, 278, 280, 282-induced cascade, 250-induced X-ray emission, 480lifetime, 500photoproduction, 165positron decay in nucleus, 76primary cosmic radiation, 257–proton
cross section, 41fusion, 308
range, 26, 27
recoil, 297, 298cross section, 299low-energy, 256range, 299
slow, 480storage ring, 180synchrotron, 492therapy, 475, 477
prototype detector, ageing test,350
pseudo random numbers, 491psychological bias, 460p-type semiconductor, 114pulse
height, 258, 275analysis, 392from phonons and photons, 265spectrum, 94, 369
high-voltage, 168rise time, 172
shaping, 392–393, 406–409stretcher, 424test, 259
purification of gas, 351purity, 452pyramids, hidden chambers, 487PYTHIA Monte Carlo, 584
q-fold random coincidence, 64quadrupole, 88
field strength (gradient), 543magnet, 82
quality factor, 73quantum
efficiency, 131interferometer, 262state, well-defined, 85transition, 266
energy, 261quark jet, 447quartz
as Cherenkov radiator, 355bar, 287, 288window, 284
quasiparticle, 261, 262quench gas, 106
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
638 Index
quencher, electronegative, 168quenching, 106
rad, 72, 516radiation
accident, 81, 503annihilation, 475belt, 466biological effect, 71–73camera, 467Cherenkov, see Cherenkov
radiationcosmic, see cosmic radiation and
cosmic-raydamage, 353
local, 180recovery from, 353reduced, 213silicon detector, 356
detector applications in medicine,space experiments, high energyphysics, archaeology, 466
dose, personal, 97effects, 346electron, 475energy loss, 7, 231environments, harsh, 68, 346exposure due to neutrinos, 323fluorescence, 178γ, see γ radiationgeosynchrotron, 258, 499hardening, 357hardness, xxi, 68, 77, 111, 222, 355
Cherenkov counters, 354of scintillator crystals, 353, 354of scintillator liquids, 354scintillators, 352
initial state, 260length, 19–21, 231, 235, 249, 292,
513, 582, 583of mixtures, 21
loadenvironment, civilisation, and
natural, 75on the patient, 468
luminescence, 124
measurements, 71units, 71, 516
microwave background, 122officer, 76particle, solar and galactic, 466primary cosmic, 257protection, 96, 300, 490
regulation, 76sources, 71, 76synchrotron, 28, 84, 338terrestrial, 75tolerance, 363transition, see transition
radiationunits, 71weighting factors, 73
radiative corrections, 260radiative return, 459radiators
for Cherenkov radiation,144, 283
quartz, 355solid, liquid gaseous, 144
radical (free), 346, 347chemical activity, 347
radio band, 258radio-carbon content and dating,
501, 502radio-tribology, 484radioactive
decay, 489, 516fallout, 486load, 75noble gases, 259sources, 260
low-energy calibration, 259properties, 78radium–beryllium, 77
tag, 484tracer, 468, 469
radioactivityinduced, 466natural, 259, 466, 516of the human body, 75
radiochemical experiment, 311radioisotopes, identification, 486
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 639
radionuclide, 466, 468activity, 72, 516decay constant, 71
radiophotoluminescence detector, 178radiotherapy, 479radium
activity, 72–beryllium source, 77
radiusbending, 273, 330, 333Cherenkov ring, 283, 285
distribution, 284containment, 95 %, 235, 255,
293, 256electron, classical, 4Larmor, 209Moliere, 234of curvature, 273
Ramsauer effect, 45random
coincidence, 63q-fold, 64
experiment, 60-number generator, 489, 491, 492trigger events, 259
rangemeasurement, 296of acceptance, 489of α particles, 26of electrons, 27
low-energy, 27of muons, 27
high-energy, 28in rock, 28
of particlesin air, 26low-energy, 26
of photons, 31, 106of pions, 27of protons, 26, 27
recoil, 299practical, 27relations with energy, 26short, nuclear fragment, 252system for muons, 295
raster-scan technique, 476, 477
rateageing, 349capability, 191coincidence, two- and threefold, 65count
high, 278true, 63
fake, Belle KLM, 379–381interaction, 85measurement, 63of particles, 259of polymerisation, 347random coincidence, 64
raw detector data, 436–438raw event data, 439RBE factor, 72, 516reaction
conversion, neutron, 297fission, 298threshold, neutron, 300
reactor neutrino, 308readout
chain, 363electronic
Belle ECL, 374, 375detector array, 393–395
element, 213holographic, vertex bubble
chambers, 511integrated circuit, 393magnetostrictive, 173multiple-hit, 67photomultiplier, 275, 287single-hit, 67technique, holographic, 511thermistor, 120, 263time, 62wavelength shifter, 248–250
rear leakage, 233, 237recoil
detector, 3He, 298, 299electron, 264, 265nuclear, 264, 265, 355proton, 297, 298
cross section, 299low-energy, 256
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
640 Index
recoil (cont.)reaction, elastic, 299triton, 298
recompression, 161reconstruction
algorithms, 439, 469efficiency, 454
multitrack, 67track, 454
energy, 446event, see event reconstructionmissing particles, 455of tracks, 202, 339, 341, 442, 443pattern, automatic, 176, 180raw detector data, 436unstable particles, 449vertex, 500
recordingelectronic, 169holographic, 166optical (photographic), 162, 163
recoveryfrom radiation damage, 353time, 62
effects, 259rectangular distribution, 56reference signal, calibrated, 260refit, mass constraint (kinematical),
453, 454reflection
cable, 427–429internal, 130, 249, 287
critical angle, 145multiple, 287
refractive index, 142, 582, 583average, 145
Regener statistics, 60, 61region of controlled access, 76, 516registering
electronic, 62stereoscopic, 173
rejuvenation, 348relative biological effectiveness, see
biological effectivenessrelativistic particles, 3rem, 73, 516
repetition time, 62, 163repulsion, electrostatic, 189resistance
high, wire material, 351radiation, see radiation hardnessvolume, 194
resistive-plate chamber, 277, 278, 327,362, 377
resistivitybulk and surface, 277specific, 113
resistorchain, 193charging, 105NTC, 263
resolution, 56, 211angular
BaBar detector, 244calorimeter, 243energy dependence, 244magnetic spectrometer, 341
Belle KLM, 378calorimeter, energy dependence, 240Cherenkov angle, 286detection, 395–397energy, 18, 61, 79, 237–240
ATLAS detector, 257Belle ECL, 375, 376calorimeter, 257, 261CMS electromagnetic
calorimeter, 242electronics-noise contribution, 240hadron, 252, 255hadron calorimeter, 257improvement, 18, 257ionisation calorimeter, 243KEDR detector, 243KLOE detector, 249Landau fluctuations, 246liquid-argon sampling
calorimeter, 247loss, 280NA48 experiment, 243OPAL experiment, 242parametrisation, 239, 257sampling calorimeter, 245–247
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 641
sampling fluctuations, 246scintillator, 247shashlik-type calorimeter, 249thermal detector, 263
high-calorimeter, 372scintillation counter, 470
impact parameter, 363, 364lateral shower position, 243mass, 453, 454
Belle ECL, 375momentum, 330, 332, 334, 335
Belle CDC, 366transverse, 339
particle location, 438position, 237
high, 277, 278silicon vertex detector, 363single-track, 221spatial, 61, 192, 291
Belle CDC, 366charged particle, 277photon, 243
time, 61, 63, 188, 275–277, 288,415–416
Belle TOF, 372electronics contribution, 276high, 277, 278
two-track, 68, 221vertex, 362
resonance, known mass, 260response
calorimeter element, 261frequency, amplifier, 399–400isotropy, 67non-uniform, of scintillator, 352simulation, detector, 439, 453uniform, 127
reverse bias, 114current, 355, 356voltage, 115
RICHcounter, 282, 284, 285
efficiency of photon detection, 284working principle, 283
detector, HERA-B, 286
ring imaging Cherenkov counter, seeRICH counter
rise time, 102amplifier, 416high-voltage pulse, 172photomultiplier, 134short, 276
road method, 443, 444Rontgen, 74root mean square (rms) deviation,
18, 58run (taking data), 437ruthenium-106, decay-level
scheme, 594Rydberg’s constant, 33
sag of a wire, 190sagitta, 333sagitta method, momentum
measurement, 334sampling
calorimeter, see calorimeter,sampling
elements in calorimeters, 257fluctuation, 245, 246, 257
correlations, 246fraction, 246layer, 245plane, 257thickness, effective, 246
SAS-2 satellite, 497satellite
COS-B, 496experiment, γ rays, 495SAS-2, 497
saturationeffects, 101
in detector layers, 256pressure, vapour, 160super-, vapour, 161
scanning of thermoluminescencefilms, 178
scattering, 2, 18angle
distribution, 18of photons, 34
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
642 Index
scattering (cont.)angular distribution, 18Bhabha, 86, 260Compton, 1, 33, 514
cross section, 38inverse, 35
Coulomb, 18cross section, energy, 35elastic, 504
e+e− event, 386foil, aluminium, 481multiple, see multiple scatteringneutrino–nucleon, cross section, 307neutron
elastic, 297, 299–proton, cross section, 300
of electrons, see electronscattering
photon–photon, 38proton–proton, 41root mean square, 18WIMP–nucleon, 264
scintillatingdielectric crystal, 264fibre, 219, 249
calorimeter, 219tracker, 219, 524
scintillationbar, 276counter, 65, 67, 122, 161,
275, 327, 466, 497, 517gas, 127high-resolution, 470in calorimeters, 249large-area, 484lithium-iodide, 298, 483organic, 299segmented, 469trigger (TSC), 369
crystal, 237, 264heavy, 239
detector, 392, 402efficiency, 123light, 237, 258, 264, 276, 498mechanism, 123of nitrogen, 258
photon, emission angle, 276principle of operation, 248single- and multicladding, 248
scintillator, xxi, 122, 246, 256, 257calorimeter
calibration, 260total-absorption, 312, 495
decay time, 124effective light speed, 276energy resolution, 247inorganic, 123, 353, 468material, 123
inorganic crystals, 123liquid, 127organic compounds, 123plastic, 126, 127radiation resistance, 353, 354
non-uniform response, 352organic, 126plastic, 275, 353plate, end face, 247polyvinyltoluene, 353radiation hardness, 352thickness, 276wavelength-shifter readout,
247, 248screening
effect, 11, 20nuclear charge, complete, 37
sea-water Cherenkov counter, 501secondary
avalanche, 105beam, 336electron emission
coefficient, 131ionisation processes, 13, 91particle, 251
transverse momentum, 251segmented
anode, 277cathode, 106, 109
selection criterion, 274, 455analysis, 439
SELEX experiment, 243self-quenching, 106
streamer tube, 108
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 643
semiconductordetector, 466, 481, 486diode, 116n- and p-type, 114thermistor, 120track detector, 215, 523
sensitivelayer, 295time, 62volume, calorimeter, 237
sensitivityneutron detection, 299of the eye, 122
separationcapability of crystal
calorimeter, 294efficiency, 292electron/hadron, 292electron/hadron/muon, 161electron/muon, 295electron/pion, 290, 291, 293, 294method, 292muon/kaon, 377muon/pion, 278of mass, 275parameter, 291, 293particle, 206, 281
calorimetric, 292low-energy, 294
pion/kaon, 205, 275, 282, 284, 288,290, 368, 380, 381
pion/kaon/proton, 278quality, event, 294
series noise, 410sextupole, 83shashlik-type calorimeter, 249shot noise, 404–405shower, see also cascade and extensive
air shower (EAS)absorption, 233angular distribution, 234axis, 235centre of gravity, 255
longitudinal, 254, 293characteristic, 236, 254compactness parameter, 293
core, 235depth, 236, 255development, 231, 233, 292
dense media, 236hadron, fluctuations, 255longitudinal, 254, 293Monte Carlo simulation, 234, 235starting point, 293
electromagnetic, counter, 249energy, 235
deposition in clusters, 239lateral structure, 250
length, 253maximum, 233, 234model, simplified, 231number of electrons and
photons, 236parametrisation, 231particles
multiplication, 232track segments, 245
position, lateral, resolution, 243profile, lateral, 253, 254radius, 95 % containment, 255, 256shape, lateral and longitudinal, 449
sieve, molecular, 351Sievert (Sv), 73, 516sigmoid function, 457signal
acquisition, 397–401amplitude, 92detector, vs. capacitance, 397–398efficiency, 439hadron, 253heat, 263minimum detectable, 395mode, 96pickup, 429–433process, statistical significance, 439reference, calibrated, 260rise time of electron component, 102‘start’ and ‘stop’, 274streamer, 107strip detector, cross-coupling, 401synchronisation, 274timing, 277
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
644 Index
signal (cont.)-to-noise ratio, 391, 395–397
vs. capacitance, 405–406transmission, 427trigger, 63voltage, 276yield, 440
signatureelectron and muon, 320, 321schemes, digital, 489
silane, 351silica aerogel, 144, 145, 367silicate, 351silicon
carbide, 351contaminants, 351detector
oxygenated, 356radiation damage, 356radiation hardness, 355
drift chamber, 218dust, 348microstrip counter, 216, 437photodiode, 137photomultiplier, 142pixel detector, 443pure, 118reverse current, 355, 356strip detector, double-sided, 363vertex detector (SVD), 363
resolution, 363wafer, 264
silver-activated phosphate glass, 178-chloride detector, 176cluster, 176-halide crystal, 175
simulationdetector response, 439, 453event, 291, 341extensive air shower, 453FLUKA, 453GEANT, 453Monte Carlo, see Monte Carlo
simulation
single-cladding fibre andscintillation, 248
single-track resolution, 221SIS transition, 262slow control, 68, 360, 454slow neutrons, 298slow protons, 480SNO experiment, 287, 288, 501sodium
-22, decay-level scheme, 591iodide, 122solid, 145
solarneutrinos, 307, 308, 318, 323, 501particles and γ rays, 466
solenoid detector, 339solenoidal magnetic field, 205, 338solid-angle coverage, 197solid argon, 112solid Cherenkov radiator, 144solid-iron magnet and spectrometer,
332solid sodium, 145solid-state
band model, 112detector, xxii, 14, 112, 279, 298, 517drift chamber, 218ionisation chamber, 91, 112phonons, 261
soundvelocity, 173waves, thermoacoustically
generated, 501source
neutrino, 307point, γ-ray, 496, 499radiation, 71, 76redioactive, see radioactive sources
spacecharge, 106, 210
effect, 350, 355experiments, 466missions, manned, 466
spaghetti calorimeter, 249, 525spark
chamber, 67, 170, 492, 494, 519
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 645
current-limited, 172glass, 172multigap, 197optical, 493telescope, 488, 496track, 169
counterlarge-area, 277planar, 276, 277
discharge, 171–173formation, 172, 350gaps, 168local damage by, 350
sparking, 351spatial resolution, see resolution,
spatialspecific resistivity, 113spectrometer, 329
magnetic, 328, 335angular resolution, 341CMS detector, 340double-focussing semicircular,
343fixed target, 328special applications, 336
momentum, 257spectroscopy
α and electron (β), 117Auger electron, 480with single optical photon, 261X-ray, 103, 117, 261
spectrumelectron, linearised, 486emission, 123, 126energy, measured, 239luminescence, 125neutrino, 324neutron energy, 300pulse height, 94, 369
speed of light, effective,scintillator, 276
spherical mirror, 283spherical neon tubes, 170spinthariscope, xxspiral-wire delay line, 200spontaneous fission, 180
square-root error, 61SQUID, 262standard error, 58, 59Standard Model Higgs boson, 459STAR experiment, 67star formation, by pion capture,
475, 478starlight photon, 36statistical
independence, 280systematic uncertainty, 440
statisticsbasic, 56counting, 61ionisation, 17photoelectron, 237, 242Poisson, 15
square-root error, 61primary ionisation, 192, 193, 206Regener, 60, 61small numbers, 60, 61
stereoangle, 201
Belle CDC, 364wires, 201
stochastic force, 47storage ring
experiment, 166, 197proton, 180
straight line fit, 443straw-tube
chamber, 202, 521tracker, 290, 443
streamerchamber, 167, 518formation, 247, 350luminous, 167signal, 107tube, 106, 107, 167, 257, 327
calorimeter, 247, 292–296self-quenching, 108
string model of hadrons, 447, 584strip
cathode, 190counter, superconducting, 267detector
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
646 Index
strip (cont.)double-sided silicon, 363signal cross-coupling, 401
strong interaction, 41strontium, 79
-90, decay-level scheme, 593substrate, ceramic, 213subtraction technique, K edge, 472successive-approximation ADC, 423superconducting
granules, superheated, 262, 265–267–insulating–superconducting
transition (SIS), 262quantum interference device
(SQUID), 262state, 266, 267strip counters, 267
superconductivity, destruction, 262superconductor, 120, 261, 510superheated liquid state, 163superheated superconducting
granules, 262, 265–267SuperKamiokande detector, 320SuperKamiokande experiment, 501supernova
1987A, 324, 501explosion, 308neutrinos, 318
supersaturation, vapour, 161supersymmetric particle, lightest,
455surface
-barrier detector, 117contamination, 81, 503current, 355damage, 277, 355dielectric, 212dose, 475investigation, non-destructive, 480quality, 277resistivity, 277
survey, aerial, 484symbols, logic, 418synchronisation
of bubble chambers, 163of signals, 274
synchrotron, 82, 517electron, 84photons, 77proton, 492radiation, 28, 84, 338
tag, radioactive, 484τ lepton, 317τ neutrino, 311, 317, 319TDC, 275, 425
analogue ramp, 425counter, 425–426
techniqueacoustic detection, 258autoradiographic, 484Ayre–Thompson, 169borehole, 483Cherenkov ring, 288electronic filter, 263etching, 300holographic readout, 511K-edge subtraction, 472maximum likelihood, 456missing energy, 310, 455missing momentum, 310, 455Monte Carlo, 452, 453multivariate, 439, 452, 455muon X-ray, 488, 489neutron-backscatter, 483PIXE, see PIXE techniqueraster scan, 476, 477
telescopeCherenkov, air, 499, 504Compton, 50HiRes, 498neutrino, 258, 296, 501spark chamber, 488, 496
Telescope Array (TA), 498temperature
annealing, 356boiling, 163coefficient, negative, 263cryogenic, 120extremely low, 262gas, 43gradient, constant, 162
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 647
rise, in calorimeter, 262stability, Belle ECL, 374
tension, wire, 189minimum, 189
TeO2 crystal, 263termination, cable, 428–429terrestrial radiation, 75tertiary avalanche, 105test
ageing, 350beam, 79, 259nuclear weapons, 502of detector, 77pulse, 259
testing sample, 458tetrafluorsilane, 351tetrakis-dimethylaminoethylene
(TMAE), 284tetramethyllead, -pentane (TMP),
-silane (TMS), -tin (TMT), 111Tevatron, 453theoretical systematic uncertainty, 440therapy
hadron, heavy-ion, and particle,475, 476
proton, 475, 477radio-, 479
thermal (Johnson) noise, 403–405thermal detector, 263thermal neutrons, 297, 298thermistor, 263
readout, 120, 263thermoacoustically generated sound
waves, 501thermoluminescence
agents, 178detector, 177dosimeter, 177, 178film, 178
scanning, 178powder, 178
thermometer, 263tungsten, 264
thicknesscalorimeter, 233, 238
effective, 237
sampling, effective, 246scintillator, 276
Thomson cross section, 32threefold coincidence rate, 65threshold
behaviour, effective, 148counter, gaseous, 281crossing, 275detection, 245
reducing, 261detector for neutrons, 300effect, 143, 176energy
Cherenkov radiation, 242neutron reaction, 300pair production, 36
inverse beta decay, 307reactions, neutrons, 300
tile calorimeter, 249time
arrival, 63, 277photon, 287
calibration, 502characteristic, 61, 62charging-up, 194collection, electrons, 93conversion, ADC, 422, 423, 425cycle, 161dead, 62, 63, 170
effects, 259decay, 123
scintillator, 124delay, 63digitisation, 384drift, 192
measurement, 57, 291expansion chamber, 196, 521jitter, 134, 416measurement, 276memory, 63, 170, 172of data-taking, 437-of-flight
counter, 274, 276, 527counter, Belle, 369–371detector, 438difference, 274, 275
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
648 Index
time (cont.)measurement, 273, 275, 527measurement, mass
distribution, 372-of-propagation (TOP) counter,
288peaking, 406-projection chamber (TPC), 67,
197, 208, 438, 522ALEPH, 211, 281, 282gating principle, 210liquid-argon, 211track efficiency, 454
readout, 62recovery, 62
effects, 259repetition, 62, 163resolution, see resolution, timerise, see rise timesensitive, 62stability, calibration, 260stamp, 394-to-digital converter, 275, 425transit, see transit, timetravel, variation, 276walk, 416, 417
correction, 371timing
for photons, 249information, 438logic, 418measurements, 415–416signal, 277
tin granules, 266microphotograph, 266
tissue weighting factor,73, 74
toggle flip-flop, 490token passing, 393, 394toroidal magnet, 338total-absorption
peak, calibration, 259scintillator calorimeter, 312, 495
total cross section, 32, 42total energy, 2, 274total event energy, 446
total ionisation, 13total track length, 242, 245Townsend coefficient
first, 98, 99second, 171
toxicity, 111tracer, radioactive, 468, 469track
conservation, 176counting, 247decoration, 176detector, 186, 338, 520
nuclear, plastic, 179semiconductor, 215, 523triggered, 170
efficiency, 454electron, 291, 292finding, 444
strategy, 445-following method, 445length
measurable, 245total, 242, 245
measurement, 160error, 331, 334, 339, 342
multiplicity, 448of a particle, 442pion, 291, 292reconstructed, 291reconstruction, 202, 339, 341,
442, 443efficiency, 454
segment, 445number, 245of shower particles, 245
single-, resolution, 221spark chamber, 169streamer formation, 247two-, resolution, 68, 221
trackerpixel and silicon, 443scintillating fibre, 219, 524straw tube, 290, 443transition radiation, 289,
443
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 649
tracking, 531chamber, 476charged particle, 290system, 276, 288, 442
training, sample and cycles, 457, 458trajectory
charged particle, 329, 442drift, 201, 206
transferenergy
high, exclusion, 280large, 296
light, 247probability, mean, 197
transit time, photomultiplier, 134spread (TTS), 134
photoelectron, 276transition radiation, 28, 527
detector (TRD), 146, 149, 289, 292,438, 528
energy loss, 147hits, 291particle identification, 289, 528photons, 148, 291
angle of emission, 148number of, 292
tracker (TRT), 289, 443transmission line, 168, 427transparency
photomultiplier window, 131reduction, 68, 353, 354, 368ultraviolet, 284
transparent crystal, heavy, 237transverse diffusion, 45transverse momentum, 197, 250, 329,
447average, secondary particles, 251resolution, 339
travel-time variation, 276treatment
facility, 480tumour, 475, 477with neutrons, 475, 479with pions, 477
tribology, 484trident production, 22, 336
triethylamine (TEA), 284trigger, 394
Belle TOF, 369counters, 438events, random, 259high time resolution, 277leading-edge, 415level, 439, 532requirement, 65scintillation counter (TSC), 369signal, 63system, Belle detector, 360,
382, 383triton, 298
recoil, 298troubleshooting, 433true count rate, 63true random-number
generator, 492true value, 59, 61truncated energy loss, 10
distribution, 282truncated mean, 279–281, 367tumour treatment, 475, 477tungsten
calorimeter, 253pions in, 254thermometer, 264wires, gold-plated, 188,
351, 365tunnel
Cooper pair, 262current, interference effects, 262effect, one-electron, 262junction, 122
two-jet structure, 202two-neutrino experiment, 310, 492two-track resolution, 68, 221twofold coincidence, 64
rate, 65
uncertaintyexperimental, statistical, and
theoretical systematic, 440principle, Heisenberg’s, 237
uncontrolled beam loss, 88
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
650 Index
underground engineering, 466undulator, 31uniform response, 127uniformity of a detector, 67, 455unit
dE/dx in MeV/(g/cm2), 5dx in g/cm2, 5physical, 580radiation, 71
unstable particles,reconstruction, 449
upper limit, 59uranium, 256, 257
as absorber material, 255calibration with, 259calorimeter, 259coating, 298/liquid-argon compensation, 256
UVlaser, calibration, 211transparency, 284
V 0 vertex, 450vacuum phototriode (VPT), 242valence band, 112, 123
edge of, 114validation sample, 459Van Allen belts, 466vapour
addition, 346photosensitive, 284saturation pressure, 160supersaturation, 161water, 351
variance, 56–58Vela X1, 496velocity, 274
drift, see drift velocityof sound, 173particle, measurement,
283, 528vertex, 449
bubble chamber, holographicreadout, 511
decay, 451detector, 166, 174, 202, 216
silicon (SVD), 363silicon (SVD), resolution, 363
displaced, 449interaction, 168, 445primary, 493production and decay, 318reconstruction, 500resolution, 362
virtualgauge particles, 24ground, 401photon, 24
visible energy, 252voltage, see also high voltage
breakdown, static, 276divider, 131operating, 355reverse-bias, 115signal, 276
volumediffusion, 43resistance, 194sensitive, calorimeter, 237
voxel (3D pixel), 477VPT, 242
W value, 13wafer, silicon, 264warm liquid, 111, 246, 257water
as moderator, 297Cherenkov counter, 327,
497, 500large-volume, 318, 319,
500deep, as Cherenkov
medium, 258vapour, 351
wavelength shifter, 126external rod, 247materials, 126readout, 248–250
weak interaction, 308weapon test, nuclear, 502wear, 484
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information
Index 651
weighting factorsradiation, 73tissue, 73, 74
well-defined quantum state, 85whiskers, 351white noise, 403whole-body dose, 76
lethal, 76rate, equivalent, 74
Wideroe condition, 543width
half, 59lateral
electromagnetic shower, 235hadron cascade, 250
measurement, 59radial, cascade, 255
wiggler, 31Wilkinson ADC, 423–425Wilson chamber, 160, see also cloud
chamberWIMP – weakly interacting massive
particle, 261, 264, 265wire
anode, see anode wirechamber, 186
ageing, 346, 349, 350cylindrical, 197, 522
gold-plated tungsten, 188,351, 365
high-resistance material, 351macroscopic deposits, 351
potential, 198sag, 190spiral-, delay lines, 200stereo, 201tension, 189
minimum, 189
X rays, characteristic, 33, 77, 260,480, 481
X-rayabsorption, high, 291diagnostics, 75emission, proton-induced, 480film, 176
industrial, 177imaging, 467, 468photography, muon, 488, 489spectroscopy, 103, 117, 261yield, 480
xenonliquid, 110, 257proportional counter, 104
XOR, 417
Yokota glass, 179
zenith angle, 79zinc
granules, 266-sulphate screen, 122
zone, locallyinefficient, 189
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-84006-4 - Particle Detectors, Second EditionClaus Grupen and Boris ShwartzIndexMore information