manures, fertilizers and pesticides:theory and applications
TRANSCRIPT
9 788123 925400
Manures,Fertilizers and
PesticidesTheory and Applications
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt LtdNew Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Mumbai • Pune
Hyderabad • Kolkata • Nagpur • Patna • Vijayawada
Manures,Fertilizers and
PesticidesTheory and Applications
Amitava Rakshit PhD
Priyankar Raha PhD
Nirmal De PhD
FacultyDepartment of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Institute of Agricultural SciencesBanaras Hindu University
Varanasi, UP
Disclaimer
Science and technology are constantly changingfields. New research and experience broaden thescope of information and knowledge. The authorshave tried their best in giving information availableto them while preparing the material for this book.Although, all efforts have been made to ensureoptimum accuracy of the material, yet it is quitepossible some errors might have been leftuncorrected. The publisher, the printer and theauthors will not be held responsible for anyinadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies.
ISBN: 978-81-239-2540-0 (Soft cover)
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Manures,Fertilizers and
PesticidesTheory and Applications
to
our wives
Foreword
The phenomenal growth in agricultural production since independence hasbeen triggered by higher input use, particularly purchased inputs as well as
technology-induced productivity enhancement. The key inputs which changed thecomplexion of agriculture include a high yielding variety of seeds, chemicalfertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, farm machinery and equipment, credit and labor.In order to step up agricultural production to meet the demands of the ever-increasing population, chemical fertilizers should be used along with organicmanures and pesticides in a right proportion for a particular agroecological unit. Inthe light of present-day knowledge and practices, agriculture differs much in ourown from that of earlier times, invention of new inputs and tools and improvementof the old, better methods of application, and superior educational facilities raisingthe general plane of intelligence are among the more potent forces that have affectedthe change. The book, Manures, Fertilizers and Pesticides—Theory and Applicationsaims at documentation of huge comprehensive almost all aspects of inputs used inagriculture, from traditional farming to the latest developments. Further, amonumental coverage of inorganic and organic chemicals quite encyclopedic innature facilitating communication among the agricultural stakeholders.
As an aid of improving scientific communication for everyone from students topublic decision-makers, the book could prove to be a comprehensive guide on inputsin agriculture. The book bridges the gap among diverse branches of the agriculturalsciences and will facilitate as a ready reference in the broad spectrum of agriculture.Significant and relevant issues pertaining to all spheres in agriculture and naturalresource have also been discussed in the book. The authors of the book have madean attempt to arrange different areas of input management in a concise but com-prehensive manner and deserve commendation for their painful efforts. It is hopedthat this book will be a valuable source of information for students and teachersengaged in various applications of agriculture. The authors deserve appreciationfor bringing out highly useful and relevant publication of immense use.
Dr S AyyappanSecretary and Director General
Government of IndiaDepartment of Agricultural Research and Education and
Indian Council of Agricultural ResearchMinistry of Agriculture, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi
Preface
Agricultural production has increased dramatically in India and elsewhere inthe past five decades as agricultural practices have evolved. But this success
has been costly: water pollution, soil depletion, and a host of human (and nonhuman)health and safety problems have emerged as important side effects associated withmodern agricultural practices. Because of increased concern with these costs, analternative view of agricultural production has arisen that has come to be knownas sustainable agriculture. In other words, current agricultural research centers notonly on increasing production but also on finding ways for improving theenvironmental sustainability of agriculture. The idea for a comprehensive bookassociated with the rapidly expanding fields related to agriculture. The book aimsto provide a balanced scientific review of the environmental and sustainability issuesrelating to different agrochemicals, i.e. manure, fertilizer and pesticide use and howtheir environmental impact can be minimized. The text is designed to fulfill theneeds of the students studying soil, crop and environmental science, and generalreaders. No other book in this field covers such a wide range of topics and can beapplied to as many geographic areas as agriculture, manures, fertilizers, pesticideand the environment. The book is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 deals withdifferent fertilizers and their role in sustainability in agriculture and the challengesto produce enough food while caring for the environment. Chapters 2 and 3 discussthe benefits and prospects of manure and beneficial microorganisms used inagriculture and Chapter 4 covers the benefits and problems of pesticides, theirpossibilities and challenges for increased food production in future. A thoroughoverview has been included the important agricultural applications of naturalproducts and synthetic compounds derived from natural products. Detailedinformation on the isolation, structural studies, biological activity and toxicologyof these compounds is provided. Chapter 5 covers organic farming in detail,providing a balanced scientific review of the issues relating to inorganic and organicinputs use and how their impact can be minimized.
Anyone interested in the environment will find this book helpful as well as thosestudying soil, crop and environmental science. The suggestions and comments fromstudents, teachers and researchers for further improvement of this book are alwayswelcome.
Amitava RakshitPriyankar Raha
Nirmal De
Acknowledgments
At the outset we would like to thank God. In the process of putting this booktogether, we realized how true this gift of writing is for us. He has given us the
power to believe in our passion and pursue our dreams. We could have never donethis without the faith we have in the Almighty.
We would like to express our gratitude to many people who knew us throughthis book; to all those who provided support, talked over things, read, wrote, offeredcomments, allowed us to quote their works, and assisted us in the editing,proofreading and design. This book was not only inspired by our learned colleaguesbut also directly improved by their active involvement in its development.
We would like to thank Mr Sunil for enabling us to publish this book. Finally,the editorial and production team of CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi,deserves our special appreciation for guiding us through the process of publishingthis new work. Above all, we want to thank our family members who supportedand encouraged us in spite of all the time it took us away from them. It was a longand difficult journey for them.
Amitava RakshitPriyankar Raha
Nirmal De
Foreword vii
Preface ix
1. Inorganic Fertilizers 1–100
1.1 Concept 11.2 What Is a Fertilizer? 31.3 Nutrients Required by Plants 31.4 Classifications 7
Inorganic Fertilizers 8Nitrogen Fertilizers 8Phosphate Fertilizers 12Potash Fertilizers 13Micronutrients Fertilizer 14
1.4.1 Manufacturing Processes 15Common Products 151.4.1.1 Nitrogen Fertilizer Production 161.4.1.2 Phosphate Fertilizer Production 19Phosphate Fertilizer Terminology 241.4.1.3 Potassium Fertilizer Production 251.4.1.4 Fertilizer Industry 26
1.4.2 Properties of Major Nitrogenous, Phosphatic, PotassicComplex and Mixed Fertilizers 27
Organic Materials 291.5 Raw Materials and Energy Requirements for Fertilizer Production 32
Raw Materials 32Energy Use 32
1.6 Composition 341.7 Fertilizer Usage 35
Fertilizer Use by Agro-ecological Zone (AEZ) 37Fertilizer Use by Crop 37Past and Future Demand 37
1.8 Fate and Reactions in the Soil 38Reactions of Nitrogenous Fertilizer 38Factors Affecting the Efficient Use of Nitrogen Fertilizers 40
Contents
Manures, Fertilizers and Pesticides—Theory and Applicationsxiv
Reactions of Phosphate Fertilizer 43Reactions of Pottasic Fertilizer 47
1.9 Secondary Micronutrient Fertilizers 48Secondary Nutrient Fertilizers 48Common Magnesium Sources 49Common Sulphur Sources 49Common Calcium Sources 50Multinutrient Fertilizers 52
1.10 Fertilizer Application 53Broadcasting 54Row or Band Placement 55Plough-sole Placement 56Deep Placement of Nitrogenous Fertilizers 56Sub-soil Placement 56Localised Placement 56Top Dressing 57Side Dressing 58Seed cum Fertilizer Drill 58Foliar Application 58Liquid Fertilization 60
1.11 Compatibility of Fertilizer Materials 611.12 Fertilizer Control Order 621.13 Fertilizer Storage 66
Construction 66Distribution System 66
1.14 Diagnosis of Fertilizer Requirement 68Optical Observation in Plants 69Brief Key to Deficiency Symptoms 70Soil Tests 72Plant Testing 73Plant Tissue Testing in the Field 74Fertilizer Field Trials 75Long-term Field Experiments 76Other Factors Limiting Crop Yields 76
1.15 Fertilizers and Agricultural Sustainability 771.16 Fertilizers and Environmental Issues: Long-term Effect
on Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere 77Fertilizers and Climate Change 80How Can Fertilizer be Used Properly and Still Protect
the Environment? 81
Contents xv
Minimising Risks 82Fertilizers and Health 83
1.17 Economics of Fertilizer Use 831.18 Nutrient Removal by Crops 851.19 Fertilizer Requirements/Supplementation Related Calculations:
Percentage Plant Food in Fertilizer Mixtures; Calculation of theUnit Value of a Fertilizer 87
Units 87More Calculations on Fertilizer Rates 88
1.20 Practical Recommendations for Different Crops under DifferentSoil Conditions—Conventional and Recent Advancement
Based on STCR and Leaf Tissue Analysis 91Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) Correlation Studies 91Leaf Tissue Analysis 92
1.21 Fertilizer Efficiency 93Nutrient Supply and Soil Fertility 94Seed 94Agronomic Practices 94Weather Aberrations 94Measures to Increase the Efficiency of Fertilizer Use 95Role of Enhanced Efficiency (EE) Fertilizers to Improve
Fertilizer Use Efficiency by Crops 98Future Prospects 99
2. Organic Manures 101–124
2.1 History 101Uses of Manure 103
2.2 Raw Materials 1032.2.1 Crop Residues 103
2.3 Decomposition of Plant Residues 105Products of Decomposition 106
2.4 Techniques of Farm Residue Utilization 1072.4.1 Farm Yard Manure 1072.4.2 Composts 107
Types of Composting 1082.4.2.1 Factors Affecting the Rate of Composting 109
2.4.3 Green Manuring 1102.5 Biowaste 111
2.5.1 Agricultural Wastes 111
Manures, Fertilizers and Pesticides—Theory and Applicationsxvi
2.5.1.1 Sugar Industry Waste 1112.5.1.2 Plantation Crops Waste 1122.5.1.3 Fruits and Vegetables Waste 1122.5.1.4 Poultry Waste 1132.5.1.5 Biogas Slurry 1132.5.1.6 Fermentation Industry Waste 1132.5.1.7 Saw Mill or Forest Mill Wastes 1142.5.1.8 Oilseed Industry 114
2.5.2 Animal Feedlots 1152.5.2.1 Bonemeal 1152.5.2.2 Fish Meal 115
2.5.3 Urban Solid Waste 1152.5.4 Composting Farm Wastes 116
2.6 Raw Manure Use: Problems and Solutions 1202.7 Impact of Manure on Soil-Plant System 122
3. Beneficial Microorganisms in Agriculture 125–148
3.1 Biofertilizers 1253.1.1 Rhizobium 1273.1.2 Azotobacter 1303.1.3 Blue Green Algae 135
3.2 Constraints of Biofertilizers 1453.3 Biogas Production 1453.4 Biodegradation 148
4. Pesticides 149–231
4.1 History 1494.1.1 Introduction 1494.1.2 Principles of Plant Protection 1504.1.3 Classification of Pesticides 1524.1.4 Pesticide Formulations 1554.1.5 Toxicology of Pesticides 1604.1.6 Steps for Minimization of Pesticide Toxicity 162
4.2 Naturally Occurring Insecticides or Botanical Insecticides 164Structure of Pyrethrin and Cinerin and Jasmolin 167
4.3 Synthetic Insecticides 1694.3.1 Organochlorinated Hydrocarbons 1694.3.2 Organophosphorus Insecticides 179
Derivatives of Pyrophosphoric Acid 185Derivatives of Phosphonic Acid 186
Contents xvii
4.3.3 Carbamate Insecticide 1874.3.4 Synthetic Pyrethroids 191
Permethrin 1934.4 Fungicide 194
4.4.1 Copper Fungicide 1944.4.2 Mercury Fungicides 1954.4.3 Organic Sulphur Compounds 1964.4.4 Quinone Fungicidal Compounds 2004.4.5 Heterocyclic Nitrogenous Compounds 2024.4.6 Benzimidazole Fungicides 204
4.5 Herbicides 2054.5.1 Phenoxy Acetic Acid Derivatives or 2, 4-D and Its Analogs 2064.5.2 Carbamate Herbicides 2084.5.3 Urea Derivatives Herbicide or Alkyl-N-aryl Carbamate
Derivatives or Aliphatic Organic Nitrogen Derivatives 2104.5.4 Triazine Herbicides or Heterocyclic Nitrogen Derivatives 2134.5.5 Substituted Phenols 2154.5.6 Dinitroaniline Herbicide 216
4.6 Nematicides 217Nematicidal Agents 218
4.6.1 Fumigants 2184.6.2 Water-soluble Agents 218
4.7 Acaricides 220Acaricidal Agents 220
4.7.1 Sulphur Powder 2204.7.2 Organochlorinated Compounds 2214.7.3 Sulphur-containing Compounds 2214.7.4 Organophosphates 2224.7.5 Carbamates 223
4.8 Rodenticide 2234.9 Plant Growth Regulators 228
5. Organic Farming 232–242
5.1 Why Organic Farming? 232Principles of Organic Farming 232
5.2 Permitted and Restricted Inputs for Organic Farming 2325.3 Nutrient Supplementation and Crop Protection Strategy in
Organic Farming 233
Manures, Fertilizers and Pesticides—Theory and Applicationsxviii
5.4 Components of Organic Farming 2355.4.1 Green Manuring 2355.4.2 Compost 2355.4.3 Cow Dung 2355.4.4 Cow Urine 2365.4.5 Vermicompost 2365.4.6 Vermi-wash 2365.4.7 Biofertilizers 236
5.5 Chemical Farming versus Organic Farming 2385.6 Indian Organic Certification Agency 241
The Indian Scenario 241
Appendix 243–249
Glossary 250–260
References 261
Index 262–265