managing patient dose in fluoroscopic ...c. 7.5, 3.75, 1.88, 1 pulses/sec: gi/gu lab a. 30, 15, &...

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MANAGING PATIENT DOSE IN FLUOROSCOPIC PROCEDURESMANAGING PATIENT DOSE IN MANAGING PATIENT DOSE IN

FLUOROSCOPIC PROCEDURESFLUOROSCOPIC PROCEDURES

Keith J. Strauss, MSc, FAAPMDirector, Radiology Physics & Engineering

Children’s HospitalHarvard Medical School

Keith J. Strauss, Keith J. Strauss, MScMSc, FAAPM, FAAPMDirector, Radiology Physics & EngineeringDirector, Radiology Physics & Engineering

ChildrenChildren’’s Hospitals HospitalHarvard Medical SchoolHarvard Medical School

DILEMASDILEMAS

A. Fluoroscopically Guided Interventions1. Minor2. Life Saving

B. Deterministic Injuries1. None2. Severe

C. Responsible Physician Must Choose to Continue or Stop Complex Interventions

A. Fluoroscopically Guided InterventionsA. Fluoroscopically Guided Interventions1. Minor1. Minor2. Life Saving2. Life Saving

B. Deterministic InjuriesB. Deterministic Injuries1. None1. None2. Severe2. Severe

C. Responsible Physician Must Choose to C. Responsible Physician Must Choose to Continue or Stop Complex InterventionsContinue or Stop Complex Interventions

DILEMASDILEMAS

D. Real-Time Data Needed to Balance1. Radiation Risk 2. Clinical Benefit

E. Physician Hand Cuffed by:1. Regulatory Total Dose Limits2. Inappropriately Applied Reference

Levels

D. D. RealReal--TimeTime Data Needed to BalanceData Needed to Balance1. Radiation Risk 1. Radiation Risk 2. Clinical Benefit2. Clinical Benefit

E. Physician Hand Cuffed by:E. Physician Hand Cuffed by:1. Regulatory Total Dose Limits1. Regulatory Total Dose Limits2. Inappropriately Applied Reference 2. Inappropriately Applied Reference

LevelsLevels

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MANAGING PATIENT DOSEMANAGING PATIENT DOSE

Machine DesignMachine Design Operation of MachineOperation of Machine

Exposure RateExposure Rate Fluoroscopy TimeFluoroscopy Time

Exposure/ImageExposure/Image # of Rec Images# of Rec Images

Total Patient Entrance ExposureTotal Patient Entrance Exposure

DILEMASDILEMAS

F. Is Real-Time Data Over Kill?1. Adults

a. Complex Interventionsb. Routine Interventions may not Require

2. All Pediatric Casesa. Elevated Radiosensitivityb. Multiple Follow Up Procedures

F. Is F. Is RealReal--TimeTime Data Over Kill?Data Over Kill?1. Adults1. Adults

a. Complex Interventionsa. Complex Interventionsb. Routine Interventions may not Requireb. Routine Interventions may not Require

2. All Pediatric Cases2. All Pediatric Casesa. Elevated a. Elevated RadiosensitivityRadiosensitivityb. Multiple Follow Up Proceduresb. Multiple Follow Up Procedures

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

A. Requirements of Patient ExamB. Imaging Equipment Design Must be

Exploited to Minimize Patient DoseC. Acceptance TestingD. Training of StaffE. Real-Time Dose Monitoring Techniques

A. Requirements of A. Requirements of Patient ExamPatient ExamB. Imaging Equipment Design Must be B. Imaging Equipment Design Must be

ExploitedExploited to Minimize Patient Doseto Minimize Patient DoseC. C. Acceptance TestingAcceptance TestingD. D. TrainingTraining of Staffof StaffE. E. RealReal--TimeTime Dose Monitoring TechniquesDose Monitoring Techniques

REQUIREMENTS OF PATIENT EXAMREQUIREMENTS OF PATIENT EXAM

A. Organ System(s) Studied1. Vascular

a. Heartb. Arterialc. Venous

2. NonvascularA. Digestive TractB. Drainages/Punctures

A. Organ System(s) StudiedA. Organ System(s) Studied1. 1. VascularVascular

a. Hearta. Heartb. Arterialb. Arterialc. Venousc. Venous

2. 2. NonvascularNonvascularA. Digestive TractA. Digestive TractB. Drainages/PuncturesB. Drainages/Punctures

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B. Patient Size Affects:1. Image Quality Requirements2. Patient Sensitivity to Radiation3. Patient Dose4. Required Ancillary Support

a. Equipmentb. Additional Staff

B. Patient Size Affects:B. Patient Size Affects:1. Image Quality Requirements1. Image Quality Requirements2.2. Patient Sensitivity to RadiationPatient Sensitivity to Radiation3. Patient Dose3. Patient Dose4. Required Ancillary Support4. Required Ancillary Support

a. Equipmenta. Equipmentb. Additional Staffb. Additional Staff

PATIENT STOCHASTIC RADIOSENSITIVITYPATIENT STOCHASTIC RADIOSENSITIVITY

C. Radiation Induced Cancer Lifetime Risk From C. Radiation Induced Cancer Lifetime Risk From 11 Sv Sv Whole BodyWhole BodyDoseDose

1. All Ages: 5%1. All Ages: 5%2. 1st Decade: 15%2. 1st Decade: 15%3. 2nd Decade: 8%3. 2nd Decade: 8%4. Middle Age4. Middle Age

11 -- 2 %2 %5. 5. Child 10 timesChild 10 times

More SensitiveMore Sensitive

PATIENT STOCHASTIC RADIOSENSITIVITYPATIENT STOCHASTIC RADIOSENSITIVITYD. Recent AD. Recent A--Bomb Survivor DataBomb Survivor Data

1. 35,000 Survivors1. 35,000 SurvivorsDoses > Doses > 55 radrad

2. Received Doses2. Received DosesOver 50 Years AgoOver 50 Years Ago

3. Statistically 3. Statistically SigSig--nificantnificant Excess Excess Incidence of CancerIncidence of Cancerat at NonextrapolatedNonextrapolatedDoses > 3 Doses > 3 radsrads

PATIENTS COME IN ALL SIZESPATIENTS COME IN ALL SIZESAbdominal GirthAbdominal Girth

(kg) Centimeters(kg) CentimetersAge Mass PA # HVL LAT # HVLAge Mass PA # HVL LAT # HVLNeonateNeonate 22 66 22 66 22NewbornNewborn 33 99 33 1010 3.13.1

1 yr1 yr 1010 1212 44 1414 4.64.65 yr5 yr 1919 1616 5.35.3 2222 7.37.3

12 yr12 yr 3131 1818 66 2727 99AdultAdult 6868 2222 7.37.3 3333 1111

Lrg Lrg AdultAdult 130130 3232 10.610.6 4848 1616

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1 HVL @ 70 KVP

Large Adult

Adult

5 year

1 year

Neonate

PATIENTS COME IN ALL SIZES

5 cm


E. Clinical Dynamic Range of mAs per Frame to Maintain Fixed kVp 1. PA Projection

a. 9 Half Value Layersb. Range of 512!

2. LAT Projectiona. 14 Half Value Layersb. Range of 16,000!

E. E. Clinical Dynamic Range of mAs per Clinical Dynamic Range of mAs per Frame to Maintain Fixed kVp Frame to Maintain Fixed kVp 1. PA Projection1. PA Projection

a. 9 Half Value Layersa. 9 Half Value Layersb. Range of 512!b. Range of 512!

2. LAT Projection2. LAT Projectiona. 14 Half Value Layersa. 14 Half Value Layersb. Range of 16,000! b. Range of 16,000!

PATIENTS COME IN ALL SIZESPATIENTS COME IN ALL SIZES

F. Patient Doses Below 70 kVp Are Excessive1. Newborn Fluoro Frame

a. 70 kVp & 0.01 mAs: 0.046 mRb. 45 kVp & 0.08 mAs: 0.20 mR

2. Newborn Cath Framea. 70 kVp & 0.1 mAs: 0.46 mRb. 45 kVp & 0.8 mAs: 1.98 mR

3. Newborn DSA Recorded Imagea. 70 kVp & 3 mAs: 14 mRb. 45 kVp & 24 mAs: 110 mR

F. Patient Doses Below 70 kVp Are ExcessiveF. Patient Doses Below 70 kVp Are Excessive1. Newborn 1. Newborn Fluoro FrameFluoro Frame

a. 70 kVp & 0.01 mAs: 0.046 mRa. 70 kVp & 0.01 mAs: 0.046 mRb. 45 kVp & 0.08 mAs: 0.20 mRb. 45 kVp & 0.08 mAs: 0.20 mR

2. Newborn 2. Newborn Cath Cath FrameFramea. 70 kVp & 0.1 mAs: 0.46 mRa. 70 kVp & 0.1 mAs: 0.46 mRb. 45 kVp & 0.8 mAs: 1.98 mRb. 45 kVp & 0.8 mAs: 1.98 mR

3. Newborn 3. Newborn DSA Recorded ImageDSA Recorded Imagea. 70 kVp & 3 mAs: 14 mRa. 70 kVp & 3 mAs: 14 mRb. 45 kVp & 24 mAs: 110 mRb. 45 kVp & 24 mAs: 110 mR

REQUIREMENTS OF PATIENT EXAMREQUIREMENTS OF PATIENT EXAMG. Complexity

1. Diagnostic Only2. Diagnostic &

Interventionala. Deterministic

Injuries

G. ComplexityG. Complexity1. Diagnostic Only1. Diagnostic Only2. Diagnostic & 2. Diagnostic &

InterventionalInterventionala.a. Deterministic Deterministic

InjuriesInjuries

Injured Patient

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REQUIREMENTS OF PATIENT EXAMREQUIREMENTS OF PATIENT EXAMG. Complexity Increases Deterministic Injury Risk

3. Clinical Problems of Children are Complexa. Congenital Heart Defects and/or Diseases

i. “Black Box”ii. 4 - 8 hr Exam Times

b. 100 - 200 minutes of Fluoro Can Occurc. Malformations in Anatomy Corrected in Stages

i. Up to 10 catheterizations by 21st birthdayii. Multiple interventions over weeks

iii. Radiation Damage to Skin is Cumulative

G. Complexity Increases Deterministic Injury RiskG. Complexity Increases Deterministic Injury Risk3. Clinical Problems of Children are Complex3. Clinical Problems of Children are Complex

a. a. Congenital Heart Defects and/or DiseasesCongenital Heart Defects and/or Diseasesi.i. ““Black BoxBlack Box””ii. 4 ii. 4 -- 8 hr Exam Times8 hr Exam Times

b. b. 100 100 -- 200 minutes of Fluoro Can Occur200 minutes of Fluoro Can Occurc.c. Malformations in Anatomy Corrected in StagesMalformations in Anatomy Corrected in Stages

i. Up to 10 catheterizations by 21st birthdayi. Up to 10 catheterizations by 21st birthdayii. Multiple interventions over weeksii. Multiple interventions over weeks

iii. Radiation Damage to Skin is Cumulativeiii. Radiation Damage to Skin is Cumulative

IMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNIMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGN

VARIABLERATE

PULSED FLUOROSCOPY

VARIABLEVARIABLERATE RATE

PULSED PULSED FLUOROSCOPYFLUOROSCOPY


A. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy1. Alternating if Biplane Configuration

a. Scatter from Orthogonal Plane Eliminatedb. Limited Subject Contrast Maintained

2. Variable Ratea. 30, 15, & 7.5 pulses/sec: Cath Labb. 30, 15, 7.5, 4, & 3 pulses/sec: DSA LabC. 7.5, 3.75, 1.88, 1 pulses/sec: GI/GU Lab

A. Variable Rate Pulsed FluoroscopyA. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy1. Alternating if Biplane Configuration1. Alternating if Biplane Configuration

a. Scatter from Orthogonal Plane Eliminateda. Scatter from Orthogonal Plane Eliminatedb. Limited Subject Contrast Maintainedb. Limited Subject Contrast Maintained

2. Variable Rate2. Variable Ratea. 30, 15, & 7.5 pulses/sec: a. 30, 15, & 7.5 pulses/sec: Cath Cath LabLabb. 30, 15, 7.5, 4, & 3 pulses/sec: DSA Labb. 30, 15, 7.5, 4, & 3 pulses/sec: DSA LabC. 7.5, 3.75, 1.88, 1 pulses/sec: GI/GU LabC. 7.5, 3.75, 1.88, 1 pulses/sec: GI/GU Lab


A. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy3. Image Quality vs Radiation Dose

a. Proper Pulse Width Minimizes Temporal Information Loss

b. Pulse Width Rangesi. Pediatrics: 1 - 5 msecii. Adults: 3 - 10 msec

A. Variable Rate Pulsed FluoroscopyA. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy3. Image Quality 3. Image Quality vs vs Radiation DoseRadiation Dose

a. Proper Pulse Width Minimizes Temporal a. Proper Pulse Width Minimizes Temporal Information LossInformation Loss

b. b. Pulse Width RangesPulse Width Rangesi. Pediatrics: 1 i. Pediatrics: 1 -- 5 msec5 msecii. Adults: 3 ii. Adults: 3 -- 10 msec10 msec

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c. Increased Perceived Noise Unacceptable if: i. Exposure per pulse unchanged with

reduced pulse rateii. Loss of Temporal Resolution is not the

Cause of Rejection of Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy


c. Increased Perceived Noise Unacceptable if: c. Increased Perceived Noise Unacceptable if: i.i. Exposure per pulse unchanged with Exposure per pulse unchanged with

reduced pulse ratereduced pulse rateii. Loss of Temporal Resolution is not theii. Loss of Temporal Resolution is not the

Cause of Rejection of Variable Rate Cause of Rejection of Variable Rate Pulsed FluoroscopyPulsed Fluoroscopy



c. Perceived Noise Compensationii. EERIR/Frame αααα (30/Pulse Frequency)1/2

• Less frame integration by eye• EERIR/Frame Increased as Pulse Rate

Decreases• Relationship holds above 5 pulses/sec


c. Perceived Noise Compensationc. Perceived Noise Compensationii. ii. EERIR/Frame EERIR/Frame αααααααα (30/Pulse Frequency)(30/Pulse Frequency)1/21/2

•• Less frame integration by eyeLess frame integration by eye•• EERIR/Frame Increased as Pulse Rate EERIR/Frame Increased as Pulse Rate

DecreasesDecreases•• Relationship holds above 5 pulses/secRelationship holds above 5 pulses/sec


A. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy4. Tube Current

a. Minimum: 10 mAb. Maximum: 100 mA

5. Desired Fixed High Voltage ~ 70 kVa. Requires mAs Range of 500!

i. Too many vendors do not vary tube current and pulse width!

ii. At best have a mAs range of 506. 70 kVp may Occur for Only One Size Patient!

A. Variable Rate Pulsed FluoroscopyA. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy4. Tube Current4. Tube Current

a. Minimum: 10 mAa. Minimum: 10 mAb. Maximum: 100 mAb. Maximum: 100 mA

5. Desired Fixed High Voltage ~ 70 kV5. Desired Fixed High Voltage ~ 70 kVa. Requires mAs Range of 500!a. Requires mAs Range of 500!

i. Too many vendors do not vary i. Too many vendors do not vary tube tube currentcurrent and and pulse widthpulse width!!

ii. At best have a mAs range of 50ii. At best have a mAs range of 506. 70 kVp may Occur for Only One Size Patient!6. 70 kVp may Occur for Only One Size Patient!


A. Variable Rate Pulsed FluoroscopyA. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy7. Traditional Modulation of Technical Factors7. Traditional Modulation of Technical Factors

a. a. Pulse WidthPulse Width at Maximumat Maximumb. b. Tube CurrentTube Current

i. Fluoro: 50 mAi. Fluoro: 50 mAii. ii. AcquistionAcquistion: Maximum Tube Loading: Maximum Tube Loading

c. c. kVpkVp ModulatedModulatedi. Minimized for Large Patientsi. Minimized for Large Patientsii. Excessive Dose for Small Patientsii. Excessive Dose for Small Patients

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A. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy8. Preferred Modulation of Technique Factors

a. Starting Valuesi. 70 kVp

ii. 3 msecb. Modulation Hierarchy

i. Tube Currentii. Pulse Width

iii. High Voltage

A. Variable Rate Pulsed FluoroscopyA. Variable Rate Pulsed Fluoroscopy8. Preferred Modulation of Technique Factors 8. Preferred Modulation of Technique Factors

a. Starting Valuesa. Starting Valuesi. 70 kVpi. 70 kVp

ii. 3 msecii. 3 msecb. Modulation Hierarchyb. Modulation Hierarchy

i. Tube Currenti. Tube Currentii. Pulse Widthii. Pulse Width

iii. High Voltageiii. High Voltage


B. Continuous Fluoroscopy1. Preferred Technique Modulation

a. Starting kVp: 70b. Tube Current Modulated: 0.1 - 4 mAc. kVp Modulated Last

B. Continuous FluoroscopyB. Continuous Fluoroscopy1. Preferred Technique Modulation1. Preferred Technique Modulation

a. Starting kVp: 70a. Starting kVp: 70b. Tube Current Modulated: 0.1 b. Tube Current Modulated: 0.1 -- 4 mA4 mAc. kVp Modulated Lastc. kVp Modulated Last

kVp/mA AERC Algorithm

0.01

0.1

1

10

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

kVp

Tube Current (mA)


C. Variable Rate Radiographic Acquisitions1. Cath Lab

a. Same Specifications as Pulsed Fluoro Except:i. Variable Rate: 60, 30, & 15 pulses/secii. Tube Current:

• Neonate to 2 Yr: 100 mA• 2 - 12 Yr: 300 - 400 mA• 12 Yr - Adult: Maximum Tube Loading

iii. High Voltage ~ 70 kV for Patients < 12 Yr

C. Variable Rate Radiographic AcquisitionsC. Variable Rate Radiographic Acquisitions1. 1. Cath Cath LabLab

a. Same Specifications as Pulsed Fluoro a. Same Specifications as Pulsed Fluoro ExceptExcept::i. i. Variable RateVariable Rate: 60, : 60, 30, & 1530, & 15 pulses/secpulses/secii. ii. Tube CurrentTube Current::

•• Neonate to 2 Yr: 100 mANeonate to 2 Yr: 100 mA•• 22 -- 12 Yr: 300 12 Yr: 300 -- 400 mA400 mA•• 12 Yr 12 Yr -- Adult: Maximum Tube LoadingAdult: Maximum Tube Loading

iii. iii. High VoltageHigh Voltage ~ 70 kV for Patients < 12 Yr~ 70 kV for Patients < 12 Yr

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C. Variable Rate Radiographic AcquisitionsC. Variable Rate Radiographic Acquisitions2. Vascular Lab2. Vascular Lab

a. a. Variable RateVariable Rate: 7.5 : 7.5 -- 0.5 pulses/sec0.5 pulses/secb.b. Tube CurrentTube Current

i. Neonate to 2 yr: 200 mAi. Neonate to 2 yr: 200 mAii. 2 ii. 2 -- 6 Yr: 400 6 Yr: 400 -- 600 mA600 mAiii. 6 Yr iii. 6 Yr -- Adult: Maximum Tube LoadingAdult: Maximum Tube Loading

c. c. High VoltageHigh Voltage ~ 70 kV for Patients < 12 Yr~ 70 kV for Patients < 12 Yr

IMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNIMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNC. Variable Rate Radiographic Acquisitions

3. Preferred Technique Modulation :a. Starting Values

i. 70 kVpii. 3 msec

b. Modulation Hierarchyi. Tube Current

ii. Pulse Widthiii. High Voltage

C. Variable Rate Radiographic AcquisitionsC. Variable Rate Radiographic Acquisitions3. Preferred Technique Modulation :3. Preferred Technique Modulation :

a. Starting Valuesa. Starting Valuesi. 70 kVpi. 70 kVp

ii. 3 msecii. 3 msecb. Modulation Hierarchyb. Modulation Hierarchy

i. Tube Currenti. Tube Currentii. Pulse Widthii. Pulse Width

iii. High Voltageiii. High Voltage


D. Spectral Beam Filtration: D. Spectral Beam Filtration: Change in Quality of XChange in Quality of X--rayraySpectrum:Spectrum: Match Energy of XMatch Energy of X--rays to Absorption ofrays to Absorption ofContrast MediaContrast Media1.1. PassPass 33 33 -- 40 40 keV keV

XX--raysrays2. 2. AttenuateAttenuate

a. 40 keV keV XX--rayrayAffects ContrastAffects Contrast

IMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNIMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGND. Spectral Beam Filtration:D. Spectral Beam Filtration:

3. X3. X--ray Tube Continuous Loading > 2 kW ray Tube Continuous Loading > 2 kW 4. 0.1 4. 0.1 -- 0.9 mm 0.9 mm

Cu FiltrationCu Filtration5. Low Energy5. Low Energy

AttenuatedAttenuated6. kVp Increases6. kVp Increases7. 7. Excessive Excessive

Effective Effective keVkeV

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D. Spectral Beam Filtration:D. Spectral Beam Filtration:8. Modify Algorithm Controlling kVp & mA 8. Modify Algorithm Controlling kVp & mA 9. kVp Reduced9. kVp Reduced

to 60 kVpto 60 kVp10. 10. XX--ray Intensity ray Intensity

Too SmallToo Small

IMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNIMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGND. Spectral Beam Filtration:D. Spectral Beam Filtration:

11. Increase mA to maximum kW11. Increase mA to maximum kW12. 12. AdultsAdults: Fluoroscopy only : Fluoroscopy only

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F. Fluoro Image Store & PlaybackF. Fluoro Image Store & Playback1. During 1. During Realtime Realtime FluoroscopyFluoroscopy

a. Frame/Run Selected by Operator and a. Frame/Run Selected by Operator and b. Electronically Storedb. Electronically Stored

2.2. Poorer Quality Poorer Quality (single frame only) due to:(single frame only) due to:a. Loss of Multiple Frame Integration by Eyea. Loss of Multiple Frame Integration by Eyeb. Lower Exposure at Plane of Image Receptorb. Lower Exposure at Plane of Image Receptor

3. Radiographic Acquisition Dose Avoided3. Radiographic Acquisition Dose Avoided4. 4. Stored Selected Fluoroscopic FramesStored Selected Fluoroscopic Frames ArchivedArchived

ElectronicallyElectronically


G. Spatial Beam ShapingG. Spatial Beam Shaping1. Equalization Filters: Attenuation Compensation1. Equalization Filters: Attenuation Compensation

a. Linear & Rotaa. Linear & Rota--tional tional MovementMovement

b. b. Tapered Lead Tapered Lead --Acrylic BladesAcrylic Blades

c. Interchangeablec. Interchangeabled. Integral Dosed. Integral Dose

ReductionReduction


G. Spatial Beam ShapingG. Spatial Beam Shaping2. Collimator Adjustment without Fluoro Radiation2. Collimator Adjustment without Fluoro Radiation

a. Collimator Blade Location Updateda. Collimator Blade Location Updatedon Monitor as Blades are movedon Monitor as Blades are moved

b. b. Less Dose Due to AdjustmentLess Dose Due to Adjustmentc. Integral Dose Reductionc. Integral Dose Reduction


H. Filtration Added to X-Ray Beam“Spectral Beam” Filtering1. Effective Energy of Beam Increases2. Less X-rays @ same EERIR3. Quantum Mottle Increases for same EERIR4. Double EERIR wrt Standard Filtration5. EERfilters < EERstd filters

H. Filtration Added to XH. Filtration Added to X--Ray BeamRay Beam““Spectral BeamSpectral Beam”” FilteringFiltering1. Effective Energy of Beam Increases1. Effective Energy of Beam Increases2. Less X2. Less X--rays @ same EERIRrays @ same EERIR3. Quantum Mottle Increases for same EERIR3. Quantum Mottle Increases for same EERIR4. 4. Double EERIR Double EERIR wrt wrt Standard FiltrationStandard Filtration5. 5. EEREERfiltersfilters

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I. Electronically Adjustable Aperturein Front of TV Camera 1. Directly Controls EERIR

Entrance Exposure Rate to Image Receptor2. Indirectly Controls EER

Entrance Exposure Rate to Patient

I. Electronically Adjustable ApertureI. Electronically Adjustable Aperturein Front of TV Camera in Front of TV Camera 1. 1. DirectlyDirectly Controls Controls EERIREERIR

Entrance Exposure Rate to Image ReceptorEntrance Exposure Rate to Image Receptor2. 2. IndirectlyIndirectly Controls EERControls EER

Entrance Exposure Rate to PatientEntrance Exposure Rate to Patient


I. Electronically Adjustable Aperture3. Pulse Fluoro Frequency Change

a. IIIER αααα (30/Pulse Frequency)1/2for Pulse Frequencies > 5

b. Corrects Increased Perceived Noisedue to Less Integration of TV Framesby Eye

c. EERIR/Frame αααα Constantfor Pulse Frequencies < 5

I. Electronically Adjustable ApertureI. Electronically Adjustable Aperture3. Pulse Fluoro Frequency Change3. Pulse Fluoro Frequency Change

a.a. IIIER IIIER αααααααα (30/Pulse Frequency)(30/Pulse Frequency)1/21/2

for Pulse Frequencies > 5for Pulse Frequencies > 5b. Corrects Increased Perceived Noiseb. Corrects Increased Perceived Noise

due to Less Integration of TV Framesdue to Less Integration of TV Framesby Eyeby Eye

c. c. EERIR/Frame EERIR/Frame αααααααα ConstantConstantfor Pulse Frequencies < 5for Pulse Frequencies < 5


I. Electronically Adjustable Aperture4. Function of FoV Change

a. Older Equipment With Fixed Aperture (II)i. EERIR αααα 1/FoV2

ii. Corrects Loss of Minification Gainiii. Maintained Brightness on Monitoriv. Reduced Quantum Mottlev. Significant Increase of EERIR in Mag

modes

I. Electronically Adjustable ApertureI. Electronically Adjustable Aperture4. Function of FoV Change4. Function of FoV Change

a. Older Equipment With Fixed Aperture (II)a. Older Equipment With Fixed Aperture (II)i. i. EERIR EERIR αααααααα 1/FoV1/FoV22

ii. Corrects Loss of ii. Corrects Loss of Minification Minification GainGainiii. Maintained Brightness on Monitoriii. Maintained Brightness on Monitoriv. Reduced Quantum Mottleiv. Reduced Quantum Mottlev. v. Significant Increase of EERIR in Significant Increase of EERIR in MagMag

modesmodes

IMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNIMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNI. Electronically Adjustable Aperture

4. Function of FoV Changeb. Adjustable Aperture (II)

i. EERIR αααα 1/FoVii. Quantum Mottle (Absolute Noise)

Independent of FoViii. Perceived Noise Increases with Sharper

Image of Reduced FoViv. Correct with Increased EERIRv. Less Increase of EERIR in Mag modes


b. b. Adjustable Aperture (II)Adjustable Aperture (II)i. i. EERIR EERIR αααααααα 1/FoV1/FoV

ii. Quantum Mottle (Absolute Noise)ii. Quantum Mottle (Absolute Noise)Independent of FoVIndependent of FoV

iii. Perceived Noise Increases with Sharperiii. Perceived Noise Increases with SharperImage of Reduced FoVImage of Reduced FoV

iv. Correct with Increased EERIRiv. Correct with Increased EERIRv. v. Less Increase of EERIR in Less Increase of EERIR in Mag Mag modesmodes

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IMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNIMAGING EQUIPMENT DESIGNI. Electronically Adjustable Aperture

4. Function of FoV Changec. Adjustable Aperture Opened in Mag Modes

i. Conventional Image Intensifiersii. EERIR αααα Constant

iii. Increases in Perceived Noise Must beTolerated by Operator

iii. Perceived Noise Increases with SharperImage of Reduced FoV

iv. Patient Dose is Unchanged


c. Adjustable Aperture Opened c. Adjustable Aperture Opened in in Mag Mag ModesModesi.i. Conventional Image IntensifiersConventional Image Intensifiers

ii. ii. EERIR EERIR αααααααα ConstantConstantiii. Increases in Perceived Noise Must beiii. Increases in Perceived Noise Must be

Tolerated by OperatorTolerated by Operatoriii. Perceived Noise Increases with Sharperiii. Perceived Noise Increases with Sharper

Image of Reduced FoVImage of Reduced FoViv. iv. Patient Dose is UnchangedPatient Dose is Unchanged


I. Electronically Adjustable Aperture4. Function of FoV Change

d. Flat Plate Image Receptorsi. EERIR αααα Constant

ii. Sharpness Minimally Affected by FoV- Determined by Size of Plate’s Pixels

iii. Perceived Noise is Constantiv. Patient Dose Should be Unchanged


d. d. Flat Plate Image ReceptorsFlat Plate Image Receptorsi. i. EERIR EERIR αααααααα ConstantConstant

ii. Sharpness Minimally Affected by FoVii. Sharpness Minimally Affected by FoV-- Determined by Size of PlateDetermined by Size of Plate’’s Pixelss Pixels

iii. Perceived Noise is Constantiii. Perceived Noise is Constantiv. Patient Dose iv. Patient Dose Should beShould be UnchangedUnchanged


I. Electronically Adjustable Aperture5. Operator Selectable EERIR:

Task Orienteda. Low (Half of Medium)b. Mediumc. High (Double Medium)

I. Electronically Adjustable ApertureI. Electronically Adjustable Aperture5. 5. Operator Selectable EERIR:Operator Selectable EERIR:

Task OrientedTask Orienteda. Low (Half of Medium)a. Low (Half of Medium)b. Mediumb. Mediumc. High (Double Medium)c. High (Double Medium)


I. Electronically Adjustable Aperture5. Operator Selectable EERIR:

d. Manufacturer Dependente. Flat Plate Receptor Example (20 cm girth)

Parameter Vendor A Vendor BLow EERIR (mR/m) 5.5 9.2Low EER (R/m) 2.1 2.8Nor EERIR (mR/m) 14 7.4Nor EER (R/m) 5.8 4

I. Electronically Adjustable ApertureI. Electronically Adjustable Aperture5. Operator Selectable EERIR:5. Operator Selectable EERIR:

d. d. Manufacturer DependentManufacturer Dependente.e. Flat Plate Receptor Example (20 cm girth)Flat Plate Receptor Example (20 cm girth)

Parameter Vendor A Vendor BParameter Vendor A Vendor BLow EERIR (mR/m)Low EERIR (mR/m) 5.55.5 9.29.2Low EER (R/m)Low EER (R/m) 2.12.1 2.82.8Nor EERIR (mR/m)Nor EERIR (mR/m) 1414 7.47.4Nor EER (R/m)Nor EER (R/m) 5.85.8 44

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ACCEPTANCE TESTINGACCEPTANCE TESTING

A. Why Acceptance Testing?A. Why Acceptance Testing?1. Identify & Eliminate Faulty Components1. Identify & Eliminate Faulty Components2. Insure Proper Setup of Equipment2. Insure Proper Setup of Equipment

a. Clinical Choicesa. Clinical Choicesi. Clinical Requirementsi. Clinical Requirementsii. Design Features of Equipmentii. Design Features of Equipment

b. Measurement Techniquesb. Measurement Techniquesi. Test Equipment Availablei. Test Equipment Availableii. Design Requirements of Clinical Unitii. Design Requirements of Clinical Unit


B. What Should be Measured?B. What Should be Measured?1. 1. Entrance Exposure Rate to Image ReceptorEntrance Exposure Rate to Image Receptor

a. All Fluoroscopic Modesa. All Fluoroscopic Modesb. All Recording Modesb. All Recording Modes

2. 2. Entrance Exposure Rate to PatientEntrance Exposure Rate to Patienta. Maximuma. Maximumb. All Patient Sizes to be Imagedb. All Patient Sizes to be Imaged

3. 3. Do Not AssumeDo Not Assume Installer has Addressed Installer has Addressed These Issues!!!!These Issues!!!!


C. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?1. 1. EERIREERIRvariablevariable

a. EERIR/Fr =a. EERIR/Fr = ((((((((EERIREERIR3030/Fr) / (Pulse Frequency)/Fr) / (Pulse Frequency)1/21/2

b. b. EERIREERIRspectralspectral filterfilter = 2 x= 2 x EERIREERIRstdstd filterfilterc. EERIR c. EERIR αααααααα 1/FoV1/FoVd. EERIR d. EERIR αααααααα Constant (function of FoV Flat Plate)Constant (function of FoV Flat Plate)e. 1/2 x e. 1/2 x EERIREERIRhighhigh == EERIREERIRnormalnormalf. f. EERIREERIRnormalnormal == EERIREERIRlowlow x 2x 2


C. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?2. EERIR?2. EERIR?

a. Set EERIR to Provide a. Set EERIR to Provide AdequateAdequate Image QualityImage Qualityb. b. Minimum EERIRMinimum EERIR

i. Equipment Designi. Equipment Designii. Image Quality Requirementsii. Image Quality Requirements

•• Diameter of VesselDiameter of Vessel•• Concentration of Contrast MaterialConcentration of Contrast Material

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ACCEPTANCE TESTINGACCEPTANCE TESTINGC. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?

2. EERIR?2. EERIR?b.b. Minimum EERIRMinimum EERIR

i.i. Exposure Exposure αααααααα 1 / p1 / p22cc22DD22

p = precisionp = precisionc = concentration of contrastc = concentration of contrastD = diameter of vesselD = diameter of vessel

ii. Predicts ii. Predicts Minimum ExposureMinimum Exposure to Detectto DetectContrast Filled VesselsContrast Filled Vessels

iii. Predicts Improved Image Quality withiii. Predicts Improved Image Quality withanyany Reduced Perceived Noise (pReduced Perceived Noise (p22))


C. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?2. EERIR?2. EERIR?

c.c. Maximum EERIRMaximum EERIRi. Perceived Noise a Function of System i. Perceived Noise a Function of System

NoiseNoiseii. System Noise = [QMii. System Noise = [QM22 + EN+ EN22]]0.50.5

QM = Quantum MottleQM = Quantum MottleEN = Electronic NoiseEN = Electronic Noise


2. EERIR?2. EERIR?c.c. Maximum EERIRMaximum EERIR

iii. Want QM > ENiii. Want QM > ENiv. When QM = EN iv. When QM = EN FurtherFurther Increases in Increases in

EERIR are WastedEERIR are Wastedv. Excessive EERIR Degrades Image Qualityv. Excessive EERIR Degrades Image Quality

•• 10 R/min Limit10 R/min Limit•• Loss of Brightness on TV MonitorLoss of Brightness on TV Monitor•• Loss of Penetration on Large PatientsLoss of Penetration on Large Patients

ACCEPTANCE TESTINGACCEPTANCE TESTINGACCEPTANCE TESTINGEntrance Exposure Rate to Image Intensifier

22 cm FOV @ 80 kVpStandard Filtration & kVp/mA Power Curves

30 Pulses per SecondOperational Mode EERII Range (µR/frame)Standard Fluoroscopy 1.5 - 2.5High Dose Fluoroscopy 3 - 6Digital Angiography 50 - 100Digital Subtraction Angio 500 - 1000Cardiac Digital 8 - 10Cine Film 10 - 15

Entrance Exposure Rate to Entrance Exposure Rate to Image IntensifierImage Intensifier22 cm FOV @ 80 kVp22 cm FOV @ 80 kVp

Standard Filtration & kVp/mA Power CurvesStandard Filtration & kVp/mA Power Curves30 Pulses per Second30 Pulses per Second

Operational ModeOperational Mode EERII Range (EERII Range (µµR/frame)R/frame)Standard FluoroscopyStandard Fluoroscopy 1.5 1.5 -- 2.52.5High Dose FluoroscopyHigh Dose Fluoroscopy 33 -- 66Digital AngiographyDigital Angiography 50 50 -- 100100Digital Subtraction AngioDigital Subtraction Angio 500 500 -- 10001000Cardiac DigitalCardiac Digital 88 -- 1010Cine FilmCine Film 10 10 -- 1515

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2. EERIR?2. EERIR?d.d. FPDER: Flat Plate Detector Exposure RateFPDER: Flat Plate Detector Exposure Rate

i. Standard Filtration & kVp/mA Power Curvesi. Standard Filtration & kVp/mA Power Curvesii. 20 cm FOV @ 80 kVpii. 20 cm FOV @ 80 kVpiii. 30 Pulses per Secondiii. 30 Pulses per Second

Operational ModeOperational Mode EERIR Range (EERIR Range (µµR/frame)R/frame)Standard FluoroscopyStandard Fluoroscopy 2.52.5Digital AngiographyDigital Angiography 5050 -- 100100Cardiac DigitalCardiac Digital 10 10 -- 1515


2. EERIR?2. EERIR?d.d. FPDER: Flat Plate Detector Exposure FPDER: Flat Plate Detector Exposure

RateRateiv. iv. Unchanged Unchanged as FoV changesas FoV changesv. v. JustificationJustification

•• Measured Sharpness of image Measured Sharpness of image basically independent of FoVbasically independent of FoV

•• Sharpness of image similar to 5Sharpness of image similar to 5””FoV IIFoV II


C. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?3. EER?3. EER?

a.a. Entrance Exposure RateEntrance Exposure Rateb. Where?b. Where?

i. Patienti. Patient’’s Skin?s Skin?ii. Reference Point?ii. Reference Point?


3. EER3. EERc. Three c. Three

FluoroscopicFluoroscopicGeomentriesGeomentries::FIXEDFIXED

i. SIDi. SIDii. SSDii. SSD

iii. SADiii. SAD

Fig 7

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3. EER3. EERd. Common d. Common Dose Dose

Reference PointsReference Pointsi. IECi. IEC

15 cm 15 cm ii. FDAii. FDA

30 cm30 cm


C. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?3. EER3. EER

e. Other Important Parameterse. Other Important Parametersi.i. αααααααα mAmA

ii. ii. αααααααα kVpkVp22

iii. ~ iii. ~ αααααααα ~ EERIR~ EERIR•• Added FiltrationAdded Filtration•• Beam Shaping FiltersBeam Shaping Filters•• Grid FactorsGrid Factors


C. Appropriate Performance Levels?C. Appropriate Performance Levels?3. EER3. EER

e. Other Important Parameterse. Other Important Parametersiv. Function of Patient Sizeiv. Function of Patient Sizev. v. αααααααα (1 / distance)(1 / distance)22


4. Affect of Increasing4. Affect of IncreasingPatient SizePatient Sizea. Fixed SIDa. Fixed SID

i. Attenuation?i. Attenuation?ii. Shorterii. Shorter

SSD?SSD? 8a

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4. Affect of Increasing 4. Affect of Increasing Patient SizePatient Sizeb. Fixed SSDb. Fixed SSD

i. Attenuation?i. Attenuation?ii. Longerii. Longer

SID?SID?8b


4. Affect of Increasing4. Affect of IncreasingPatient SizePatient Sizec. Fixed SADc. Fixed SAD

i. Attenuation?i. Attenuation?ii. Longerii. Longer

SID?SID?iii. Shorteriii. Shorter

SSD?SSD?

8c


D. Measurement PitfallsD. Measurement Pitfalls1. Dosimeter1. Dosimeter

a. Constant a. Constant Energy ResponseEnergy Responsei. 50 i. 50 -- 120 kVp120 kVp

ii. 2 ii. 2 -- 14 mm Al HVL14 mm Al HVLb. b. Collection EfficiencyCollection Efficiency

95% @ 2,000 95% @ 2,000 -- 10,000 R/min10,000 R/minc. c. LeakageLeakage < 1 x 10< 1 x 10--1414 AmpAmp


1. Dosimeter1. Dosimeterd.d. Shape Shape of Ionization Chamberof Ionization Chamber

i. i. Parallel PlateParallel Plate•• Fits behind GridsFits behind Grids•• High Collection EfficiencyHigh Collection Efficiency•• XX--ray ray ““TransparencyTransparency””

ii. ii. CylindricalCylindrical•• No Directional ResponseNo Directional Response

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D. Measurement PitfallsD. Measurement Pitfalls2. Attenuation Phantom Materials2. Attenuation Phantom Materials

MaterialMaterial Effective ZEffective Z DensityDensity BE(BE(keVkeV))WaterWater 7.47.4 1.001.00 0.50.5PMMAPMMA 6.66.6 1.191.19 0.50.5Al (1100)Al (1100) 1313 2.702.70 1.61.6CopperCopper 2929 8.938.93 9.09.0


D. Measurement PitfallsD. Measurement Pitfalls2. Attenuation Phantom Materials2. Attenuation Phantom Materials

b. Required Phantom Material Thicknessb. Required Phantom Material Thicknessi. Water: 25 cmi. Water: 25 cm

ii. PMMA: 25 cmii. PMMA: 25 cmiii. Aluminum: 7.6 cmiii. Aluminum: 7.6 cmiv. Copper: 0.8 cmiv. Copper: 0.8 cm


D. Measurement PitfallsD. Measurement Pitfalls3. Scatter/Primary Ratio3. Scatter/Primary Ratio

a.a. PMMAPMMAb. 1100 Alloy Aluminumb. 1100 Alloy Aluminumc. Copperc. Copper

"SCATTER/PRIMARY" RATIOat Entrance Plane of Image Intensifier

0.80.9

11.11.21.31.41.51.61.7

3" 5" 7" 9"

Diameter of Collimated X-ray Field

PMMA1100 AlCopper

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D. Measurement PitfallsD. Measurement Pitfalls4. Affects of Effective Energy4. Affects of Effective Energy

a.a. HVLHVL23 cm water23 cm water ~ HVL~ HVL0.5 mm Cu0.5 mm Cub. b. Measured EERIR DifferencesMeasured EERIR Differences

i. i. EERIREERIRAlAl ~~ EERIREERIRCuCuii. EERIRii. EERIRPMMAPMMA ~ 1.5 x ~ 1.5 x EERIREERIRCuCu

EERIP

22.5

33.5

44.5

55.5

66.5

57 62 68 76 80 87 91 96

kVp

mR/m

PMMA1100 AlCopper

TRAINING OF STAFFTRAINING OF STAFF

A. Comprehensive Training FostersA. Comprehensive Training Fosters1. Full Utilization of Equipment Design1. Full Utilization of Equipment Design2. Optimum2. Optimum

ImageImageQualityQuality

3. 3. ReducedReducedRadiation Radiation DoseDose


B. Types of TrainingB. Types of Training1. 1. Core KnowledgeCore Knowledge Provided at Provided at

Regular InRegular In--ServicesServicesa. Basic Imaging Principlesa. Basic Imaging Principlesb. Quality Control Responsibilitiesb. Quality Control Responsibilitiesc. Equipment Care & Maintenancec. Equipment Care & Maintenanced.d. Radiation Protection PrinciplesRadiation Protection Principles

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B. Types of TrainingB. Types of Training1. Core Knowledge1. Core Knowledge

d. d. Radiation Protection PrinciplesRadiation Protection Principlesi. Principles of Xi. Principles of X--Ray ProductionRay Production

ii. Patient/Operator Geometriesii. Patient/Operator Geometriesiii. Appropriate Use of Shieldingiii. Appropriate Use of Shielding

DevicesDevicesiv. Credentialing Programiv. Credentialing Program


B. Types of TrainingB. Types of Training2. 2. ““ButtonologyButtonology””:: Unique Operational Unique Operational

Features of Imaging EquipmentFeatures of Imaging Equipmenta.a. Establish Lead OperatorsEstablish Lead Operatorsb. Other clinical sitesb. Other clinical sitesc. Vendorc. Vendor’’s headquarterss headquartersd. Phantom Imaging on Sited. Phantom Imaging on Sitee. First patientse. First patients

MANAGING PATIENT DOSEMANAGING PATIENT DOSE

Machine DesignMachine Design Operation of MachineOperation of Machine

Exposure RateExposure Rate Fluoroscopy TimeFluoroscopy Time

Exposure/ImageExposure/Image # of Rec Images# of Rec Images

Total Patient Entrance ExposureTotal Patient Entrance Exposure

CLINICAL MEASUREMENTSCLINICAL MEASUREMENTS

A. GOALSA. GOALS1. Allows 1. Allows Informed RiskInformed Risk--Benefit DecisionsBenefit Decisions

During StudyDuring Study2. Document 2. Document IndividualIndividual Clinical ExposuresClinical Exposures3. Allows 3. Allows ManagementManagement of:of:

a. Radiation Risks to Patients and Personnela. Radiation Risks to Patients and Personnelb. Changes in Equipment Performanceb. Changes in Equipment Performance

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B. Additional ReadingB. Additional ReadingBalter Balter S, S, Shope Shope TB, Fletcher DW, TB, Fletcher DW, Kuan Kuan HM, HM, Seissl Seissl H. H. ““Techniques to Estimate Techniques to Estimate Radiation Dose to Skin During Radiation Dose to Skin During Fluorosopically Fluorosopically Guided ProceduresGuided Procedures””2002 AAPM Summer School Proceedings2002 AAPM Summer School Proceedings


B. What is the Best Indicator of Patient Risk?B. What is the Best Indicator of Patient Risk?1. Historical Measurements Limited by 1. Historical Measurements Limited by

Available InstrumentationAvailable Instrumentationa. Fluoroscopy Timea. Fluoroscopy Timeb. TLD Skin Dose Measurementsb. TLD Skin Dose Measurementsc. Cumulative Skin Dosec. Cumulative Skin Dosed. d. Peak Skin DosePeak Skin Dose


C. Fluoroscopy Time LimitationsC. Fluoroscopy Time Limitations1. Fluoro Dose Rates Vary Over Wide Range1. Fluoro Dose Rates Vary Over Wide Range

a. Patient Sizea. Patient Sizeb. kVpb. kVpc. mAc. mAd. Beam Orientationd. Beam Orientatione. FoVe. FoVf. Source Skin Distancef. Source Skin Distanceg. Spectral Beam Filtrationg. Spectral Beam Filtration

2. Dose from Recorded Images Ignored2. Dose from Recorded Images Ignored


D. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose1. 1. Total DoseTotal Dose Delivered During ExamDelivered During Exam2. Can be Measured 2. Can be Measured RealReal--TimeTime3. 3. Indirect MeasurementIndirect Measurement

a. Estimates Dose at Reference Pointa. Estimates Dose at Reference Pointb. Based on Direct Measurements at b. Based on Direct Measurements at

Other LocationsOther Locations

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D. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose4.4. DoseDose--AreaArea--Product (DAP)Product (DAP)

a. Integral of Dose a. Integral of Dose Across Entire Across Entire XX--Ray BeamRay Beam

b. Estimates Upperb. Estimates UpperLimit of TotalLimit of TotalEnergy AbsorbedEnergy Absorbedby Patientby Patient

CLINICAL MEASUREMENTSCLINICAL MEASUREMENTSD. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose

4.4. DAPDAPa. a. IsocenterIsocenterb. Dose Reference Pointb. Dose Reference Pointc. KERMA chamberc. KERMA chamberd. DAP chamberd. DAP chambere. e. ““WedgeWedge”” FilterFilterf. Collimator Bladef. Collimator Bladeg. Reduced Dose Areag. Reduced Dose Area


D. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose4. 4. DAPDAP

c. Advantagesc. Advantagesi. Simple Installation & Calibrationi. Simple Installation & Calibration

ii. Independent of Distance Fromii. Independent of Distance FromFocal SpotFocal Spot

iii. Teaching Tool of Scatter Productioniii. Teaching Tool of Scatter Productioniv. Indication of Integral Doseiv. Indication of Integral Dose


D. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose4. 4. DAPDAP

c. Disadvantagesc. Disadvantagesi. No Correction for Table Top Attenuationi. No Correction for Table Top Attenuation

ii. Source to Skin Distance?ii. Source to Skin Distance?iii. Spatial Distribution of Entrance Beam?iii. Spatial Distribution of Entrance Beam?iv. Overestimates Possibility of Exceedingiv. Overestimates Possibility of Exceeding

Deterministic ThresholdDeterministic Thresholdv. Inaccurate Skin Dose Estimationsv. Inaccurate Skin Dose Estimations

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D. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose5. Derived Patient Exposure5. Derived Patient Exposure

a. Exposure Rate anda. Exposure Rate andb. Cumulative Exposure to Reference Pointb. Cumulative Exposure to Reference PointFrom RealFrom Real--Time Data Within XTime Data Within X--ray System ray System



c. Required Datac. Required Datai.i. KiloVoltageKiloVoltage

ii. Tube Currentii. Tube Currentiii. Timeiii. Timeiv. Source Skin Distanceiv. Source Skin Distancev. Calibration Algorithmsv. Calibration Algorithms

vi. Patient Support Attenuationvi. Patient Support Attenuation



d. PEMNETd. PEMNET®®i. Advantagesi. Advantages

•• 5% Accuracy5% Accuracy•• Database ProvidedDatabase Provided•• RealReal--Time DisplaysTime Displays

CLINICAL MEASUREMENTSCLINICAL MEASUREMENTSD. Cumulative DoseD. Cumulative Dose

5. Derived Patient Exposure5. Derived Patient Exposured. PEMNETd. PEMNET®®

i. Disadvantagesi. Disadvantages•• Additional CablingAdditional Cabling•• Noise Free InterfacesNoise Free Interfaces•• Involved CalibrationInvolved Calibration•• Database MaintenanceDatabase Maintenance•• Spatial Distribution of Spatial Distribution of

Entrance Beam?Entrance Beam?

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CLINICAL MEASUREMENTSCLINICAL MEASUREMENTSE. Peak Skin Dose (PSD)E. Peak Skin Dose (PSD)

1. Peak Skin Dose 1. Peak Skin Dose ≠≠ Cumulative DoseCumulative Dosea. Entrance Port Moves During Exama. Entrance Port Moves During Exam

i. Beam Orientationi. Beam Orientationii. Field of Viewii. Field of View

b. Dose for Given Portb. Dose for Given Porti. Oni. On--TimeTime

ii. Intensityii. Intensity•• Patient SizePatient Size•• Beam OrientationBeam Orientation

c. Overlap of Portsc. Overlap of Ports

CLINICAL MEASUREMENTSCLINICAL MEASUREMENTSE. PSDE. PSD

2. Derived Patient Exposure2. Derived Patient Exposurea. a. CareGraphCareGraph®®

ii. Other Numeric Displaysii. Other Numeric Displays•• Fluoroscopy TimeFluoroscopy Time•• Cumulative DoseCumulative Dose•• DAPDAP•• Peak Skin DosePeak Skin Dose



iii. Disadvantagesiii. Disadvantages•• No Longer AvailableNo Longer Available•• Skin Modeled to One Skin Modeled to One

Standard Adult BodyStandard Adult Body•• Information from Information from

Individual Ports is More Individual Ports is More Limited than FilmLimited than Film



iv. Advantagesiv. Advantages•• More Flexible than FilmMore Flexible than Film•• RealReal--Time Reduction of Time Reduction of

PSD by Changing Angles PSD by Changing Angles Collimation, or Table Collimation, or Table LocationLocation

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F. Other Direct Measures of Skin DoseF. Other Direct Measures of Skin Dose1. 1. Thermoluminescent Dosimetry Thermoluminescent Dosimetry (TLD)(TLD)

a.a. AdvantagesAdvantagesi. Small Sizei. Small Size

ii. Are Not Imagedii. Are Not Imagedb.b. DisadvantagesDisadvantages

i. Post Exposure Processing Requiredi. Post Exposure Processing Requiredii. No ii. No RealReal--TimeTime Feedback to OperatorFeedback to Operator

iii. Location of PSD Must be Knowniii. Location of PSD Must be Known


CLINICAL MEASUREMENTSCLINICAL MEASUREMENTSF. Other Direct Measures of Skin DoseF. Other Direct Measures of Skin Dose

2. X2. X--Ray Film Ray Film DosimetryDosimetrya. a. AdvantagesAdvantages

i. Dose Distribution Illustratedi. Dose Distribution Illustratedii. Can be Used with any Xii. Can be Used with any X--ray Unitray Unit

iii. Can Provide Quantitative Dose Infoiii. Can Provide Quantitative Dose Infob. b. DisadvantagesDisadvantages

i. Limited Rangei. Limited Rangeii. Factors Affecting Film Sensitivityii. Factors Affecting Film Sensitivity

iii. Positioning iii. Positioning wrt wrt to the patientto the patientiv. No iv. No RealReal--TimeTime FeedbackFeedback


3. 3. Radiochromatic Radiochromatic Film Film (GAFCHROMIC XR(GAFCHROMIC XR--Type R)Type R)a. Chemical Radiation Sensors that Change a. Chemical Radiation Sensors that Change

Color in Response to ExposureColor in Response to Exposure

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4. Comparison4. ComparisonRadiochromic Radiochromic Kodak EC XKodak EC X--ray Filmray Film

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSA. Verify Optimized Imaging Parameters

1. Image Quality will be improved2. EERIR may be lowered3. EER to Patient may be lowered

B. Monitor Clinical Exposures1. Informed Proactive Risk Benefit Decisions2. Patient Exposures Documented

C. Physicist Must Understand:1. Imaging System Design and its Limitations2. Clinicians and Clinical Demands

A. Verify Optimized Imaging ParametersA. Verify Optimized Imaging Parameters1. Image Quality will be improved1. Image Quality will be improved2. EERIR may be lowered2. EERIR may be lowered3. EER to Patient may be lowered3. EER to Patient may be lowered

B. Monitor Clinical ExposuresB. Monitor Clinical Exposures1. Informed Proactive Risk Benefit Decisions1. Informed Proactive Risk Benefit Decisions2. Patient Exposures Documented2. Patient Exposures Documented

C. Physicist Must Understand:C. Physicist Must Understand:1. Imaging System Design and its Limitations1. Imaging System Design and its Limitations2. Clinicians and Clinical Demands2. Clinicians and Clinical Demands

managing patient dose in fluoroscopic ...c. 7.5, 3.75, 1.88, 1 pulses/sec: gi/gu lab a. 30, 15, &...

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