marketing across cultures new

8/2/2019 Marketing Across Cultures New

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Marketing Across Cultures..


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Particular solutions to

universal problems1. .there is limited number of common human

problems for which all people at all times must

find some solution.2. While there is a variability in solutions of all

the problems, it is neither nor random but isdefinitely variable within a range of possible

solutions.


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Particular solutions to

universal problems3. .all alternatives of all solutions are present in

all societies at all times, but are differentially

preferred, Every society has, in addition to itsdominant profile of value orientations,numerous variant or substitute profiles.


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The four essential elements

of culture

Language

Institutions

Material productions

Symbolic productions


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Seven Universal principles1. The principle of reproduction blood

relationships

2. The principle of territoriality neighbourhoodand vicinity.

3. The principle of physiology the sexual divisionof labour, sex roles, the relationship patternsbetween age groups, and he way minoritymembers of the community are treated.

4. The principle of spontaneous tendency to jointogether various kinds of associations.


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Seven Universal principles5. The principle of occupational and professional

activities labour divisions and the kinds ofexpertise.

6. The principle of hierarchy rank and status,including the nobility, the middle class andslaves.

7. The principle of totality a reasonably coherentwhole. The political process.


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Sources of cultureLanguage (s) Nationality

Corporate oforganizational

cultureEducation

(general)

Social class

Sex

Family Religion

Group(ethnicity)

Profession(specializededucation)

Sourcesof culture


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Cultural homogeneity

and relevant segmentation

1. Linguistic homogeneity.

2. Religious homogeneity.

3. Ethnic homogeneity.4. Climatic homogeneity

5. Geographical homogeneity.

6. Institutional and political homogeneity.7. Social/income homogeneity.


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A model of cultural dynamicsWithin persons Between persons From persons toThe world

Basic assumptionsOn the nature of reality

4Interaction

models5

Attitude towards

action

1Time

3Concept of

The self andothers

2Space


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Time-related cultural differencesBasic problem/Cultural orientations Contrasts across cultures

Is time money?(a) Economicity of time Time is regarded as a scarce resource of, conversely, as plentiful andindefinitely available.

How to schedule tasks(b) Monochronism versus polychronism Only one task is undertaken at any(preset) time, following a schedule

(agenda society), versus dealing simultaneously with different tasks, actionsand /or communications (polychronism) for convenience, pleasure andefficiency,

Is time a continuous line?(c) Linearity (L) versus cyclicity (C) of time

Time is seen as linear- separable, cut in slices (L), versus an emphasis on thedaily, Yearly and seasonal cycles (C).

How should we emphasize past, present and future? (d) Temporal orientations

(i) towards the past

(ii) Towards the present

(iii) Towards the future

People with high past orientation consider that the past is important, thatresources must be spent on teaching history and building museums, referringto oral and written traditions and past works, Their basic assumption is thattheir roots are implanted in the past and no plant can survive without itsroots. The converse is true for low past orientation.

People with high present orientation consider that they basically live hereand now. Although not always enjoyable, the present must be accepted forwhat it is: the only true reality we live in.

People easily and precisely envisage and plan their future, They are projectoriented, prepare for the long term, appreciate the Achievements of science,and so on. For then the future is inevitably bigger and better. The converse istrue for low future orientation.


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Space-related cultural differencesBasic problem/Cultural orientations Contrasts across cultures

Is emphasis put on what people do (i,e, doing) or onwhat they are (i.e. being) based on belonging to Family,age, sex, religious of social status groups?

(a) Personalization versus depersonalizationNecessity of being personally acquainted with other, people if oneis to communicate and interact with them efficiently versusability to communicate easily with unknown persons.

Who is a member of the group and what are therelevant ingroups?

(b) Ingroup orientation Belonging to the ingrouup (or reference group: family, tribe,clan, club. Professional society, nation, etc.) may be a necessarycondition for being considered a reliable, bona fide partner.

How to gain membership?(c) Concrete versus abstract territoriality What are the group membership conditions? For an individual

who belongs to the outgroup. what are the prerequisites forassimilation (if any) ?

How to deal with physical space?

(d) Group cultures with close physical contact versus

individualistic cultures desiring private spaceTendency to live near to one another, and to be undisturbed bysuch intimacy.Conversely, tendency to feel the need for privatespace around ones body, and to resent intrusion into this space(Hall, 1966)


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Concepts of the self and othersBasic problem/Cultural orientations Contrasts across cultures

How should we treat unknown people?(a) Is human nature basically good or bad? Unknown people are considered favourably and shown

confidence or, they are treated with suspicion when net for thefirst time.

Appraising others(b) When appraising others, emphasis placed on:

I. age

II. Sex

III. Social class

Who are the persons to be considered trustworthy

and reliable. With whom it is possible to do business?

I. Older (younger) people are seen more favourably,

II. Trustworthiness is based on sex or not.

III. Social class plays a singnificant role (or not) in concepts ofthe self and others.

Appraising others(c) Emphasis placed on the self-concept perceived as culturally

appropriate:

I. self-esteem: low / high

II. perceived potency: low / highIII. level of activity: low /high

To give the correct appearance one should behave.

I. Shy and modest versus extrovert or even arrogant.

II. Power should be shown versus hidden.

III. Busy people or unoccupied/idle people are wellregarded.

Relating the individual to the group (d) Individualism versus collectivism The individual seen as the basic resource and thereforeindividual-related values are strongly emphasized (personal

freedom, human rights, equality Between men and women);versus the group is seen as the basic resource and thereforegroup values are favoured (loyalty, sense of belonging, sense ofpersonal sacrifice for the community, etc,)


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Interaction modelsBasic problem/Cultural orientations Contrasts across cultures

Equality or inequality in interpersonal interactions(a) Power Distance (PD) Hierarchy is strong, power is centralized at the top (high PD) ;

power is more equally distributed and superior and subordinateshave a sense of equality as human beings (low PD).

Interacting with others of for others(b) Masculinity versus Femininity Assertiveness and personal achievement are favoured (masc.)

versus caring for others, adopting nurturing roles andemphasizing quality of life (fem.)

Dealing with uncertainty(c) Uncertainty avoidance (UA) Tendency to avoid risks (high UA). To prefer stable situations,uncertainty- reducing rules and risk-free procedures, which areseen as a necessity for efficiency, Or, conversely, a risk-proneattitude (low UA) where people as individuals are seen as theengine of change, which is perceived as a requirement forefficiency.

Relying on oneself or on others (d) Self-reliance versus dependence Do people rely on their own forces, find motivation and controlwithin themselves (self-reliance) or do they need to find outside

support, motivation and control from their environment(dependence) ?

Developing appropriate communication with others(e) Communication styles See Chapter 13 on Language: culture and communication.


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Attitudes towards actionBasic problem/Cultural orientations Contrasts across cultures

Why act?(a) Degree of fatalism: mastery of mature versus

subjugation to nature; existence and degree of

legitimacy of a Promethean (proactive) view of human lifePeople believe that it is possible to cope with any problem or any situation andthat, to mankind, nothing is impossible, evil is when one does nothing(master of destiny); the converse is the belief that there are many situationswhere people cannot do anything: destiny binds us and we should not try tofind alternatives (fatalistic orientation);evil is when one does not accept onesown destiny(subjugation)

What is action?(b) Speech versus deed orientation

Contrast between cultures that value speech as action and those that separatethem; contrast between a clear sequencing of action and a fuzzy view of action

How to relate thinking to action (1)(c) Ideologism versus pragmatism Idologism: thinking patterns, communication (style of speech) and actions

should always be set within the context of broad ideological principles(religious, political, social, legal, etc,) versus pragmatism: precise issues mustbe addressed: a practical attitude is favoured: orientation towards problemsolving and concrete results.

How to relate thinking to action (2)(d) Intellectual styles Differences in assigning a dominant role to theory, data, speech, modesty and

virtue in assessing truthful propositions that need to be put into action,How to relate wishes and desires to action(e) Wishful thinking orientation (WT)

WT cultures tend to emphasize enthusiasm. Imagination of the future and the

capacity of desires to shape reality; non-WT cultures emphasize the principleof reality: desires and wishes have to be checked objectively against theconstraints of the real world.

How to relate feelings to action(f) Affective (A) Versus Neutral (N) cultures

People in N cultures separate feelings from actions. Do not mix friendshipwith business; in A cultures, mixing both is seen as inevitable and positive.

How to deal with rules(g) Obeying practical rules versus coping with ideal rules Rules can be made which are respected, discussed and implemented quite

strictly or there may be a discrepancy between ideal rules and what peoplecan actually do, leading them to undertake behaviour that involves exploring

and bypassing rules,


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Basic cultural assumptions

and actual behaviourFinal

(everyday)behaviour standards

(e.g. corporate culture)

Values(e,g. Family and social morals)

Basic culturat assumptions(national, ethnic or religious culture)


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Culture and consumer behaviour1. Hierarchy of needs

2. Individualism and collectivism

3. Independent versus interdependent self4. Institutions, social conventions, habits and

customs


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The influence of culture in selectedaspects of consumer behaviour

1. Loyalty

2. Consumer involvement

3. Perceived risk4. Consumer cognitive styles

5. Legal marketing environment


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The global convergence of

consumption patterns

1. General convergence at the macro-level

2. Evidence of consumers; globalization at amicro-level


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The emergence of a global

consumer culture

1. The standard world package and McDonaldlzedconsumption

1.1 Efficiency

1.2 Systematic quantification and calculation

1.3 Predictability

1.4 Control through the substitution of non-humanfor human technology


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The emergence of a global

consumer culture

2. Globalization and modern culture2.1 Modernity is a given and technology is our path to

a bigger and better future for all of us on our little

planet:2.2 Even if they differ externally, all societies and be

placed on a continuum of social change-fromtraditional to developed societies:

2.3 The criterion for placing a society on thecontinuum is its degree of resistance to thechanges brought about by modernity


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Local products and

consumption experiences

1. Culture-bound products

2. Unique consumption experiences

3. Consumption as disposal4. Habits, habitus and shared meaning


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Local consumer cultures and

resistance to change

1. Preference for national products

2. Central and peripheral consumption

contexts3. Complexity and ambivalence in

globalized consumption patterns


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The components ofauthoritarian pluralism

1. A negation of individualism: group belongingand consequent obligations are more importantthan individual human rights;

2. Family is the basic building block.

3. Education is highly valued and people are readyto make financial sacrifices and efforts to obtain

it.


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4. Thrift, modesty and renunciation are the ruleuntil somebody can show through conspicuousconsumption that he or she has really deserved

personal enjoyment.

5. The strong work orientation is facilitated by thecollective ambience of effort.

6. A national teamwork orientation:7. The Asian form of contrat social: the role of the

state is mostly to provide lay and order.


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8. The state is a company and the citizens itsshareholders.

9. An orientation towards a morally cleanenvironment:

10. The press is free, but is not a fourth estate.



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Adaptation or standardization ofproduct attributes

1. There are three layers of product attributes thatlend themselves more of less to standardization:

1.1 The physical attributes (size, weight colour, etc.)

1.2 Service attributes (maintenance, after-salesservice spare parts availability, etc.)

1.3 Symbolic attributer, These often comprise theinterpretive element of the physical attributes.


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2. Compulsory adaptation : National regulationsand standards

2.1 The industrial standards for the supply of

electricity:2.2 Safety standards:2.3 Hygiene regulations:


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3. Required adaptations to differences in consumerbehaviour and in the national marketingenvironment.

3.1 Consumption patterns:

3.2 Climate and the physical environment.

3.3 Adapting products to local product usage.


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4. Adaptation of service in the light of localconditions.

4.1 The level of technical expertise.

4.2 The level of labour costs.

4.3 The level of literacy.

4.4 Climatic differences.

4.5 The remoteness of locations.4.6 Different ways of performing a seemingly identical.


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Several layers of country-, company-and brand-related product image

Global image of products in terms ofdomestic goods and foreign goods

Imported versus domestic Imported versus domesticCountry (or country-based, or country-related) image of the generic productNeutral More of less

Specific national

image

Connotes severalDifferent

countries

Regionalimage

Corporate image diffused by the producer

Image related toIts nationality Corporate imageAs such (per se)

Brand imageNeutral brand Brand with a specific linguistic connotation

(linguistically country-connotative brand)

Made-in related product image (product image based on the made in label)


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Consumer product evaluationaccording to country of origin.

1. The use of the country of origin attribute.

2. Stereotypical country images.3. COO and moderator effects.4. Familiarity and knowledge.

5. Ethnocentric and cultural tendencies.


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National, internationaland global brands

1. Transposition of a national brand name to aninternational level.

2. Linguistic aspects of the brand.

3. Linguistic devices for brand names.

4. Semantic issues: Intended versus unintendedmeaning.


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Price-based SignalsMeaning conveyed by price ByBuy seller interactions Bargaining rituals, price offers and relationship

development.Consumer behaviour Differences in consumer price-mindedness across cultures.Product evaluation To what extent is quality interred from price?(Tough) competition Signalling willingness to compete by dumping prices.Target market (s) Signalling willingness to compete by dumping prices.Distributors (Grey markets) Signalling desire to avoid parallel imports from

opportunistic distributors who disturb international pricepolicy and may damage brand image.

(Peaceful) competition Signallingwillingness to enter peacefully in a market withcartels.Price increase policy Meaning conveyed by price in high-inflation contexts.Relationship to suppliers Meaning conveyed by price in high-inflation contexts.


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Criteria for choosing foreigndistribution channels

Consumers and their characteristics. Some geographicalsegments in a foreign market may be, for instance, moreimport oriented, Channels serving these segments shouldtherefore be preferred.

Culture. Distribution is the element of the marketing mixwhat is most deeply rooted in culture, because it isclosely related to everyday life and human relationships.

Character. It is important that the image projected by the

channel, its sales methods, shop locations and clienteleas well as appearance, should correspond to the imageand character that the product is intended to convey.


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Criteria for choosing foreigndistribution channels.

Necessary capital relates to the issue of what financialresources are necessary to start and maintain thechannel.

Cost. This criterion is strongly linked to the previous one,but relates more to trade margins than to overhead costs.

Competition arises in channels either through competingproducts being placed side by side on shelves, or throughcompetitors refusing other producers access to the

distribution channels.

Coverage is another important element, It is importantto cover markets that are widely scattered.


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Criteria for choosing foreigndistribution channels.

Continuity. It is vital that the channel in whichinvestment is to be made does not turn out to beunusable for some reason.

Control. The ideal situation of course is where thecompany creates its own distribution network. Thisensures maximum control.


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Influence of culture on some aspectsof distribution vis--vis shoppers.

Selected aspects ofdistribution Traits that may differ according tocountry/culture.(1) Shopping behaviour Is time spent shopping experienced as wasted? (Economic

Time: section 2.2)Is return of goods standard behaviour? (Complaining behavioursecton 4.3)Who is the shopper? (Sex roles, age, etc.)

Degree of loyalty to the shop and the shopkeeper. (Section4.2)

(2) Opening hours Religion-based arguments in favour of restricted store openingHours femininity-based arguments. (Store personnel should not beexploited)

(3) Product range Products may be banned because of religious or legal prescriptions.(4) Willingness to service consumers Homan nature is good. (Friendliness towards shoppers)versus bad

(Indifference) /Negative view of service to others. (Section 9.3)

(5) Waiting lines Compliance with rules. (See tables 3.3 and 3.6 and section 9.3)(6) Thefts by consumers or personnel Ethical behaviour ingroup orientation (See sections 2.3, 3.6 and 15.6)(7) Self-service versus personnel in contact See section 9.3


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Sales Promotion: Other Customs,Other Manners.

Cross-national differences in the use of safespromotion techniques.

Sociocultural factors influencing theimplementation of sales promotion techniques.


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Language, Culture AndCommunication

1. Verbal communication the role of context.1. Low-context cultures and explicit communication.

2. High-context cultures favour a more diffuse communicationstyle.

3. Communication on the Internet.4. The culture context of communication styles.

2. Non-verbal communication.1. Communication through gestures.

2. Facial expressions and communication with the eyes.


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Language, Culture AndCommunication

3. Language shaping our world-views.

1. Language influencing culture.

2. Language as a reflection of status, hierarch and a vision of

appropriate social relationships.3. Language used in writing advertising message.

4. Languages and new international cultures.

4. Ethnocentrism, stereotypes and misunderstandings inintercultural communication.

1. Ethnocentrism.

2. Stereotypes.

3. Self-shock.


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Some guidelines for effectivecommunication in international business.

1. Start by assessing as accurately as you can the possibleintercultural obstacles that exist, exist, such aslanguage and problems of communication in general.

2. Be aware that what is explicitly said is not necessarilywhat is implicitly meant.

3. Learning the non-verbal communication style of othercultures may prove very difficult.


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4. In many cases interpreters may serve a crucialpurpose; they may be transposers of meaning. They donot work like a dictionary, translating literally. Theymay translate better from one language to another

than in the reverse direction, and this will depend notonly on which language is their native one, but also ona personal leaning that they may have towards oneparty.

5. It must be clearly appreciated that there is always apart of the language that cannot be translated. Culture-specific meaninge as it reflects the culture.


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6. Develop a bomb squad ability to defuse a conflictbased on negative stereotypes. Subjectivemisunderstandings in intercultural communicationoften snowball and mix with purely interest based

objective conflicts, resulting in confrontations that maynot be productive.

7. Keep in mind that all this depends on advancepreparation, and unfortunately cannot be improvised.


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Influence of culture on attitudestowards advertising

1. General attitudes towards the role andfunctions of advertising.

2. General attitudes towards publicity andpubliphobia.

3. Attitudes towards comparative advertising.


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Culture And Advertising Exeution.1. Language.

2. Humour.

3. Characters and roles represented inadvertising.

4. The influence of mores and religion.

5. Visual elements.


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Media Worldwide: TechnologicalAdvances And Cultural Convergence.1. Worldwide differences in advertising

expenditure.

2. Cross-cultural differences in media availabilityand usa.

3. The emergence of global media.

4. Technological and social changes open the

door for more specific and segmentedmarketing.


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The Globalization Of Advertising1. Agencies internationalize.

2. Relationships between advertisers andagencies.

3. Advertising standardization: Feasibility anddesirability.

4. The global campaign concept.


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Bribery: Ethical Aspects.1. Cultural relativism: The bribe as bonanza.

2. Recent evolution in the fight against bribery ininternational contracts.

3. Other efforts at combating bribery.4. Comparison of ethical attitudes across

industrial nations.

5. A pragmatic and respectful view of ethicalbehaviour in a cross-cultural context .

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