manual for commanders of large units provisional (usa 1930)

7/30/2019 Manual for Commanders of Large Units Provisional (USA 1930)

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WAR DEPARTMENT OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT GENERAL

A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF

LARGE UNITS (PROVISIONAL)

.JI.

Volume 1 OPERATIONS


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A MANUALFOR

COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS (PROVISIONAL)Volume 1

OPERATIONS .",

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF'

THE CHIEF OF STAFF 1930

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1 ~ 3 0

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. Washington, D. Co Price 15 cents


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355'. 55m &. (1'/1/ I c3


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WAR DEPARTMENT,WASHINGTON, April 10, 1930.

This provisional manual deals with the employment of largeunits in both open and stabilized warfare. I t is assumed thatthe enemy is equal in intelligence to ourselves and that he is aswell armed, trained, and supplied.This manual is intended as a guide for commanders and staffsof divisions, corps, armies, and groups of armies, and for generalheadquarters. I t contemplates the employment of forces vary-ing in strength from a single division to the maximum mobilizedman power of the Nation. Throughout the manual, the term"large unit" is applied to the division, corps, army, and groupof armies.

[A. G. 062.11 (12-23-29).]By ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF W A R :C. P. SUMMERALL,

General,Ohief of Stai/.OFFICIAL:C. H. BRIDGES,Major General, The Adjutant General. m


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TABLE OF CONTENTSParagrapbs PageOHAPTER 1. The commander and his staff____________________________ 1-10 12. General beadquarters_____________________________________ 11-19 7

3. General combat provisioIjs for large units________________ 2(}-24 94. The group of armles_____________________________________ 25-29 13II. The army:SECTION I. General _________________________________ _ 3(}-35 15II . The army In offensive battle ____________ _ 36-46 17III. The army In defensive battle____________ _ 47-53 226. The corps:SECTION I. GeneraL ________________________________ _ 54-56 29II. The corps In offensive battle ____________ _ 57-a3 31

III. The corps In defensive battle____________ _ 64-73 357. The Infantry division:SECTION I. General_________________________________ _ 74-n 39II . The Infantry division In offensive batt le__ 78-85 41

III. The Infantry division In defensive battle__ 85-97 518. The cavalry corps and the cavalry division:SECTION I. The cavalry corps_______________________ _ 98 59II . The cavalry division_____________________ 99-110 599. Special operations:SECTION I. River Iines_______________________________ 111-113 67II . Woods and villages ______________________ 114-116 68III. Mouutain country _______________________ 117-118 69IV. During periods of limited vision__________ 11lt-121 70V. Ooast defense____________________________ 122-127 71

APPENDIXTables showing composition and strength of large unlts.____________________ 76

V


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS

CHAPTER 1THE COMMANDER AND HIS STAFF

1. The commander .-Cwnmand has ever been the most important element in war. The commander makes the unit,whatever may be its size or strength. As is the commander, 80is the unit. Success can be assured only through the skillfulhandling of troops. The commander .must have a thoroughoomprehension of war andof the possibilities of offensive anddefensive action. He must be able to make his ideas and conceptions permeate his command so thoroughly that every partof it will act in time of crisis, as it would act, i f he were presentwith each particular unit. The commander of a large unit is thecontrolling and responsible head. He should impress himselfupon his command by his ability, aptitude, accessibility, breadthof interest, experience, inflexibility of purpose, kindliness towardindividuals, loyalty to superiors and. subordinates, and devotionto cause and country. Above a.ll, he should enjoy a reputationfor success.

The commander should have three conceptions ever beforehim: the human nature of his war-making machine, the material conditions under which he is. operating, and the reaction ofthe enemy. He should avoid harllssing his troops through faultystaff management, by subjecting them to useless hardships, byneglect of their health and comfort, and by frittering away livesand strength in inconsequential actions.

2. Duties . -Wars are fought with men. The commander cannot be too cmeful of the unit that the State has committed tohis charge. He must pay the greatest attention to the health ofhis men, to the supply of food, clothing, and shelter, and to theprovision for rest and comfort. .His first object should be tosecure the love and attachment of his men by his constant carefor their well-being. The devotion that arises from this kind ofattention knows no bounds and enables him to exact prodigies ofvalor on the day of battle.Morale is created by superiority in position, weapons,' equipment, marksmanship, discipline, and drill; .by proper contactsamong the officers and between the officers and their men; and

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2 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSby the confidence of the troops in their chiefs. I t is raised bygood food, proper sheHer, recre.ation, and rest. I t is quickly lostif stabilized lines are held' close to enemy lines on more commanding ground, so that the daily losses of the troops exceedthose of the enemy. A reputation for failure in a leader destroysmorale. The morale of a unit is that of its leader. I t is notdefeated until he is defeated.

Leaders inspire confidence 'in thQir subordinates primarily bytheir ability to gain' material advantages over the enemy withthe least losses. The presence of a commander with the troopsin action, as often as possible, is essential to morale.

A commander must bear in mind the fact that his physicalcondition is the basis of his efficiency. I t is his duty to the menunder his command to conserve his own fitness by proper regardfor food and rest, particularly in times of crisis. Neglect of t.hisrule soon renders him unable to bring a normal mind to thesolution of his problems, and reacts unfavorably on his wholecommand.

Combat preparation consists in developing efficiency, confi-dence, and coordination in the use of the personnel and material;a discipline which will insure cohesion and control under thevarying conditions of march, bivouac, and battle; a sense ofresponsibility that will cause each individual to appreciate thenecessity for his doing his particular task; a state of trainingthat will prevent officers and men from disdaining the use ofcover out of mere' bravado or a feeling of shame; and a knowl-edge of all aids and devices that will minimize battle losses.

I t is the duty of the commander to make full use of the aptitudes and capabilities of his subordinate commanders. To thisend nothing is more helpful than personal acquaintance. A divi-sion commander should know at least all his field officers byname and character. The'same principle applies, with appropriate modifications, to higher and lower commanders.

3. The staff . -The commander of a large unit is assisted bya general staff and by a special staff consisting of technical,administrative, and supply personnel.

The staff is an aid to command. Its purpose is to relieve thecommander of details by providing the basic information andtechnical advice by which he may arrive at his decisions; bydeveloping these decisions into. adequate plans, translating plansinto orders, and transmitting them to subordinate agencies; byinsuring the execution of these orders by' constructive inspectionand observation for the commander; by keeping the commander


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8MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSinformed of everything he ought toknow; by anticipating futureneeds and drafting tentative plans tomeet.them; and by supple-menting the commander's efforts 'to secure unity of actionthroughout his command.

The staff has a duty, both to the commander and to subordinatecommanders. A staff officer transmitting'an order from hiscommander to a subordinate commander should, without dis-loyalty to his chief, place himself in: the attitude, for the timebeing, of an aide or staff officer of the subordinate; and thesubordinate himself should regard the staff officer as a memberof his own staff for the occasion. '

The general staff is a closely coordinated group of assistantsto the commander. Its duties are to render professional aid andassistance to him; to prepare detailed instructions for the execu-tion of his plans and to supervise their execution; and to act ashis agent in harmonizing and coordinating the plans, duties, andoperations of the various units and services of the command.

The chief of staff is the commander's principal adviser, assist-ant, and official representative. He aids ' the commander in su-pervising and coordinating the command, and should enjoy hisentire confidence. He transmits the wiilo{the commander, and,in his absence or inaccessibility, acts in his name. He has powersof supervision and coordination from the commander adequateto insure continuity of control. '

There are four assistant chiefs of staff, whose duty is to relieve thecommander of detail. Each exercises,under control of the chief ofstaff, supervision within the field of his activities, in the name ofthe commander, and solely with a view to unity of control.The personal aides of a general officer commanding a unit area part of his staff, but are not included in the unit staff. Theirduties are prescribed by the commanderhilnself. One or moreaides accompany him when he is absent froID: his command post.It is their duty to keep the chief of staff informed of the where-abouts of the commander, and of a n ~ important decisions thathe makes while absent. With the approval of the commander,aides may be used as assistants in ~ b e g e n e r a l or special staffsections.

4. Tendency to expand. - In every :headquarters there is aconstant tendency to expand the 'functions of staff adminis-tration, multiply personnel, and accumUlate rMords and officeequipment. The comman'der must limit stich' expansion to anessential minimum and organize his 'headqliarters so as to main-tain its readiness for prompt move:tneht.'


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4 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS5. 'E=ploy=ent of t h ~ staff. .,-The commander must under

stand the duties, powers, and limitations of his staff. He himselfhas been selected for his task because of his high personal character, firm will power, and professional ability. He must imbuehis staff with his ideas, .his desires, his energy, and his methods.As he gives to his staff, so will he receive. He should encourageits members, in their capacity as advisers, to speak with frankness. He should make full use, after careful evaluation, of theadvice of the members of his general and technical staff. Heshould make them use their minds for him; but they merelyfurnish him with material, often conflicting, upon which he mustcome to a decision.A staff is not a legislative body whose decisions are bindingupon the commander. I t is an advising body, whose counselmay be taken or left, or taken in part. Many of the greatestdecisions in war have been. made contrary to the advice of staffs;and many happy decisions have come from suggestions of comparatively junior staff officers. I f a commander permits othersto decide for him, he abrogates his function and ceases to be acommander. The cqmmander must himself make all importantdecisions. Command;is his prerogative.

6. Esti=ate of ~ h e . , s i t u a t i o n . ~ I n no other activity doesaction depend so much all prediction as to what an opponent maydo, as in war. Time and movement are constantly changing thesituation. Over-assurance that they have divined the enemy'sintentions is the besetting pitfall of commanders and staffs ofhigher units. It is so elLSY to make facts fit a theory that theyare constantly in .clap.ger, of overlooking the true significance ofthe facts. A proper .evaluation of facts is the most difficult taskthat confronts a cqmmander and his staff. They must be ableto fit information;, as i t comes in, to the hypothesis which theyhave already formed;.but they must have the open-mindednessto recognize a contra;dictory fact, and the moral courage tochange their hypothesis, if the new facts warrant it .

Overestimation pf thl'l, ~ l ) . e m y ' s strength dismays commandersand troops. Thecombatyalue of units fluctuates in battle, whichis more an affair of morale than of material and numbers. In everyhard-fought battle, demoralization eventually comes to one orboth sides. Anable commander will detect it in the enemy, throwin his reserves,and wiI;l,the victory. To act too soon invitesdisaster; to wait too 10llgsac.rifices the chance of victory.

7. Preparationanddistribution of orders.-When a commander has made his decision, he should give it to his chief of


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6MANUAL F O R C O M ' M A ~ D E R S ,OF LARGE UNITSstaff, with such instructions as willleaVEl,D,odoul;>t as to its mean-ing. The chief of staff, is then responsible for .the translation ofthis decision into such orders asw:illinsure its execution. Thestaff ceases to be, for the time,. an Itdvising body, and becomes aworking machine to carry out the deciSion of the commander inall its details. A good commander does, not burden himself withthe working out of details. ,Pressure.and skill must be, n,sed ,to, issqe w-:ders quickly. Largeunit commanders should determinebypraptiCEl' the time requiredfor orders to reach ,the lowest elements of their respective com-mands. I t will vary with the weather, terra,in" hour of the day ornight, and particular situations; , C O I n m ~ d e r s , s h o l l l d make ittheir constant study to reducetl1is scale of time, and they shouldever bear in .mind that orders given in viobttion of this scale willmiscarry in whole or in part. . SUbordinates must be allowedthe necessary time to make out their, ,own ,orders and transmitthem to lower uni ts . , ' , , "', ,The, time may be greatly sh9rtened I;>ythe: consistent practiceof giving advance information 1p low;erheadquarters, iuas fulldetail as circumstances Plilrmit"as soon as a decision is reached oran order is received from higher headquarterS, without waitingto translate such decision or order iQ,to detailed instructions.Thus, warned, each lower .upit. in; turn can make ,more deliberateand ,effective prep,aration. I t i , I l \ U ~ t be relllcJll.bered" however,that warning orders increase the danger of leakage., Care mustbe observed to preserve secre,cy:.,' ,

8. Staff assistance in p e r a t i o n , s . s ~ h e ; c o m m a n d e r shoulddiscuss freely with his staff officers, fJ;'oIIl ,time to time, the detailsof the orders which he gives for the, .co;t;lduct of an action, andshould give them ~ I ! views as fully ,as pos,f!ible; !ltating, thecourse to be pursued in allcoptingencies that ID;ay arise. Heshould send them ,to critical poi.ntsto lteep.him,promptly advisedof what is taking place. , In.a,gfllat,emergency,'as,when new dis-positions have to .be made.on,theinstan,t, oritbe,coIDes necessaryto reinforce one command by ,sending, ,to it/! aid troops fromanother, and there is na't' time ,to communicate, with headquar-ters, the staff officer Prilsent should explain" the views ,of ,hiscommander ~ o the commaI).ders ,Qn"the g r : o W ~ d and urge imme,diateaction without waiting f 9 , r s p e Q ~ f i c o r d e r s f r o m the highercommander. The,wjll,of the o ~ a , : q : d e r ; w h e n . i t is made knownto the subordinate COIDIDander becQlp.el! ,an, order to be carriedout, not by the messenger w h o . d e l ~ v e r ~ d it,:but by the subordi-nate commander who receives it. Staff officers are aides, not
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6 A. MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITScommanders. No part of the power to command should be dele-gated to them. They should be able to inform, but not to order,the local commander, whose' responsibility for action is complete.

9. Conferences with subordinates.-Orders are alwayssubject to misinterpretation and miscomprehension. For a largeoperation, written orders should always be supplemented by con-ferences of the group commander with army commanders; of thearmy commander with his corps commanders; of the corps com-mander with his division commanders; and of the division com-mander withilis subordinate commanders. At these conferences,chiefs of staff and others concerned should be present. In callingconferences, commanders must be considerate of the time of subordinates, and careful in 'selecting the place of assembly, sincethese subordinates, each in turn, will desire to call conferences oftheir own subordinate commanders. Such a conference is not a"council of war," but a meeting of the chief with his lieutenantsfor a thorough understanding of the plan and not for the draftingof the plan. Each situation must be handled upon its ownmerits. Subordinates look to the directing head to state thepurpose to be achieved, so that they may take effective measuresto carry out what is expected of them. A common understandingamong the higher commander!! engaged in an operation is indis-pensable to soocess. The most cordial relations and thoroughunderstanding should be maintained between neighboring C0m-manders and staffs.

10. Execution of orders.-Orders must'be carried out. Thecommander is responsible'for the execution of his own orders.He is assisted by his staff officers, who act in the capacity of inspectors. I t is most diffi


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7MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF L l ~ R G E UNITSCHAPTER 2

GENERAL HEADQUARTERS11. H e a d q u a r t e r s . ~ T h e headquarters of the field forces in a

theater of war is a general headquarters. I t comes into exist-ence by order of the President.12. The commander in , c h i e f . ~ A c o m m a n d e r in chiefexercises control overa theater of war, which may consist of one

or more mutally dependent theaters of operations within easy com-munication with one another. He draws up and issues strate-gical plans in accordance with the general p,olicies prescribed bythe l'resident. He specifies the personnei and supplies of allkinds required for his field forces, requests their allocation, andestablishes policies :wd priorities for their distribution.

He acts as army commander when t h e r ~ i s a single army, andas group commander when there is a single group, or he mayassign these commands to another officer. No officer will actsimultaneously as the commander ()f a .large unit and as thecommander of one of its c o m p o n ~ n t units.13. S t r a t e g y . ~ S t r a t e g y is the especial province of thecommander in chief. He designates the ends to be accomplished,allots the means, and assigns the tasks to .subordinate com-manders. From him must come the plans and impulses thatguide and animate all below him. It.is he who succeeds or failsin a campaign.

The commBfder in chief shOuld know the personal charac-teristics of the leaders of the opposing forces. Strategy shouldnot be based alone upon geographical features and upon thestrength and position of the opposing forces. No sound stra-tegical plan can be formed which ignores the .personaJity ofenemy leaders.

The commander in chief must foresee Jar in advance, and, fromtime to time, warn group and army commanders of his ultimateplans. While present plans and orders !lire. being carried intoeffect, future projects must be foreShadowed, in order thatmeans may be accumulated and installations ~ h a n g e d to carrythem out. Greater foresight and preparation are required for aretreat than for an advance. A retreat should be a preparationfor a new offensive, not the culminatiqn of disaster. The com-plander in chief should be one campaign ahead illc his preliminaryplanning. He should take into his llonfidence the commanders


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8 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSof groups of armies and of armies, from whom he should requirepreliminary studies and tentative plans. These studies andplans are invaluable 'to a commander in chief in coming to hisdecisions.14. Concentration.-The concentration of the armies isbased upon the strategic plan. The form of concentrationdepends upon how accurately the subsequent strategic maneuvermay be forecast. When the situation is definitely known, theconcentration is effected so that the forces may be launchedwithout delay against their objectives. . When the situation isnot clear enough to justify a definite scheme of maneuver,general headquarters prepares a plan of concentration whichwill bring the forces into the concentration areas so disposed8II1d grouped as to meet unforeseen enemy action.

15. Tact ics . -The commander in chief is the master tactician.To adapt means to ends, to determine formations and procedurefor offense and defense, and to prescribe the special trainingnecessary to enable the troops to counter and overcome allobstacles, are, next to strategy, the highest functions of thecommander in chief. Subordinate commanders make tacticalplans and carry them into execution.

16. Personal contact . -I t is not sufficient to publish tacticaldoctrines in orders. The true spirit must be conveyed by personal contact and persuasion. The commander in chief shouldknow his group, army, corps, and 'even division commanders sowell that he can foretell what they will do under given circum-stances. Each commander should', in tUrn, be upon the closestterms with his subordinate' commanders. He should know theexact capacity of every one of these subordinates and just whereto place him to get from' him his best service. By personalcontact, down through the commanders of large units, thedoctrines of the commander in chief must percolate.

17. Reserves.-'-The reserves at the disposal of a commanderin chief consist of the general headquarters reserve and, in addition, such corps a n d ~ divisions as may be held in strategicalreserve. The generjl headquarters reserve is a reservoir oftroops from which to reinforce subordinate units. It consistsessentially of tanks, artillery, aviation, chemical troops, andengineers. Its strength and composition depend upon circum-stances. The commander in chief allots units to groups of armiesand to armies, or to the communications zone, as the situationdemands. He uses lilii strategical reserve to influence the situ


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9MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSation by maneuver or combat. or to reinforce those large unitswhose mission is of greatest importance or whose situation iscritical.

18. Personnel of general headquarters .-A general headquarters operating in the home country or in contiguous territoryis small in personnel. When it is operating beyond the sea, itis necessarily large, for it will then have to perform many of. theduties which at home are performed by the War Department.At home, procurement of supplies is. a function of the WarDepartment; abroad, it may be largely in the hands of thecommander in chief.

19. Supplies.-Whether in friendly or in enemy territory,the theater of operations must be drawn upon to the limit of itscapacity for the supply of the military forces. Such utilizationof local supplies should be carried out under a systematic andwell-formulated .plan with due regard to the needs of the localpopulation. Just payments will be made to secure the activecooperation of inhabitants and encourage continued productionof supplies.

CHAPTER 3GENERAL COMBAT PROVISIONS FOR LARGE UNITS

20. The training of large uni ts . -The object of the trainingof large units is to combine and coordinate the combat trainingof all the arms and services so as to develop in the larger u n i t ~the cohesion and teamwork essential to efficient action.

The training of units larger than the division is essentially thetraining of commanders, staffs, and heads of services. I tincludes various kinds of exercises, either on the map or on theground. Exercises may be carried on with or without troops.In time of peace, tactical instruction with troops actually presentusually ceases with the division, the largest unit which it ispracticable to assemble. For units larger than the division,tactical instruction is usually carried on by lectures, map problems, and by command and staff exercises. But when troops andground are available, field maneuvers should be held for thesimUltaneous instruction of officers and troops in the units abovea division. In all exercises, the superior unit commander controlsand directs the exercises; commanders of units participating inthe exercises command their units. Map and ground exercises,especially applicable to training larger units, are classified as map


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10 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSproblems, map maneuvers, field exercises. terrain exercises, fieldmaneuvers, and command post exercises.

21. M ~ t h o d s of act ion.-The offensive means action to seekOlIt and defeat the enemy. I t implies advance and attack.The defensive differs from the offensive in that the defenderawaits the first blow,while the attacker gives it. Once engaged,both sides may use .advance and attack. The power of the de-fensive lies in position, in opportune action, in skill in counterattack. A large proportion of the decisive battles of history hasbeen gained through the skillful use of the oounterattack andthe counteroffensive by numerically inferior' forces in defensivebattles. In defense,. higher commanders must have reserveskept well in hand to meet unforeseen emergencies and for counteroffensive a1ltion. In offense and in counteroffense they shouldnot hesitate to use their last reserve. In the offensive, thecommander must focus his attention upon the objective; in thedefensive, upon the point of greatest danger.Over the greater part of fronts in contact, during the greaterpart of the time, both sides are on the defensive. In war themental attitude is habitually.that of offense; but the physicalattitude is habitually that of defense. Offensive action is occa-sional, for brief intervals of time. Success comes from the abilityof the commander to select the right time and the right place foroffensive action.

22. Offenl!e.-As long a ~ the enemy is capable of offering acoordinated resistance, the attack itself should be a step-by-stepforward movement from one good position to another. I t is theduty of all commanders to exploit their successes to the utmost,A commander must see that his units do not get out of hand.He must send reinforcements through the breach, rather thancheck the advanCe ofuhits where the going is easy. Troopsgenerally do best when they are launched 'in an attack with dis-tant objectives and are h ~ l d ccilltin'uously to their task until theiroffensive power is exhauste


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 11selected lines of an enemy on the defensive. The attackers pushforward and occupy positions on the downward slopes, towardthe enemy, where their communications are exposed and wherethere are few places for the installation of their guns and ammunition dumps without their presence being easily detected. Theobjectives to be sought should be commanding positions held bythe enemy or within the enemy's lines. A strong defensive posi-tion held by the enemy is not often a good defensive position fortroops operating frontally against it. The offensive may bequickly followed by the enemy's counteroffensive. To meet thiscounteroffensive, quick reorganization on good defensive posi-tions is necessary. When, for any reason, the advance stops, thecommander should immediately anticipate a counteroffensive byreorganizing his troops for defense, even though he expects soonto continue the offensive, or pass to a new offensive.

When the enemy becomes so disorganized as to be unable tooffer further coordinated resistance, the commander acceleratesprogress by the assignment of zones and directions of advance,and by releasing to subordinate units the means necessary fortheir immediate reinforcement.Forces that contemplate the offensive are careless and negligentin their organization for defense. 'Measures must be takenby commanders to counteract this natUral tendency. No man'sland should be an area between two good positions. I f the enemychooses to forsake his good position and come forward, he willplace himself at a great disadvantage and incur greater lossesthan he will inflict. The relinquishment of bad ground for good,in selecting lines of defense, must not be influenced by sentimentagainst giving up any ground whatsoever.to the enemy.

23. Defense.-I t should be the aim of the commander of adefensive force to compel his adversliLryto attack him in a strongposition where a repulse is reasona;bly sure. The elements of agood system of defense are an outpost zone with a good defensiveline; an organized battle position at such a distance from thefront line as to escape most of the enemy's preparation fire; andpositions which may serve as a base of departure for counterattacks to restore the integrity of the battle position. The maindefense is made, generally, on the main line of resistance of thebattle position, at such a distance in rear that the enemy's lightartillery can not fire effectively upon it from the same positionfrom which it fires upon the outpost position. By this method,the enemy's assaults, his main blows, are absorbed in overcoming

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12 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSthe resistance of small detachments. In the outpost position theremust be alert troops capable of giving warning and of retardingand breaking up the movements of the enemy. Defense on thebattle position and counterattacks at the proper moment aremost effective means of defeating a powerful attack. But thisprocedure should not be made .an invariable or even a generalrule. I t should be varied by the most obstinate defense of theoutpost zone. Commanders must know the enemy and be ableto play upon his characteristics. Troops that shoot well and aresupported by good artillery are capable of an effective defenseof any well-selected p o s i t i o ~ .

An active defense should be conducted with the minimum offorces, so that the command may pass to the offensive with themaximum of means: Troops . should not be relieved while anaction is going on. . The combat must be sustained by troopsalready in line, in order. that adequate reserves may be built upand maintained. Fresh troops should be held in reserve. readyfor counterattack, or. to go into action where circumstances absolutely require them todo so. Battles are gained by the use ofreserves.Withdrawals and retirements should be from one defensiveposition to another. I t is far better to fall back far enough toget good ground than to retain disadvantageous ground close toa strong position of :the enemy.

The commander's contr


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A MANUAL FOR 'COMMANDERS 'oF LARGE UNITS 13his front, as they form favorable routes for penetration or advance. The mutual influence of tne opposite slopes on each otherand the lay of thecommunlcatioris usualfy' make it necessary toplace a valley, used as arollte of advaJlceor action, wholly withinthe zone of a sirigle large unit. Fot'def'el).se, a: commander shouldchoose terrain where the large valleys or ravines run parallel tohis front, as the ridges form' natural lines of resistance. Thestreams parallel to his front are themosteffilctive obstacles to theattack of tariks or other mechanized forceS.

CHAPTER 4'THE GROUP 'OF ARMIITIS

25. Unity of command. -To secure unity of command, twoor more armies operating upon the same .front must be placedunder a higher commander, the army group commander. Unityof command, decentralization of operation, and coordination ofeffort are his guiding principles. The commander in chief of theforces in the field acts as group commander, when the number ofarmies is small; but. when the number.ofarmies is so large as torender difficult direct control by G., H.; Q., two or more groupsmust be formed. The commander of each group directs theoperations of his group under the instructions of G. H. Q.

When two or more armies on contiguous fronts are engaged ina joint operation, either. of attack or defense, they. should beplaced in the same group, for tl:te'period,ofd;he operation I f aserious situation develops at the junction. of two groups ofarmies. unity of command should be preserved by a regrouping, sothat one group commander will. be responsible on the menacedfront.

For a specific operation or to meet !I; great .emergency, the com-mander in chief may desire to make a regrouping of certainarmies under his own direct and temporary control. When hedoes, he should do it frankly .. It.is far better, i f a suitable officerof adequate rank is available. to aSllign, him to such a command.

26. Troops and duties. -The group' commander has nou;roup troops, but large reserves may be placed at his disposal forparticular operations. [n accordance: with missions assigned tohim by G. H. Q., the group commander draws up tactical plans,issues orders to armies,. specialtroops,and reserves under hiscommand, apportions to the armies. tb,e forces at his disposal,allots zones of action or sectors to the.armies, and coordinatestheir movements and efforts. He assigns tasks to his armies,
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14 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSleaving the details of execution to the army commanders. Hisstaff should consist of a small general staff group, an adjutantgeneral's section, representatives of the services, and only suchpersonnel and material as will enable his headquarters to operate.

The group of armies is a tactical unit. The commander exercises territorial responsibilities. and has supply, administrative,and strategical functions only when his headquarters is the headquarters of a theater of operations. He assures the cooperation ofarmies, coordinates their efforts, and distributes the means thathave been allotted to him by higher authority. The functions ofthe army group headquarters, or of 'an army headquarters, whenacting as headquarters of a theater of war, are discussed inChapter 2.

The group headquarters may control directly the distant airreconnaissance or it may assign this reconnaissance to the armies.Distant cavalry reconnaissance by several cavalry divisions underone commander is also conducted under the direct control of thegroup of armies.

27. Offense.-On the offensive, the group commander assignsto each army a direction of advance or a zone of action, and anobjective or successive fronts. Throughout the march towardthe enemy, the establishment of contact and engagement, andthe actual attack, the army group commander requires eacharmy to maintain its direction and to preserve contact with thearmies on its flanks. During the ,approach marches, he establishes the alignment of the lIitmies in the group by timely marchdirectives. Mter he' has made contact with the enemy and hasdecided on the plan of attack, the army group commander apportions his troops so as to give all possible strength to the mainblow. He must at all times foresee the possible' extension orcontraction of his command and zone of action, and must haveplans prepared for these contingencies.

28. Defense.-On the defensive, the group commander assignssectors to the armies and indicates the general nature of thedefense, and the conditions under which withdrawal may beeffected or a counteroffensive begun. On both the offensive andthe defensive, he prescribes the limit and nature of air recon-naissance, when distant air reconnaissance is conducted by thearmies. When the group controls distant air reconnaissance,he designates the line to which the armies are responsible fortheir air reconnaissance. To carry out tactical and strategicalplans, the army group commander assigns missions and appor


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 15tions troops to his armies and coordinates their efforts andmovements On the defensive, he may form a reserve in oneof two ways. Either he may place an army in second line tomeet a possible movement of the enemy agll;inst a flank, or he. maytake forces from various areas in the theater of operations. Heplans well in advance for the employment of these reserves andplaces them where he can use them to carry out his plan of action.

29. Forming new armies . -The group of armies is generallydisposed with armies abreast. Occasionally, the tactical situation may favor the placing of an army in second line, either inrear of an exposed flank or behind a long continuous front. I fthe situation indicates the probable need of an additional army,in front line or in strategic reserve, the commander in chiefassigns a commander and makes available to him suitable personnel for the staff and service heads at his headquarters. When'occasion arises to employ the army" it is created by adding thenecessary troops and services to this nucleus.

CHAPTER 5THE ARMY

ParagraphsSECTION I. GeneraL__________________________________________________________ 30-35II . The army in offensive hattle______________________________________ 36-46In. The army in defensive battle_____________________________________ 47-53

SECTION

GENERAL30. Organization and funct ions.-The army is the largest

self-contained unit. I t consists of a commander with a staff,specialized army troops arid services, and two or more armycorps. To these may be added a special assignment of G. H. Q.aviation, G. H. Q. reserve artillery, cavalry divisions, and otherauxiliary troops, varying in number and composition accordingto the task assigned. The army may act independently or itmay form a part of a group of armies. The army commander'srelations with his subordinates have many ramifications. Thesesubordinates should be a band of brothers with a mutual understanding. I t depends upon the commander to make them so.

The army is the fundamental unit of strategical maneuver. I thas territorial, tactical, administrative, and supply functions.


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16 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS31. 'l'he ar=y co==ander . -The army commander plans

and carries out the broader phases of tactical operations neces-sary to execute the strategical mission assigned him by thecommander in chief. He initiates operations by giving ordersto the commanders corps and other large units directly underhis command and to the chiefs of army services. The armycommander draws up tactical and administrative plans for theemployment of the army, under instructions from higher authority; he issues orders to the corps and other units under hiscontrol; he allots divisions and special troops to the corps basedon the tactical and administrative plans; and he coor.dinatesthe efforts of the corps and of the army troops.When a general engagement has begun, the army commandermay influence it by the nse of his tanks and his air forces, by hiscontrol of the army artillery, by his power of coordinating theartillery of the corps,and by the use of his reserves. He retain;direct control of engineer, medical, and other administrativeand supply troops, or allots them to corps and divisions as thesituation demands.

32. Tanks . -The army tank commander prescribes, under thedirection of the army commander, the distribution of tank unitsto the corps, and exercises command of those retained under armycontrol. He allots heavy tanks to corps, but he may hold sometanks in the army reserve for use in the later phases of the action.

33. Aviation.-The army commander ordinarily controlscombat aviation assigned or attached to the army. He attachesadditional aviation to the corps as the situation requires. Attackaviation should be concentrated and used against enemy troopsin the same manner as machine guns and artillery. The armychief of aviation commands all air units under army control, andcoordinates, under the direction of the army commander, theiraction with one another andwith the air units of the corps. Heattends, in particular, to distant reconnaissance and to the con-centration of the air forces for important missions.

34. Arti l lery.-The army commander determines whetherthere will be an artillery preparation and its. kind He takes intoconsideration the question of tactical surprise, knowledge of theenemy's defensive organization, and the ammunition supply. Hecontrols harassing and interdiction fire He determines thelength of the general counterpreparation fire and the times whenit shall be fired. The army chief of artillery directs, for the armycommander, the allotment of army and G. H. Q. reserve artilleryto the corps; and he coordinates the action of the artillery of the


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A MANUAL FOR COMMA'NDE8S OF LARGE UNITS 17corps with each other and with the army artillery. He exercisescommand of artillery kept. undeI: army .control. Ordinarily thearmy controls the heavier calibers. of artillery and assigns therest of the artillery to corps.35. Reserves.--;-The army ..ordinarily holds one or more divisions in the army reserve. I t may 'send the artillery of reservedivisions to reinforce the divisions in line. On the offensive,corps are not held in army reserve, but their entry into line maybe delayed to meet the development ,of the tactical plan. Amenace of attack often exercises a more decisive influence thanan attack itself In a passive defense the corps are usuallyplaced abreastIn an active defense, where the army commander contemplatesa general counteroffensive,.it may. be. advantageous to hold acorps or a number of divisions in reserve., He orders a generalcounteroffensive only in accordance with plans from higherauthority. Subordinate commanders order counterattacks atthe earliest practicsble.time, generally, in accordance with previously prepared plans, wherever ,favorable opportunities forsuch counterattackl;l may be foreseen'

SECTION I ITHE ARMY IN OFFENSIVE BATTLE

36. The march to bat t le; -The army commander receivesfrom higher authority a general ,direction of advance. To keepthe army constantly on t h i s d i r e c t ~ o n . he assigns directions ofadvance and zones of action to the corps.H. during the operat.ion, certain corps are diverted from. their assigned axes, he bringsthem back gradually or adopts other suitable measures, such asinserting on the front a second-line corps, to maintain the massof the army on its general direction.

During the advance on the enemy. the army commander mayplace all of his corps abreest or he may place one or more corpsin the second line. He may hold out separate divisions or otherunits for the second line or to f o r ~ a reserve for the army. Theformation will depend upon ,t.he strategic maneuver which thecommander in chief expects to execute after contact is made withthe enemy. Corps abreast facilitate entry into action to the front.Corps in column facilitate entry into. action to the flank. Thearmy commander assigns, to the reserve divisions and. to armytroops, positions in the march formation to facilitate their probable future employment.
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18 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS37. Disposi t ions.-Ata distance from the enemy, the army

commander may dispose his a ~ m y widely and deeply. Such adisposition is best adapted to changes in direction, to envelopingmaneuver, and to flank protection, and permits the full use of theroad and railway nets and of the camping and billeting facilitiesin the army zone of action. The disposition will generally involveplacing in front line one or more corps and in second line othercorps with army troops to be used as reserves or 'to take a specialpart in the operation. Where the army is a flank army or isacting alone, the disposition should be such as to permit an extension of the front and protection of the exposed flanks. Theinitial disposition of the army should conform to the projectedmaneuver.As the army approaches the enemy, it must increase its preparation for action. With only such delay as the distance from theenemy justifies, the army commander must place the elements ofhis command so that he can use them readily in a combinedoperation. He must give to the most advant!ed units missions tosecure the army until its deployment is complete. As the distancefrom the enemy decreases, the commander contracts his disposi-tions, especially in depth, ,so that the more distant units mayenter the action promptly. When battle appears imminent, hemoves his army so as to secure for it the choice of the field ofbattle.

38. Establishment of eontae t . -By suitable use of his aviation and cavalry, the army commander strives to foresee wherehe will meet the enemy and where he will give battle, The armyobservation aviation conducts distant reconnaissance. Thecavalry, operating nearer to the main bodies, completes thereconnaissance of the aviation, determines the general outline ofthe enemy's forces, and maintains contact with them. Thearmy commander directs the air combat against the enemy air.forces. From the first contact, the army pursuit units seek tosecure freedom of action for our own aviation and neutralizethat of the enemy.

Contact is established progressively. The cavalry determinesthe general out.line of the enemy. I t seeks its contact far enoughto the front to allow the army to deploy properly for battle,The distance should be such as to provide at least two days forsuch deployment. To perfDrm this mission, the cavalry is some-times reinforced by detachments of all arms. The contact madeby the cavalry is more solidly established by the advance guardsof front-line corps. These advance guards first support and then


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 19relieve the cavalry. They drive in the resistance which thecavalry has been unable to overcome or stop the advanced enemyelements not held up by the cavalry. I f the enemy is in position,contact is fully established when the limHs'determined upon whichthe enemy is offering a solidly organized resistance. I f the enemyis in motion, contact is established not only by determining thefront on which these forces are moving,but also by directing andmaintaining elements against tha,t front, to form a protective linebehind which the main bodies can make their dispositions foraction. .

39. Frontages.-The depth to which an offensive can penetrate varies directly with the frontage on which an adequateoffensive can be launched. The army'commander, therefore,determines the initial frontage of ' attack necessary to attainthe objectives. He divides the front of. attack among his corpsand assigns to each corps its mission. As a geiuiral rule, he willassign to corps narrower frontages where the effort to be exertedis greater. They can then push their effort to greater depths.I f the front of the advancing elements narrows, the range ofartillery permits the enemy to effect heM'y'concentrations underwhich the attack weakens and may halt. :The army commander,therefore, provides for reinforcements'and lateral actions tomaintain the front of attack of the army at least equal to thefrontage of departure.

40. Engaging the enemy.-Engagingthe enemy forms thefirst phase of the battle. During the"establishment of contact,the commanders of corps in the front, line reinforce their advanceguards. They now take control of the fight in their respectivezones of action, and direct the deployment of their corps. Theybring the action of first-line divisions to bear on selected localitiesor along the whole corps front. I f this action does' not sufficeto overcome local enemy resistance, it should furnish definiteinformation of the enemy dispositions and permit the formationof a solid front on which the army may deploy. On a stabilizedfront, where opposing forces are in contact, it may sometimes benecessary to undertake preliminary operations to improve theconditions under which the attack is to be .launched, The armycommander personally follows the action 'of the corps, and fromthe beginning prescribes the points 'whose possession is necessaryfor the deployment of the army. When necessary, he uses thearmy artillery.

41. Conduct of the attack.-Establishing contact andengaging the enemy permit the army commander to decide on


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20 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITShis plan of action and cemplete the deployment of his army.Acting on information received, he has reinforced certain firstline corps. He next arranges for the employment of his artillery.He. places at the disposal of corps commanders part of his reserveof artillery and assigns missions to the army artillery. He thencompletes his dispositions. He inserts in the first line, corpsheretofore in second line, and,. after weighing the requirements ofsecond-line elements, completes. the reinforcing of corps..Heprescribes the positions of the army reserves He supervises themanagement of the army rear area, arranges for the operation ofthe various services, and has ammunition and the necessarymaterial brought forward. The army. commander takes the foregoing measures to insure the prompt employment of the entirepower of the army He seeks to organize an attack which hewill push with all the power at his disposal in a direction wheresuccess can yield decisive.results.

The attack should be a surprise. To obtain surprise, secrecyof preparation is essential. A short artillery preparation, or, i fthe attacker is s t r o ~ g i n artillery, tanks, and aviation, its omission altogether helps to insure secrecy. The attack should alwayshe launched under the protection of the entire artillery, whosefire should be extended and,supplemented by bombardment andattack aviation available and by reserve machine guns. In itsadvance, the infantry, preceded by tanks and smoke, endeavorsto overcome the successive enemy lines of resistance. disrupt hisdefensive organization in a. minimum of time, and disorganizehis artillery system. The further .the advance is pushed, thegreater are the difficulties to be overcome by the fighting units.Communication is more difficult, and team play among the different arms is lells close. It.is then. that the initiative of subordinatecommanders, pr.operly informed in advance of the general planand determined to carry out their mission. will find full field ofaction. .

The commander may make other attacks on the front. They.torm part of the structure of the main attack and support it.No distinction in execution is made between these differentattacks They must .all be pushed to a finish 'without thoughtof alignment with one anether. They differ only in the strengthof the forces employed and in the extent of front assigned to each.Each element must penetrate i n d e p e ~ d e h t l y and, by overcomingresistance in its front, help neighboring units to advance. Whenthe battle is protracted, the army commander may find it neces


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 21sary to organize several important attacks to be launchedsuccessively on different parts of the front.

42. Commander 's influence.-Throughout the battle thearmy commander must furnish impetus to the attack. Heuses the army artillery to extend the action of the corps anddivision artillery; he employs his attached attack and bombardment aviation; and finally, and above all, he brings into play hisreserves. He advances his reserves in time to use them in thearea in which he seeks decisive results. As he sends in reserves,he endeavors to form other reserves. But he should not hesitateto throw into the battle his last reserves to gain a victory.

Thus the army commander himself conducts the battle, by constantly assuring coordination of the efforts of his subordinateswhom he has already informed of the general plan. He gives tothe operation that unity of direction so indispensable to success,and he impresses his own determination on its execution.

43. Attack of a fortified posit ion.-When the position tobe attacked has been strongly fortified and organized for defense,the attack meets difficulties which require special measures. Inestablishing contact, the advance guards act prudently to avoida premature engagement of the main body. The advance isgenerally made at night to avoid exposing the troops to aerialobservation and interdiction fire. 'The' preparation of the attackrequires a mass of powerful, well-supplied artillery, which mustbe placed in position properly and have its fire carefully prepared.This artillery opens the way for the infantry by a preparation toshatter the enemy's morale, disorganize his' system of command,destroy his material obstacles, and neutralize his fire. The armycommander prescribes the principal features and the duration ofthis preparation. He distributes to corps heavy tanks to overcome important obstacles that can not be destroyed during theartillery preparation.' Surprise plays a large part in success.Even when a long artillery preparation is necessary, surpriseshould be sought by a judicious selection of the exact hour ofattack. For the attack, the army commander issues detailed,precise orders which assure close coordination of effort, prescribespecial measures for holding the ground gained, and make definiteprovisions for exploitation.

44. Attack on a stabilized f ront . -On a stabilized frontwhere close contact ha6iong been established, the offensive battlegenerally opens with the attack, without preliminarv maneuver.An exact knowledge of enemy dispositions. and the protection


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22 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSafforded by our front, .permit preparations for the attack to beginwell in advance. To give the advantage of surprise, these preparations are made in secret.' Often the battle against a stabilizedfront must include the orgaI)ization of several successive attacks.These must shake and pierce the enemy front until a last pushdefinitely breaks it.

45. Repulse . -Whtln the battle ends in a check to theassault, the army commapder at once restricts the adverse effectsof the check by taking firm possession of the ground. Underthe protection of the fresher troops and of the artillery, he reformshis army and promptly reorganizes units whose losses require it.He completes his amm1,l.nition supply and replacements so that bemay soon resume the offensive.

46. Exploitation of sueeess.-Undisputed possession of theenemy's position should not mark the end of the offensive battle.Immediate and intepsive exploitation of the advantage gainedis necessary to complflte the,ene:IJ?Y's d i s o r g a n i ~ a t i o n and preventhis reforming his fOr.cfls. .For this exploitation, all first-linetroops fit to fight, and the cavalry, continue to press forward, preceded by the aviation. Their first duty is to keep contact withthe enemy. The c a v ~ l r y operates,: where possible, in the gaps oron the wings of the ene;r:ny.'s ,front, and attempts to get acrosshis lines of retreat..The, cOII).bataviation operates against theenemy's lines of re.treata,pd endeavors to reach columns andtrains tc) impede, their ~ i t : 6 . d r a w a L , , I t also attacks the enemyele;r:nents, still effective" in rea,rpf.the fighting line. These it takesunder low-altitude machine-guu and bomb fire and tries to disperse them.I f the enemy succeeds iu,forming on a new.position, the reconnaissance of ,this pOl3ition is made wi,thout delay. The armycommander, who should ,already have begun advancing bistroops and material, redistributes the;r:n for th(l new attack, whichhe organizes as quickly as possible. At the same ti;r:ne he reconstitutes his reserves.

SECTION IIITHE ARMY IN DEFENSIVE BATTLE

4'7. Organization of the defense.-The power of thedefense rests on a .systematiceoordination of the defensive fireof all arms, a correct organiz!,\tion of the ground, and the timelyuse of reserves. By these m e a , n ~ , an. ar;r:ny commander, who has aclearly thought-out plan an,d. a fixed determination, can successfully resist a stronger assailant.


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS, OF LARGE UNITS 23The army commander formulates his plan of defense and pro-

mulgates it in field orders. He gives his corps commanders hisestimate of the situation, a,nd indicates general plan of defenseagainst any of the most. probable enemyattackll .. Under condi-tions imposed by the mission"and situation, he selects the mainline of resistance of the first battle position so as to utilize bestthe t ~ r r a i n of the army zone of action. He places continuouszones of fire and obstacles in front of the.line of resistance so asto hold up the attack and prevent infiltration. He organizes theinterior of the position so as to insure the reestablishment of adefensive barrier against elements :which may penetrate the mainline of resistance.The corps commanders. distribute. their forces and combinetheir various 'kinds of defensive fire in order to preserve theintegrity of the battle position allci. toregajn parts of it tempo-rarily lost. The defenlle of the main pattIe 'pol;iition is ,essentialiytheir mission and theYl'ihould .be prepared to use all means at.their disposal to accomplish it.

The outpost position, well in bont of the line of resistance ofthe battle position, affQrds the army time toprepare for battleand screens the battle position from enemy ground observationand reconnaissance. I t takes up the first shock of the enemy'sassault troops and protects the battle positioll from the enemy'snfantry weapons.

The army commander carries. out defensive preparationsunder the protection of the outpost. anq the artillery. Mean-while, he uses his observation aviatioll to ascertain the enemy'sprobab?e intentions. He directs its recoJ.llllJ,issances methodicallyand takes precautionary meaaur.es to Protect it from the eJilemypursuit aviation which may be. assembling preparatory to theattack. Finally, he seeks to thwart the enemy plans by destruc-tion, harassing, and interdiction fire and.by aerial attack.

To be prepared for any breaktluough of the main line ofresistance of the first battle position, the army commander laysO'lIt in rear of it successive battle po,sitions, sufficiently distantfrom one another, thlJ,t no rear position can be taken under theenemy preparation fire until the position in front of it has beencaptured. He organizes them in a manner. similar to the firstbattle position.

He may construct switch positions, . laid out transversely andresting on the line of resistanceo{ the. first battle position andon successive positions, to limit penetrations, to maintain thecontinuity of the front, and to finnish bases of departure for
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24 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITScounterattacks. He should take special precautions that thesepositions do not hinder the movements of reserves. The armycommander will find that successive positions will afford himability to maneuver. I t is of first importance that he causeeach man, including himself, to know his post and his part inthe defense and be confirmed in this knowledge by rehearsal.He should avoid changes of defensive dispositions immediatelybefore an attack, because of 'their confusing and demoralizingeffect.

Distance from the enemy may require him to have the cavalryand special detachments maintain contact in front of the lineQf outposts. Before battle, he should echelon his units in depthand protect them by outposts behind which they may rest andperform necessary labor. On, the outpost position, he shouldplace only the forces to observe and to perform the other missions:assigned. He places the principal ele'ments of first-line corpsin the first battle position, or immediately in rear of it, wherethey can opportunely occupy the positions in which they areto fight.

A disposition with corps abreast favors defense and theexercise of command.' For the purpose of maneuver, especiallyif he contemplates passing from the defensive to the offensive,the army commander will do well to hold an army corps inreserve.

He assigns sectors to the army corps in accordance with theirmissions, the natural divisions of terrain, the communicationsavailable, and the 'probable direction of the enemy's attack.He prescribes measures of liaison between army corps as well aswith the armies on his flanks. When the army is itself a flankarmy, he takes measures to protect his flank by fortificationsand reserves.

In the defensive battle, he should see that all troops are prepared to take their part in establishing a continuous line of fire,to thicken the fire, or'to reestablish its continuity, first at theforward edge of the battle position, and then, if need be, withinit. He should, therefore, dispose his troops in depth, a disposition which will also decrease their vulnerability and favor thelaunching of counteratta.cks. He may direct small garrisons to.{)ccupy critical points in rear of the battle position. He shoulddispose his reserves in rear of the first battle position, so as topermit their timely use in maintaining its integrity.


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 25The commanders of.' large units in reserve reconnoiter to

determine the employment of their units, and issue the necessaryinstructions for the performance of work assigned to their troops.The army commander should soech-elon his artillery in depththat its fire effect may be appUedcontinuously throughout theoperation. He should dispose it behind the main battle position

80 as to attack the assembly areas and the line of departure ofthe enemy attacking elements (1,500 to 2,000 yards beyond hisoutpost position), as well as,the outpost position itself and theterrain within his battle position. He may push forward temporarily some batteries to deliver distant interdiction and specialflanking fire. He may place; provisionally, the artillery of hisreserve in the successive positions organized in rear of the mainbattle position.

The chief of artillery of the army makes recommendations tothe army commander for the general use, of the artillery. Hegives the necessary orders to elements of the army artillery heldat his disposal.

48. Conduct of the defense:-Bycomplete preparation thearmy commander develops. the defensive strength of his armyand its capacity for prolonged resistance. During the course ofthe battle he influences the action by ,the direction of the fire ofhis artillery and by the use of his reserves. Throughout the battle,he should impress aU ranks with his determination to win thefight in the first battle position.When information indicates that the enemy is preparing anattack, the army commander orders powerful interdiction fire tostrike the enemy by surprise on his roadsahd approaches beforehe can form for attack. When the attack is imminent, thearmy commander orders counterpreparation fire to disorganizethe enemy's attack before it can get' under way. He places fireupon the enemy infantry and artillery ,as well as upon the principal known centers of ,the enemy command system, such as command posts, observation posts, and communication centrals. Hemay continue, at the same time, interdiction fire, Since interdiction and counterpreparation mayinvolv.e a large expenditure ofammunition, he fixes the duration of :tllis fire to conform to hissupply, and prescribes the conditions under which corps and division commanders may order it .

If, notwithstanding the counterpreparation, the enemy launcheshis attack, the army commander delivers defensive fire to stopthe enemy advance by breaking up the attack in its initialphases. He places fire first upon the outpost area, then in


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26 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSfront of the line of resistance of the battle position, and, finally,within that line wherever the enemy has penetrated. Withthis fire he may advantageously combine counterbattery fire,and interdiction fire on routes by which the enemy may reinforcethe attack. But the all important targets for the artillery arethe enemy tanks and infantry, which the artillery seeks to crush.

Combined with this defensive fire in front of the organizedpositions of the defense are bands of fire of the automatic infantryweapons. I f the enemy breaks through the obstacles and thedefensive fire, the infantry fights at close quarters with fire andwith the bayonet.

Counterattack regaiqs Jostground. First-line units make thefirst counterattacks before the enemy has solidly established himself. The division commanders place elements designated tomake counterattacks in ,favorable positions for executing suchmISSIOns. They anticipate ,the different situations which mayarise and plan the actions of counterattacking units accordingly.The deeper the penetration of the line of resistance the moreextensive is the countel'attack. Division and corps commandersorganize and launch counterattacks speedily, but coordinationmust not be sacrificed for speed. ',Large counterattacks arenormally executed by'troops in reserve which have previouslybeen placed in position, have had the benefit of an artillerypreparation, and are preferably reinforced with tanks. Theprinciples of offensive action govern the conduct and exploitation of such attacks.

I f the enemy attack involves the front of several army corps,the ,army commander himself must reestablish his line, by givinghis orders directly to his.reserves and by coordinating the fireand action of the large. units involved. He causes the troopsengaged, while awaiting the launching of the counterattacks, tohold their ground tenaciously, to cling to the defensive linesremaining intact, and to buildup a continuous line of fire.

49. The counteroffensive.-When defense is sound and welldesigned, the advantage of 'surprise is in favor of the defense.Defen/le should be a condition of restrained activity in preparationfor a counteroffensive. If a defensive position has been so wellchosen that it can not be turned and must be broken before theenemy can reach his objective, the advantages of dexterity pass tothe defensive. The danger of the defensive is that it may be soprolonged that the commander and his subordinates become fixedin a defensive attitude of mind which renders them incapable ofpassing quickly to the offensive when the opportunity comes.


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 27A successful defense depends upon the preservation of the offen-sive spirit, which should manifest itself by counterattacks; butall counterattacks should' be mere preliminaries to the counter-offensive ordered at the opportune moment. While on the defen-sive, the army commander must prepare everything for an over-whelming counteroffensive. He should issue warning i n s t r u ~ -tions well in advance, and be on the lookout for the propermoment to launch it . He has chosen his own ground for a trialof strength. His troops are protected on familiar ground, whilethe enemy is exposed on unfamiliar ground. Following a seri-ous check to the enemy and in execution of a maneuver preparedin advance, the army commander should pass speedily to theoffensive. He begins the counteroffensivewith the troops inaction, and by using reserves of all arms, which he carefully placesin position, and to which he judiciously assigns zones of actionand o b j e c t i v ~ s . All of the artillery' supports the launching ofthe counteroffensive.

50. Withdrawal from ac t ion . - I t may be that the fortuneof war favors the enemy. When it is no 'longer possible to con-tinue the struggle on a solid front, ,the'armY'commander mustwithdraw his forces to a position sufficiently distant from theenemy to permit reorganization and reinforcement. He takesadvantage of darkness to move to the rear, unseen by enemy airreconnaissance. In the withdrawal, he takes special pains tohave flank protection and liaison with neighboring units.

He specifies the direction of retirement, allots zones and, i fnecessary, routes, and decides on the conditions of execution ofthe movement. He prescribes measures to alleviate the hard-ships of the retirement and to supply the troops. He regUlatesthe withdrawal of the aviation in such a way as to protect itsground installations and at the same time assure its continuedparticipation in the action. He requires all available combataviation units to delay the advance of the enemy. In thatundertaking, appropriate commanders may require the aircraft toexecute attack missions at low altitudes. He causes demolitionsto be made along the routes of the enemy's advance to delay hismarch and interfere with his supply. He specifies a line on whichthe army corps shall establish their'rear guards to protect themovements of their main bodies. :He selects this line at such adistance from the enemy that the rear guards can occupy a posi-tion and prepare defensive fire before being attacked. Thecavalry, the infantry units, and especially the artillery still intact

01191-30--3


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28 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSand available for his use, are immediately placed on the line ofrear guards to organize that line.

51. Reliefs.-If no crisis is at hand, the army commandersees that units eI'lgaged in.a prolonged defensive battle are. withdrawn before they are completely worn out. He may then usethem again in the battle after a rest in rear areas. He preparesin advance for every relief by detailed orders. He uses well-considered measures, not only to protect the troops from uselesshardships and losses, but also to preserve the. continuity of thefront. He sees that every relief is preceded by reconnaissanceand by consultations between the staffs and the units concerned.His orders for relief clearly specify. the conditions under whichthe commanders of relieving units assume command of the frontassigned them.

52. Retreat . -The army ,commander covers his retirement bydelaying actions. He carries out these actions by placing suc-cessive echelons of troops in positions beforehand, each of whichfalls back on the echelon in rear' after the completion of itsmission. He uses artillery, cavalry, and aviation as the principalelements of maneuver in retreat. He breaks off combat at night.He combines delaying actions with destruction of the communications abandoned to the enemy. He orders his demolitionsin accordance with instructions from the commander in chief.He generally makes them along a front and throughout a depthwhich will completely deny to the enemy the use of the roads,railroads, canals, or landing fields essential to his' advance. Thearmy engineer prepares a plan of demolition to be put into effectunder various assumptions. Some demolitions will be completelyprepared and equipped with explosives; others will be partlyprepared; and still others will merely be planned. Though thearmy commander normally orders the execution of these demoli-tions, he may delegate this authority to the commanders of corpsand divisions, after prescr)@ing the conditions under which theymay be execil ted.

5.3. Sta:bilization.-The1"e may be periods when the missionof the allmy is simply to hold a front in contact with the enemy.During such periods the army commander organizes and strengtheas the defense of his sector. rartsof it he may give a defen-sive strength comparable t.o thatcjf a permanently fortifiedfron't.The preparation for defensive action and the conduct of thedefense conform to the, characteristic5 of stabilization. Thearmy commander prepares his field orders in minute detail. Hemay reduce the troops in the various positions as theorganiza


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A MANUAL lI'OR COMMANDERS Oll' LAlWE UNITS 29tion of the ground improves. He may reduce them to a minimumif the reinforcements required are foreseen and an effective planfor their employment has been. prepared. He develops the reararea of the army to facilitate movement and to assure the supplyof the maximum force likely to be, used', He employs all themeans at his disposal to uncover tile Offensive plans of the enemy.Throughout the period of stabilization, he should bear in mindthe eventual resumption of offensive operations, and should keephis troops fit for offensive action.

CHAPTll lR 6THE CORPS

ParagraphsSECTION 1. GeneraL__________________________________________________________ 54-56II . The corps in offensive battle__ .. ___________________________________ 57-63m. The corps in defensive battle_____ "______ "________________________ 64-73

SECTION. IGENERAL

54. Organization and funct ions.-The corps is primarily I ttactical unit of execution and maneuver. I t can engage on an extended front and can carryon a battle until a decision is reached.I t normally has two to four divisions, but the number duringactual operations may be greater. The s.uccessive.phasesof thecombat may result in changes in the number and positions ofreserve divisions, and .in the allotment of divisions and specialtroops to corps. In actions of long duration" the divisional unitsare relieved by fresh units; but the corpsrem!J,ins until a dtlcisionis reached or the strategical plan is changed. It has an organization so flexible that it can absorb and utilize reinforcing units, orform part of a higher unit.

Except when the corps is acting independently, or when ad-ministrative and supply functions have been delegated to it bythe arrmy, the. corps has administrative and supply functions forthe corps troops only. The general principles for the army a,pplyto the corps when the cprps is acting alone. When the corps is apart of an army, its opera,tions are influenced by many supplyand logistic .considerations that are above the immediate responsibility of. the corps commander.

55. Plans and ordel 's .-The corps commander draws up tactical plans for the employment of the corps., qnder instructions of


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30 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSthe army; he issues orders to divisions and other units under hiscontrol; he allots artillery and special troops to divisions basedon the tactical plan; and he coordinates the efforts of divisionsand of the corps troops. He superintends the relief of divisionsby reserve divisions. He prepares plans for the use of the reservein the various contingencies that may arise in battle. Counterattacks of the corps reserve are launched under his orders.

To initiate an operation, the corps commander gives his ordersto his division commanders, to the commanders of the nondivisional units, and to his chiefs of services. He is responsiblefor the plan and the coordination of the parts to be taken by thedifferent elements of the corps, but he should leave the details ofexecution to subordinate commanders. During the battle hekeeps in touf)h with the action of the front-line divisions, and influences the combat through the control of his corps artillery, bycoordinating the action of all the air units in the corps, and bythe use of corps reserves.

56. Artillery.-The corps commander orders the artillerypreparation as directed by the army. He influences this preparation along the corps front by tl1e allotment of ammunition andthe coordination of corps and divisional artillery missions. Corp,headquarters is the agency of control of counterbattery work.I t may use the artillery of f r o n t ~ l i n e divisions to supplement thecorps artillery for this- purpose.Ordinarily all 75-millimeter guns, in addition to divisionalartillery, are allotted to front-line divisions; but the corps mayhold some light artillery under its control. I t may attach additional 155-millimeter howitzers to front-line divisions. I t ordinarily retains control -of some 155-millimeter howitzers and alllong-range artillery. The corps controls interdiction and harassing fire by agsigning missions and by allotting ammunition todivisions and to the corps artillery. The corps commander orderscounterpreparation fire pursuant to instructions from the army.Subordinate commanders are authorized to order local counterpreparation fire. The corps chief of artillery provides for thedistribution of the corps artillery and the reinforcing artillery;he coordinates the action of all artillery within the corps, including the artillery of the divisions; and he is responsible for thecorps artillery ammunition supply.

Corps and army commanders should spare no efforts to secureto each division the support of its own artillery brigade on theday of battle. No division can do justice to itself in action without the support of its own gulis.


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A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 31SECTION I I

THE CORPS IN OFFENSIVE BATTLE57. General.-Thediscussion th at follows treats of the corpsin battle as part of an army, when it is e1p.ployed for the accom

plishment of missions within a zone of action that is designatedby the army commander. Aside from the requirements andlimitations imposed by army orders, the action of the corps inbattle is influenced by what is accomplished by units in adjacentzones of action.

58. The march to bat t le . -At a distance from the enemy,the corps commander disposes his unit in accordance with theconcentration area, direction or zones of advance, and roadsassigned by the army commander, and with the corps plan ofdevelopment to be carried out upon encountering the enemy.The road net often has an important bearing on the formationadopted by the corps. When the probable method of employment can be foreseen, the formation of the corps should be suchas to facilitate its entry into action. An interior corps not makingthe main effort of the army and with an objective not requiringthe use of a reserve division, would march with all divisionsabreast. A flank corps, or a corps making the main effort of thearmy, would march with one or more divisions in second line.Corps troops are assigned such positions in the formation as willfacilitate their employment.

The army commander may regulate the march by prescribinglines to be reached upon the completion of successive stages ofthe ma.rch. These stages may be of several days' duration.To control the march, the corps commander prepares marchtables, which prescribe the hours of march, zones of advanceor routes, and the successive lines to be reached by the advanceguards, and by the heads and tails of the infantry divisions andseparate units of the corps troops.

Upon approaching the enemy, the corps commander developshis command from its march dispositions. He puts it intoformation suitable for maneuver and combat, in accordancewith an assigned direction and frontage. He orders a greaterconcentration on the marching front and closes up the marchingcolumns. He makes such a disposition of divisions and of corpstroops as to insure flexibility of maneuver and prompt availability for combat of any element in the command. He requires


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32 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSthe corps aviation to supplement the reconnaissance of the armyaviation.

59. Security and reconnaissance.-Aviation and the armycavalry should make the first contact with the enemy. I f cavalry is attached to the corps, the. corps commander normallyattaches it to the divisions to assist in security, or local reconnaissance, and to maintain liaison with the army cavalry. Thefirst-line divisions furnish the necessary advance guards to provide march security on the front of the corps. Eventually thecorps establishes contact with the enemy through the forwardmovement of the advance guards, which take over the line ofcontact when the progress of the cavalry or other reconnaissancegroups has been definitely stopped, or when they are driven backby the enemy and have uncovered the advance guards. Ineither situation, the advance guards, supported by artillery andbacked up by the divisions to which they belong, push on theiradvance to develop the enemy's strength and determine his firstline of resistance and his dispositions in rear. When the advance guards can make no further progress against the resistance of the enemy, they cover the deployment of the mainbodies by holding a iine which may serve either as a line ofdeparture for an attack, or as an outpost position for a temporarydefense.An attack against an enemy occupying a prepared defensivezone or position requires more extensive preparations than doesthe attack of an enemy. in a deployed defense.. The corps commander must obtain the most exact information possible of theenemy's d e f e n s i ~ e o r g ~ ~ i z a t i o n and plan of defense. He mustprovide for more power on a restricte!!l front, a stronger artillerypreparation, and a greater continuity of action. These factorswill tend to delay the tUne of attack. Before launching an attack, he may find it necessary to drive in the enemy coveringdetachments and to execute a reconnaissanc'e in force againstthe enemy's first position. Usually he must make, under coverof darkness, the approach t()a line of departure preparatory toan assault.If, in a meeting engagement, both sides are intent upon maintaining the offensive, the corps commander must direct hisefforts toward gaining and holding the initiative and forcinghis adversary to take the 'defensive. He can best accomplish hispurpose by making a skillful.use of terrain, and by a rapid deployment or tactical maneuver that will result in concentrating asuperiority of fire and numbers at vital points.


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A MANUAL FOJ1, COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITS 33,60. Conduct of the attack.-The corps commander prepares to attack with the maximum effort consistent with the

continuity of action demanded to carry out the mission a.ssignedthe corps. I t may be, necessary for the corps to attack alone; orit may attack.inconjunction withneigl1bqring corps. In a jointattack, the plan of action of the corps, ,must harmonize with theplans of adjacent units. Generally, higher !tuthodty assures thiscoordination; but. in the absence of orders or instructions. thecorps commanders will assure it.DeRending upon his mtssion, the army plan of attack. theenemy situation, the ground, and o t h ~ r pertinent factors, thecorps commanc,ler decides uponh;is disposition for the attack.He seeks to deliver a main blow at some essential or weak point,by organizing a main attack upon which he concelltrates a maximum effort. This main attack he s,upports by secondary attacksor holding attacks along the remainder pfthecorps front. Hel.llity make the main attackeither,incdlljunction with the mainattack of an adjacent unit, or subordinat,e to it .He. assigns to the first-Une, i v i ~ i ~ n s their, missions, generalline of 'departure and d i r e c t i o l l o ( a t t a c ~ , l l o n e s of action, thetime ,of attack, and, if necessary; -their successive objectives.He determines the s u p p ~ r t a n d c o Q r d i ~ a t i o n necessary betweenadjacent divisions to carry olltaUQ(lesllfylly the corps scheme ofmaneuver. He prescribes the, assembly areas of divisions incorps reserve. He distrib'utes to, divisions such additional ,unitsof artillery and.tanks ,a.s theinc,lirn-dua:ltasks and, the groundmay make advisable. He leaves the, details of execution to thedivision oommanders.The corps commander controls !trtill\lry; eombat against enemyartillery. Usually counterbattery is ,a dllty.ofthe corps artillery,but the corps commander ,maydelegate ,it in part to the first-linedivisions. . '

In addition to c o u n t e r b a t ~ r y , .the,


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34 A MANUAL FOR COMMANDERS OF LARGE UNITSsupplement the observation and adjustment of artillery fire byballoons, chiefly on' targets masked from balloon observation.He coordinates the missions of all aviation within the corps. .As long as the enemy continues to offer an organized resistance,the corps commander applies all his resources to the task ofeffecting the enemy's disorganization. When in a rapid advancecommunication becomes difficult and information meager, hemust place great dependence upon the initiative division commanders. He must, therefore, supply them with all the meanspossible for the accomplishment of their tasks. He may anotengineer troops to divIsions, or: require the corps engineer serviceto take over certain construction work in the zones of action ofthe divisions.

I f the attack is checked, he must get his forces in hand again,and prepare speedily to renew the attack with a power sufficientto break down the enemy resistance.

61. Reserves.---'When the corps has a limited objective; it mayattack with all divisions in the front line and hold. out a smallreserve. When it is making a deep advance or is making themain effort of the army, it holds omi'or more divisions in reserve.When the attack has been initiated, the corps commander exertshis influence on' the tide of battle and insures the essential continuity of action through the corps artillery and the corps reserves. He places the reserves initially anrlmoves them as thebattle progresses,so that he may best use them when needed.He must dispose :thent'so'thatthey are capable of maneuverbehind the first-line divisions and yet are within striking distanceof critical points. He may engage them by placing reinforcementsfrom the reserves at the disposal of the commanders of first-linedivisions; by intrOducing a complete division into the line, on aflank, or between two other divisions; or by repl