management - university of nigeria, nsukkafinally my thanks goes to my mother chief mrs j. n. eze,...

i

ONYEAMA, PERPETUA IFEYINWA

REG. NO: PG/MBA/08/53290

PG/M. Sc/09/51723

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITIONS:

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS.

MANAGEMENT

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT, FACULTY OF

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ENUGU CAMPUS

Webmaster

Digitally Signed by Webmaster’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

FEBRUARY, 2011

ii

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITIONS: CHALLENGES AND

PROSPECTS.


REG. NO: PG/MBA/08/53290

DEPARMENT OF MANAGEMENT

FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ENUGU CAMPUS

FEBUARY, 2011

iii

TITLE PAGE

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITONS:

CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS

BY


PG/MBA/08/53290

A PROJECT WORK PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT,

FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU

CAMPUS, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF MASTER OF BUSINES

ADMINISTRATION (MBA) DEGREE

MR C. O. CHUKWU

SUPERVISOR

DATE-------------

iv

CERTIFICATION

I Perpetua Ifeyinwa Onyeama a post graduate student in the Department of

Management, Faculty of Business Administration of University of Nigeria Enugu

Campus with registration number PG/MBA/ 08/53290 hereby certify that this

project is an embodiment of my original work and has not been submitted in part

or full to any other higher institution.


STUDENT

DATE -----------------

v

APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this research work has been read and approved for the award

of Master of Business Administration (MBA) in Management.

MR C. O. CHUKWU PROF. U. J. F. EWURUM

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

DATE ------------------- DATE --------------------

vi

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my amiable, kind and supportive husband Dr Mbadiwe

G. Onyeama, to my late brother His Royal Highness Eze Valentine Sopuruchukwu

Eze (Ikedi 1 of Umuikedi ) and my late father-in-law Elder Sylvanus Onyeama

who both died during this period of my study and whose demise thought me that

this world is not our home.

vii

AWKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank God for the grace He has always bestowed on me especially during the

cause of my study and field work.

My special thanks go to my supervisor Mr. C. O. Chukwu for his advice, openness

and encouragement and to the head of department Prof. U. J. F. Ewurum, for his

fatherly advice. I also thank my husband Dr Mbadiwe G. Onyeama for always

being supportive, loving, and understanding throughout this period of my study.

Finally my thanks goes to my mother Chief Mrs J. N. Eze, and my late brothers

wife and friend Ugoeze Chinyere Fidelia Eze for being strong throughout this

period of hopelessness, my brother Dr Hipo Buchi Eze for supplying me with

secondary data and for his advice, my brothers, sisters, brothers and sisters-in-laws

as well as friends for all their support.

viii

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to find out about women in management positions,

challenges and prospects. In the process of this research work, the researcher

formulated three research questions, and sample sizes of 50 respondents all

randomly selected were used. Questionnaires were used to get the opinion of

respondents on the research questions posed by the researcher. In testing the

opinion of the respondents, the researcher discovered that majority of the

respondents believed that women have been making effort towards getting to top

management positions despite all the constraints. Both secondary and primary data

were used in the process of this work. Chi-square method of analysis was

employed in the process of data analysis for the test of hypotheses. Based on the

data analyzed, the researcher found out that there are numerous challenges, among

which are lack of proper child care services by government and various

organizations, the stress of combining home management, child bearing and care

with work, gender discrimination, socio-cultural, religious barriers etc. These

challenges faced by women hinder growth in their various career choices.

As a result of these findings, the researcher is of the opinion that there should be no

discrimination against women during employment and that appointments should be

based on merit and not on gender, that employers of labour should create

deregulated atmosphere that would enable both men and women to attain

management positions within the organizational framework through fair and

healthy competition and finally, that there should be public education for both

men and women on the dangers of gender discriminations and its effect on

organizations and society in general.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

COVER PAGE------------------------------------------------------------------ i

TITLE PAGE ------------------------------------------------------------------ ii

CERTIFICATION -------------------------------------------------------------- iii

APPROVAL PAGE ------------------------------------------------------------ iv

DEDICATION ------------------------------------------------------------------ v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --------------------------------------------------- vi

ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------------------------------- vii

TABLE OF CONTENT------------------------------------------------------- viii

LIST OF TABLES------------------------------------------------------------- xi

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION-------------------------------------------------- 1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM---------------------------- 4

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROBLEM------------------------------ 4

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS--------------------------------------- 4

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES------------------------------------- 5

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ------------------------------ 5

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY----------------------------------------- 5

1.8 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY--------------------------------- 6

CHAPTER REFERNCE -------------------------------------------- 7

x

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTIONS------------------------------------------------ 8

2.2 GENDER AND CAREER OPPORTUNITIES -------------------- 8

2.3 PERCEPTIONS OF WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITION --------- 11

2.4 CONSTRAINTS TO WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITIONS AND THE

WAY FORWARD---------------------------------------------------------------- 14

CHAPTER REFERENCE------------------------------------------------------- 20

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCHER DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTIONS ---------------------------------- 23

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN------------------------------------- 23

3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY------------------------- 23

3.4 DETERMINATION OF THE SAMPLE SIZE------------- 24

3.5 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION----------------- 24

3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF DATA INSTRUMENT--- 24

3.7 PROCEDURE FOR DATA ANALYSIS----------------------------- 25

xi

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------- 26

4.2 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS-------------------------- 26

4.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESES--------------------------------------------- 34

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------ 40

5.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY --------------------------------- 40

5.3 CONCLUSION ------------------------------------------------ 41

5.4 RECOMMENDATION -------------------------------------- 42

BIBLIOGRAPHY ---------------------------------------------- 44

APPENDIX 1 -------------------------------------------------- 49

APPENDIX 2 -------------------------------------------------- 50

xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 4.1: AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS---------------- 26

TABLE 4.2: TOTAL NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS ---------------------------------- 27

TABLE 4.3: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION ------------------------------------- 28

TABLE 4.4: HOW MANY CHILDREN DO YOU HAVE? --------------------------- 28

TABLE 4.5: DO YOU HAVE DOMESTIC SERVANTS? ----------------------------- 29

TABLE 4.6: WHAT MANAGERIAL POSITION DO YOU HOLD IN YOUR

ORGANIZATION? ------------------------------------------------------------- 29

TABLE 4.7: IS STARTING A FAMILY AND HOME MANAGEMENT A

LIMITATION FOR WOMEN PROFESSIONAL ADVANCMENT? ------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

TABLE 4.8: WHICH OF THESE SOCIO-CULTURAL BARRIER DID YOU

ENCOUNTER BEFORE ATTAINING THE PRESENT POSITION? -----

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31

TABLE 4.9: DO YOU THINK THAT YOU HAVE BEEN ABLE TO BALANCE

YOUR CAREER WITH THE OBLIGATIONS OF YOUR PRIVATEL

LIFE-------------------------------------------------------------------- 32

TABLE 4.10: IS IT HARDER FOR WOMEN TO BUILD A CAREER THAN MEN? --

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33

TABLE 4.11: IF YOU HAVE A FAMILY, HOW HAS IT AFFECTED YOU? --- 33

TABLE 4.12: HYPOTHESIS ONE--------------------------------------------------------- 35

TABLE 4.13: HYPOTHESIS TWO--------------------------------------------------------- 37

TABLE 4.14: HYPOTHESIS THREE------------------------------------------------------ 38

xiii

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

There is a general feeling that despite the Beijing 1995, many organizations are

still gender sensitive (Ifedili, 2009). Law and customs make it much harder for

women to access the factors of production and obtain education, training,

information and health care in order to play a full role in the economy and in

society in general (Mamounata and Natacha, 2002). This is coupled with that they

are regarded as the weaker sex who can not perform certain role or undertake

certain difficult tasks. This perception has unfortunately given the men undue

leverage over women who by this very fact have been relegated to the background.

Years ago in Africa, there was disappropriate share of responsibilities born by

women as they seek to combine both productive and reproductive responsibilities

within an inadequate resource base. There is no doubt that significant progress has

been achieved in furthering the cause of gender equality in the labour market over

recent decades. Women have been moving steadily into occupations, professions,

and managerial jobs previously reserved for men.

Women access to education and training continues to improve, providing many

with the necessary qualification to aspire to jobs in senior management. Women

organizations, trade unions government etc have devoted much thought and energy

to overcoming the attitudinal discrimination that bars women from certain jobs and

hinders their career development, while the commitment to fight gender

discrimination is renewed periodically at international conferences.

xiv

The promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women is the Goal third of

the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in which United Nation

members pledged to meet by the year 2015 (Ambe-Uva, 2008). There is no place

where this enhanced status of women is glaring than in paid employment. This

progression of professional women into leadership positions has been slow. The

number of women holding chief executive positions or equivalent in the tertiary

and public sector is more promising (Hannah Piterman, 2008). Women comprise a

large segment of the globe, yet their representation at top level management in

business and public administration, is rather obscure. Women find it difficult to

rise to positions of leadership in environments that are male-dominated,

irrespective of the sector of employment.

There is no doubt that significant progress has been achieved in furthering the

cause of gender equality in the labour market over recent decades, yet traditionally

in Africa, a woman‟s role is considered to be mainly that of child bearing and

rearing. It can be stated that at a time when women should be acquiring skills that

would ensure their effective participation in the labour force, they are pre-occupied

with child bearing and rearing since there are hardly any facility to take care of the

children when women go out to work (Amon-Nikoi, 1978). In view of this

perspective, Fapohunds (1978) argues that the full capabilities of women in

Nigeria will remain under-utilized. Measures have been taking to support the

implementation of policies of women. According to the Fourth International

Conference of the Association of Women Development (political, economic and

educational) of women in 1989, some of these measures taken are based on the

recognition that the social, economic and political status of women should

correspond to the social- cultural reproduction of individual countries and to their

xv

role as participants in the overall progress of each individual country (Mercey,

1983).

There has been concerted campaign to shun all forms of discrimination against

women since the 1980s but to empower them to contribute their quota in the

development of their society. The International Labour Organization (ILO) since

its foundation has made critical contributions to promote equality between men and

women in the world of work. Maternity protection of women was adopted by the

ILOs Convention No. 3 in 1919. Series of instruments to protect the working

conditions of women has also been adopted by the ILO. As a result of these

campaigns, women have been moving steadily into occupations, professions and

managerial jobs previously reserved for men. Their access to education and

training continues to improve, providing many with the qualifications to aspire to

jobs in senior management. Businesses, trade unions, women organizations,

governments, have devoted much thought and energy to overcoming the attitudinal

and institutional discrimination that bars women from certain jobs and hinders their

career development. There is the renewed commitment to fight gender

discrimination periodically at both local and international conferences. The

leadership prospect of women is a critical issue in gender equality. This work

therefore is going to look at “Women in Management Positions: Challenges and

Prospects”.

1. 2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

xvi

Despite the promotion of gender equality and empowerment, greater majority of

managerial positions in public and private companies/organizations in Nigeria and

around the World are occupied by men. In other words, women are poorly

represented at top management positions. The society at the end is the loser if this

trend is not checked because gender discrimination is unsociable, uneconomical,

apolitical and non-progressive.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study are;

1. To determine how culture affects women in management positions in Nigeria.

2. To determine how family background affects women in management positions.

3. To determine the influence educational background has on women in

management.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Does cultural background of women have any effect on their aspiration to

higher management positions?

2. How does family background affect women in management positions?

3. How does the educational background of women affect their aspiration to

management positions?

1.5 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS

xvii

1. Cultural background does not significant positive effect on women in

management position.

2. Family background does not significant positive effect on women in

management position.

3. Educational background does not significant positive effect on the aspiration of

women to management positions.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This research work will be useful to organizations, the society in general,

government officials and future researchers in the following ways:

1. It will help organizations to be gender sensitive in appointments to decision

making positions.

2. It will change the negative attitude of men in the society towards the

advancement of women to management positions.

3. It will enable the government to see the need to make laws for the protection of

women folk as well as providing opportunities for women to serve in boards of

both public and private organizations.

4. It will serve as an avenue for future reference and further research.

1.7 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study will cover women in managerial positions in the Office of

the Head of Service of Enugu State, Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital Enugu,

Access of Bank Nigeria and the University of Nigeria Enugu campus numbering

xviii

fifty (50). This number was chosen because of the similar features of the elements

making up the population, difficulty of coverage in studying the entire women in

managerial positions due to the pattern of the distribution of the population and in

order to meet up with the deadline. The potentiality of women as capable managers

and the efficiency of Nigerian women as well as their achievements in decision-

making and the challenges they encounter shall largely be captured using

questionnaires and.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The major limitation of the study are that of cost of assessing materials in the

internet, travels as meeting the managers on sit for the collection of data required

two to three times visit and finally, the attitude of some of the managers towards

gathering materials.

xix

REFERNCES

Ambe-Uva, T. N., Iwuchukwu, O. and Jibrin, L. J. (2008). Gender Analysis in

National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN): Implications and Policy Issues in

Bridging the Divide. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 4 (7): 814-825.

Amon-Nikoi, G. (1998). Women and Work in Africa. Damachi, U.G. and

Diejemoah, V. P. (Eds). New York: Human Resources and African development.

Fapohunda, E. R. (1978). Women at Work in Nigeria: Factors Affecting Modern

Sector Employment. Damachi, U.G. and Diejemoah, V. P. (Eds). New York:

Human Resources and African development.

Hannah, Piterman (2008). The Leadership Challenge: Women in Management.

March, 2008. http://catalogu.nla.gov.aus

Ifedili, C.J.I. and Ifedili, C.A. (2009). An Evaluation of Beijing 1995 on the

Appiontment and Promotion of Nigerian Women to Decision-Making Positions.

www.eric.edu.gov

Mamounata, Cesse and Natacha, David (2001/2). The Challenge of Globalization

in Africa: The Trade Union Response. Labour Education 2001/2: No.123

Mirce y, Dimilar (1983). The Role of Public Enterprises in the Advancement

Centre for Enterprises in Developing Countries: Yugoslavia.

CHAPTER 2

xx

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The review of available literature will focus attention on the following;

1. Gender and career opportunities for women.

2. Perception of women in management positions.

3. Constraints to women in management positions and the way forward.

2.2 GENDER AND CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN

The promotion of gender and the empowerment of women is the goal 3 of the

Eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in which United Nations members

pledged to meet by the year 2015. Recent studies that attempted to evaluate the

progress towards the MDGs pointed out the dismal progress made in bridging the

gender divide (UNDP, 2005).

The presence and status of women in paid employment has improved dramatically

over the last century. The progression of professional women into management

positions has been slow. As a result of this, women still lag far behind men in

holding top management and executive positions. Women find it more difficult to

rise to positions of leadership in an environment that are highly male-dominated,

irrespective of the sector of employment.

There is no doubt that significant progress has been achieved in furthering the

cause of gender equality in the labour market over recent decades. Women have

been moving steadily into professions, occupations and managerial jobs previously

xxi

reserved for men. Their access to education and training continues to improve,

providing many with the necessary qualifications to aspire to jobs in senior

management. Governments, businesses, trade unions, and women‟s organizations

have devoted much thought and energy to overcoming the attitudinal and

institutional discrimination that bars women from certain jobs and hinders their

career development, yet many of the results fall short of expectations. Women are

still concentrated in the most precarious forms of work throughout the world and

breaking through this barrier still appears elusive for all but a selected few.

Women make over only 40% of the workforce in the West, but constitute less than

3% of management positions in the United States and only 6% of all British senior

managers (Yang, 1998). Within Australia, women currently represent only 12% of

ASX200 executive managers and only five women have been appointed to chief

executive level since 2004 (Hannah, 2008). The percentage of women represented

in executive management positions is much more less in developing countries.

According to Karim, 1995, women all over the world are underrepresented and

generally, they face discrimination and marginalization on the basis of their

gender. It is obvious that there still exists a great disparity in gender both in the

educational and work environment in Nigeria. There is a great disparity in the

enrolment and employment of women in the Nigerian Universities. (Ambe-Uva et

al, 2008).

The lack of opportunities and the discrimination towards women in business is

much like that experienced by other minorities who have tried to gain access to

positions of management (Bird, 1971). Women on the whole are characterized as

less work-oriented than men and as placing more importance on the social

ambiance of the workplace (Fiona, 1979). A recent study of 150 countries by the

American Society for Personal Administrators and the Bureau of National Affairs

xxii

revealed that 39% of the companies had no women at all in management positions,

although 50 of the companies surveyed were more than one-half staffed by females

at the rank and file level (Bird, 1971). This situation, explained the presence of

“glass ceiling” and “sticky floor” which women experience while trying to climb

the ladder to management positions (Linda, 2002).

Data show that women have the qualification and work experience to take on

responsibilities at the highest level but the challenge is the slow pace in achieving a

critical mass of women in top jobs with power. This is not unconnected with the

invisible artificial barriers and forces that block women from senior executive jobs

and keep them (women) stuck at the bottom of the economic pyramid. The

International Labour Organization research and analysis according to Linda (2002)

suggests that discrimination is greatest where the most power is exercised and that

the higher one goes, the larger the gender gap.

Traits associated with management including control, assertion, individualism,

skill of advocacy, domination, are socially ascribed to men and generally

understood as masculine. While characteristics associated with women (feminine)

by men are not key drivers of authority in much business setting (Hannah, 2008).

Women interested in achieving a position in management have to decide whether

to exhibit characteristics considered for men and have their feminity questioned or

behave in ways that characterize women, and accept second- class status.

According to Wyn et al (2000) the established norms of accepted behavior in the

business environment are those of the heterosexual male. To be a woman manager

in a university is to be reminded of an identity one is not, and constantly to have to

define the identity one is.

xxiii

Women hold one to three (1:3) percent of top executive jobs in the largest

corporations worldwide and for women who experience racial discrimination, the

percentage is even less. Record also have it that only 8 countries have a woman

head of State; 21 countries have deputy head; 13.4% of the World Parliamentarians

are women and that only 1% of trade union leaders are women, still women

constitute almost 40% of their membership globally (Linda, 2002).

Against the backdrop of all these, women still perform well in managerial

positions. Blau and Kahn (1982) stated that “male and female managers perform

similarly in managerial positions and have similar managerial potentials”.

According to Chugh and Sahgal (2007), the stereotyping of women managers is a

critical issue that needs to be addressed if women have to make it to the echelons

of management. Literature on women in management suggest that jobs and

organizations are gendered which has an impact on individuals.

2.3 PERCEPTION OF WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITIONS

There are women who are able to successfully navigate all domains of corporate

life. They display a heightened awareness of their environment which enhances

their capacity for judgment. These women exhibit a robust sense of self. Many

attribute their success to the influence of some male family members, as well as

their social background (family background) influence which instills self

confidence into a child and the social environment as a whole. This has been a

major influence on career decision of women. “Perception of women in male

leadership position is both structural and psychological which includes

educational, historical, cultural and religious factors” (Ozioko, 2003). The

perception of women span through women and society, women and labour market,

women and culture and so on. Different perceptive reflects on the role of women in

xxiv

different economies. The role women in the society and in the family are of great

importance and personality traits are also shown to be of great impact.

Since creation, women have been endowed with gifts which identify them as a

group with the most important and essential tools and ingredients necessary for

nation building. Research conducted on women has shown that women are

characterized by greater dependency, stronger social orientation and the tendency

to be more easily discouraged by failure than men. The structure of the society

affects the perception of its citizens. In the traditional Igbo society of Nigeria, high

premium is placed on women education for the achievement of traditional

objectives. The Nigerian structure, that is, the political, cultural, (ethnic), religious,

geographical location affects and influences the way both men and women

perceive our managers. Therefore, the perception of women in management

positions in Nigeria is determined by the woman‟s family background, which

ethnic (cultural) group she is from, which religious or political group she belongs

to.

In most cultures, the traditional female role comprises attitudes and behaviours that

contradict, or at least fail to support, those of traditional managers (Ozioko, 2003).

Religion played its own role by directing women to be in subjection to their

husbands (1 Peter3: 1a). “Wives submit to your husbands…....for a husband has

authority over his wife” (Ephesians 5: 22). The woman is expected to be

subservient, dependent and supportive to man. Muslim religion believes that

women are the inferior sex. The role of women in the contemporary African

society is closely linked with the status of women in African traditional society.

Religion dominates the life of the Africans and therefore plays an important part in

determining the role and status of African women in the society. Women are

condemned to the traditional duties as wife and mother. Akinfenwa, (2005)

xxv

captures this when she aid “women are responsible for training of the children in

the home, she is also to cater for the physical, emotional, and spiritual needs of the

family, inculcate the virtues of obedience, tolerance, love etc.

Armed with this background knowledge about women, both men and women alike

are prejudiced about their perception of women in management positions. When a

woman at any management position performs well, people will only say “after all

she is from so and so family” which means that what she did is what is expected of

her and her kind from such a family background, ethnic group and more so that is

what is expected of her as a woman since her life duty is home management. All

these determine how any woman at a management position is perceived. When she

is from a well known family, she is competent, capable, efficient, etc and when

otherwise she is incompetent, inefficient, uncapable, and unacceptably manly.

2.4 CONSTRAINTS TO WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT POSITIONS AND THE

WAY FORWARD

Women have been moving steadily into a wider range of professional jobs

gradually swelling the ranks of lower and middle management in recent decades.

The Nigerian constitution is recognized as one of the most progressives on

situations in modern history. It guarantees equity to all citizens. Despite

government emphasis on equality before the law, gender equality throughout

Nigerian society and emphasis on women‟s right also reflect in gender

commissions and several relevant acts as well as in every political, religious and

cultural gathering by women. Inspite of these, gender inequality is prevalent in

Nigeria.

xxvi

Women only represent 19.8% of executive management positions in the general

business arena of South Africa (Anneliese, 2006). In the Nigerian civil service as at

1980, women represent only 12.5% of the workforce while men occupied 87.5% of

the workforce (Ajibade, 1992). Less than 5% of Nigerian women occupied

management positions while less than 1% occupies top management positions. The

age-long custom, tribal laws and customs still form the foundation of day to day

government strategies‟. The tribal laws and customs assumed and looked upon

women as a commodity or property to be owned by men. Infact, women are

subordinate to men and cannot hold management positions outside the immediate

household. All the actions of women must be dictated, planned approved, directed

and monitored by the man who claims to be the “head” of the family (woman).

Although our modern westernized constitution guaranteed equal rights to men and

women, in reality and practice, a discrepancy exist between tribal laws and

national laws (Ajibade, 1992, Anneliese, 2006).

This discrepancy can be noticed in our Nigerian political cycle. Out of the 36

States in Nigeria, there is no woman governor. Women were placed to play second

fiddle as deputy governors in few States of Imo, Lagos, Plateau, Lagos etc, this is

also repeated in the appointment of Ministers of the Federal Republic, State

commissioners, Speakers of the State Houses of Assembly etc. This disparity could

also be seen in the Nigerian Civil Service and Higher Institutions. The composition

of female academic staff of some Universities in Nigeria testifies to this huge

disparity. University of Ilorin has about 27.5%, University of Nigeria 39.9%,

Ahmadu Bello University Zaria 18.15% of female academics between the years

1978-1981 (Ajibade, 1992).

Women are developing the necessary experience, track records and abilities to

qualify for board membership. Most boards are male dominated “old boys clubs”,

xxvii

they feel that women do not contribute at the senior management level. In Canada,

less than 5% of the members of the boards of directors of private organizations are

women and about the same percentage are women in senior management ranks

(Burke, 1997).

Data show that women have the qualifications and work experience to take on

responsibilities at the highest level but the challenge is the slow pace in achieving a

critical mass of women in top management with power. The major challenge faced

by women can be traced to the way work itself is structured and the challenge of

trying to reconcile work and family commitment especially with the increased

pressures and insecurities in today‟s global economy.

The pay gap between men and women workers is still a challenge. After 50 years

of the adoption of International Labour Organization (ILO) of Equal Remuneration

Convention which over 150 countries have ratified, yet pay gab differentials

persists in all countries ranging from 10-30% (Linda Wirth, 2002). The

management pay gap and the pay gap are two obvious manifestations of the

different ways males and females spend time on work and family matters. Studies

show that women on average, work longer hours than men in nearly every country

and women continue to perform most unpaid jobs.

There still exists persistent occupational segregation. It is unjust and inefficient to

have men‟s jobs and women‟s jobs. Even countries with strong track records for

promoting gender equality still have strong degrees of occupational segregation.

The so called women‟s job is often assigned a lower market value. Even in

women-dominated fields, such as education and health, men usually occupy the

“more skilled”, responsible and better–paid positions. Developments in job

evaluation methodologies, however have demonstrated that many jobs occupied by

xxviii

women require level of skills, responsibilities and complexity similar to the higher

paid jobs held by men.

According to the International Labour Organization, women hold 1-3% of top

executive jobs in the largest corporations worldwide. Only 1% of trade union

leaders are women, though they are almost 40% of the labour union membership

globally. Only 8 countries have women head of state; 21 countries have a deputy

head. In Africa, only Liberia has a woman head of state. The ILO summed up this

by saying that discrimination is greatest where the most power is exercised. The

higher one goes, the larger the gender gap (Linda Wirth, 2002).

The International Trade Union Conference (ITUC) Congress which took place in

Vancouver Mexico in June this year committed itself to fight gender equality (The

Guardian Newspaper, November 30, 2010. P: 59). All these indicates that women

uptill now are yet to be given the free hand and recognition and opportunity to

operate in a world with men chauvinism. No wonder the wife of the Ebonyi State

Governor Mrs. Josephine Elechi said that “women in her state deserve more

opportunity to serve in government and that women can perform excellently in

public office if given the opportunity”. (The Guardian Newspaper, November 30,

2010. P: 6). A study carried out by Ambe-Uva et al shows that there is disparity in

student admission as well as in staff recruitment, training and promotion in the

National Open University of Nigeria. It also indicated that women were found to

be missing from the senior university management. Women make up of only 20%

of the senior management cadre of the university.

In this 21st century, African women are struggling for their place in the global

village. African (Nigerian) women have demonstrated their strength in bringing

about social change in the past. Nigerian women have the ability provided that they

xxix

are given the opportunity. The introduction of women in the inner circles of

business management may have wonderful circumstances because of the very

characteristics associated with the women‟s view point. In Nigeria, the rising

profile of Nigerian women as good managers is no longer new. The award and

recognition given to people like Profs. Dora Akunyili, former NAFDAC Director

and the present Minister of Information of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and

Ngozi Okonjo Iweala, present Deputy Director of World Bank and former Minister

of Finance, etc testifies to this.

Sex role orientation and the stereotyping of a manager‟s role as masculine

constructs, cultural barriers, pay gaps, discriminatory appointments, promotions

criteria problems, hostile work environment sexual harassment etc have been

recognized as the challenges affecting(impeding) women from attaining the

executive management positions in their various offices/ businesses. For Nigerian

women and women in general to make a positive impression on the top

management in terms of number, this entire barrier must be addressed in other to

enable women to take their rightful place in management positions.

Education has been a powerful tool in improving the status of women. There is no

exaggeration in saying that the generality of the people are becoming conscious

about the importance of women education. Education and empowerment drive

social change. The education of the girl-child should be paramount in the country‟s

development plans because this will help to spur up women in developing

management skills early in life.

Meaningful change that will enable women reach the top management positions

require concerted effort in the education of women right from the family as a girl-

child up to the time of tertiary level. Organization and companies should ensure

xxx

that human resources management provide career and succession planning

services, equal opportunities, prevention of social harassment, diversity

management, mentoring, tracking and monitoring of the progress of women and

men in organizations/companies.

Over the long run, the success of women in management positions depends on the

organizations interest and effort in developing women and in changing the attitudes

of its line staff. Women employees should be supported at an early stage by

challenging them with visible assignments and by ensuring that they obtain

experience in a wide range of company operations. Only the active promotions of

gender equity in all areas of education and employment by government, civil

society organizations, trade unions, business organizations and other employee

organizations can guarantee gender equality at the highest levels of management in

both private and public sectors.

xxxi

RENFERNCES

Ajibade, E. S. (1992): Women Education in Nigeria: The Need for a Higher

Premium

Akinfenwa, O. B. (2005): The Role of Women in Family Management and Child

Training in African Religion and Christianity.www.unilorin.edu.ng

Ambe-Uva, T. N., Iwuchukwu, O. and Jibrin, L. J. (2008): Gender Analysis in



Anneliese Goslin (2006): Challenges and Opportunities for Sports under the Socio-

Economic Conditions of South Africa. Global Center for Change through

Women’s Leadership and Sport: Discussion Series, September, 2006.

Bird, McCord, (1971): Identifying and Developing Women for Management

Positions. Training and Development Journal: November, 1971.

http://search.ebscohost.com

xxxii

Blau, F.D. and Kahn, L. M. (1982): “The Gender Earning Gap: Learning from

International Comparisons”. The American Economic Review. http://www.jstor.org

Burk, R.J. (1997). Women on Corporate Boards of Directors: A Needed Resource.

Journal of Business Ethics, 16(9): Pp: 909-915.

Chugh, S. and Sahgal, P. (20070. Why Do Few Women Advance to Leadership

Positions? Global Business Review 2007: 8. Pp: 351-365.

http/www.gbr.sagepub.com

Fiona, McNally (1979).Women for Hire: A study of the Female Office Worker.

The Macmillan Press Ltd: London and Basingstoke. www.jstor.org


March, 2008. http:/catalogu.nla.gov.au

Karim, W. J. (1995). Male and Female in South East Asia. Oxford:

Berg.www.bergpublishers.com

Linda Wirth (2002). First International Conference Pay Equity between Women

and Men. Myth or Reality? Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling. Women in

Management. Luxembourg. February 4th

2002.www.ilo.org

Ozioko, J.O.C. (2003) „„The Perception of Women in Leadership Positions‟‟ in

Ndu, Alice, Ozioko, J.O.C, Ikejiani-Clark, Miriam, and Ibiam, Julie. Women in

Leadership. Nsukka: Prize Publishers Ltd. Women Studies Series No.1, December,

2003.www.unn.edu.ng

The Guardian Newspaper of Tuesday November 30th

, 2010. Vol. 28. No. 11, 661.

Pp. (6/59)

xxxiii

The Holy Bible: 1998 King James Version Giant Print Centre Column Reference

Bible. U.S.A: Grand Rapids World Publishers Inc.

Wyn, Johanna, Acker, Sandra, and Richards, Elisabeth (2000): Making a

Difference: women in Management in Australian and Canadian Faculties of

Education. Gender and Education Journal; December 2000, Vol.12 Issue 4, Pp:

13/435-447. http://search.ebscohost.com

Yang, Nini (1998). An International Perspective on Socio- Economic Changes and

their Effects on Life Stress and Career Success of Working Women. Advanced

Management Journal, Vol. 63, No.3 http://www.mgv.min.edu

xxxiv

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this research work is to find out the challenges women in

management positions face and their prospects. This chapter is therefore organized

and arranged to provide clear description of the methods and procedures employed

in the conduct of this study.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The type of method to be used in any research undertaking is determined by the

nature of the research problem and purpose of study, the use of descriptive

research design is regarded by most researchers as logically sound and adequate

for getting solutions. Hence the use of this descriptive research survey method for

this work. This research is based on questionnaire and interview. The data for this

study were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were

gathered through the use of questionnaires whereas the secondary data were

obtained from textbooks, journals, seminar/workshop papers,

published/unpublished articles related to the subject matter.

3.3 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

xxxv

The population of this study consists of women in management positions in

Nigeria but due to the largeness of the population and time, 50 women in

management positions in Enugu State, South East of Nigeria was chosen.

3.4 DETERMINATION OF THE SAMPLE SIZE

The sample size was determined through the use of pilot survey in order to obtain

relevant values for the estimate. This pilot survey was conducted through a

randomly selected 50 women in management positions.

3.5 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

For the purpose of this research, questionnaires were used for primary data

collection. The questionnaires have two sections “A” comprising of the

respondents of items seeking the personal data of the respondents, while “B”

comprising of items seeking for the respondent‟s information on the research topic.

The structured questions were intended to elicit easy response to the questions

asked while the unstructured questions will give the respondent‟s the opportunity

to give answers to the questions freely from their own views without restriction of

any kind.

3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF DATA INSTRUMENTS

The instruments used for this research was validated by ensuring that the questions

were designed in a manner that enabled the researcher obtain information relevant

to the purpose and objectives of the study. The language was simple and the

xxxvi

statements were arranged from less sensitive to more sensitive ones. The

researcher also maintained objectivity by not fielding leading questions.

3.7 PROCEDURE FOR DATA ANALYSIS

Data collected for this study were analyzed through the use of percentage

frequency distribution for test of questions and chi-square for test of hypothesis.

This method will be adopted because of the nature of the research questions posed.

xxxvii

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the statistical data obtained through the use of questionnaires as

stated in chapter three will be presented and analyzed through the use of

percentage frequency tables for data presentation and chi-square for the data

analysis.

4.2 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

It was viewed that the age differences of the respondents will be considered in the

distribution of the questionnaire. This was based on the assumption that there is a

relationship between age and interest in the level of appreciation. The table below

summarizes the distribution of respondents by age and sex.

TABLE 4.1: AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

AGE RANGE MALE FEMALE TOTAL PERCENTAGE

25-35 5 4 9 18

35-45 5 12 17 34

xxxviii

45-55 8 6 14 28

55 AND

ABOVE

6 4 10 20

TOTAL 24(48%) 26(52%) 50 100%

In the table 4.1 above, the summary of the distribution of questionnaire by age and

sex was tabulated. The table indicated that 24 (twenty four) questionnaires were

distributed to men, while 26 (twenty six) were administered to women.

Furthermore, the analysis of sex and age distribution revealed that 24 out of 50,

representing 48% of the total respondents were male, while the remaining 26,

representing 52% of the total respondents were used on female.

The total number of respondents and questionnaires administered were presented

in the table below.

TABLE 4.2: TOTAL NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

NUMBER

ADMINISTERED

NUMBER RETUANED PERCENTAGE

MALE FEMALE

50 24 26 100%

The above table shows the total number of respondents of this research work. Out

of the total of 50 questionnaires administered, the total number of 50 was also

retrieved. This means that 100% of the questionnaires distributed were retrieved

and useable. There was no wastage because the number administered, was not too

much for the researcher to monitor, and patience on the part of the researcher too.

xxxix

TABLE 4.3: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

RESPONSE NUMBER OF

RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE

NCE/ND 10 20

BSC/BED/HND 20 40

MBA/MSC 13 26

HIGHER DEGREE 7 14

TOTAL 50 100

From table 4.3, 10 out of the 50 respondents are holders of NCE/ND and makes up

around 20% of the respondents, BSC/BED/HND holders were 20 and constitutes

40% of the total number of the respondents while 13 out of 50 respondents were

holders of MBA/MSC which is 26% of the total number of respondents and 7 out

of 50 respondents which makes up 14% were holders of higher Degree.

TABLE 4.4: HOW MANY CHILDREN DO YOU HAVE?

RESPONSES NO. OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

NONE 10 20%

xl

1-2 12 24%

3-5 20 40%

5 AND ABOVE 8 16%

TOTAL 50 100%

Table 4.4 above shows the total number of respondents of this research question.

Out of a total of 50 respondents, 10 representing 20% indicates that they have no

children, 12 respondents which represents 24% have 1-2 children, 20 respondents

which constitutes 40% of the total number have 3-5 number of children while 8

respondents which represents 10% of the total number have 5 children and above.

TABLE 4.5: DO YOU HAVE DOMESTIC SERVANTS?

RESPONSE NO. OF

RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE

YES 16 32%

NO 34 68%

TOTAL 50 100%

Out of 50 respondents, 16 respondents representing 32% indicates that they have

domestic servants while 34 respondents which represents 68% of the respondents

indicates that they have no domestic servants.

TABLE 4.6: WHAT MANAGERIAL POSITION DO YOU HOLD IN YOUR

ORGANIZATION?

xli

Out of 50

respondent

s, 2

respondent

s

representi

ng 4%

indicates

that they

are

occupying the managerial position of chairman/managing Director of their

organizations, 7 respondents which represent 14% are holding the position of a

Manager/Director while 5 respondents which is equivalent to 10% hold the

position of Board members. Also 21 respondents which represent 42% hold the

position of company secretary and finally 15 out of the total respondents which is

equivalent to 30% of the total respondents are others not classified.

TABLE 4.7: IS STARTING A FAMILY AND HOME MANAGEMENT A

LIMITATION FOR WOMEN PROFESSIONAL ADVANCMENT?

RESPONSE NO. OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE

YES 25 50%

NO 18 36%

UNDECIDED 7 14%

RESPONSE NO. OF

RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE

CHAIRMAN/MD 2 4%

MANAGER/DIRECTOR 7 14%

BOARD MEMBER 5 10%

COMPANY SEC. 21 42%

OTHERS; SPECIFY 15 30%

TOTAL 50 100%

xlii

TOTAL 50 100%

Table 4.7 shows that 25 respondents which represent 50% of the total respondents

agreed that starting a family and home management hinders women professional

advancement, 18 respondents constituting 36% did not accept that starting a family

and home management limits women professional advancement, while 7

respondents which is equivalent to 14% of the total respondents were undecided.

TABLE 4.8: WHICH OF THESE SOCIO-CULTURAL BARRIER DID

YOU ENCOUNTER BEFORE ATTAINING THE PRESENT POSITION?


CHILD BEARING 25 50%

HOUSE MANAGEMENT 10 20%

LACK OF CONFIDENCE 5 4%

NONE OF THE ABOVE 8 16%

ALL OF THE ABOVE 2 10%

TOTAL 50 100%

Table 4.8 shows that 25 respondents which is equivalent to 50% of the total

respondents accepted that child-bearing was a major barrier they encountered

before attaining their present position, 10 respondent out of the total 50

experienced the barrier of house management, which represents 20% of the

respondents, 2 respondents, representing 4% did not encounter any of the barrier, 8

of the respondents, representing 16% of the total respondents, identified child

xliii

bearing, house management and discrimination as a social- cultural barrier they

encountered while 5 of the respondents, representing 10% of the total respondents

accepted that lack of confidence was a barrier to them before attaining their present

position.

TABLE 4.9: DO YOU THINK THAT YOU HAVE BEEN ABLE TO

BALANCE YOUR CAREER WITH THE OBLIGATIONS OF YOUR

PRIVATE LIFE?

RESPONSES NO. OF

RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE

YES 8 16%

I HAVE LACK OF SPARE

TIME

30 60%

CHILD CARE SERVICES

ARE VERY POOR

12 24%

TOTAL 50 100%

Considering the table above, 8 respondents, representing 16% of the total

respondents indicates that they were able to balance their carrier with the

obligations of their private life, 30 of the respondents representing 60% of the total

respondents indicated that they have lack of spare time while 12 respondents,

representing 24% of the total respondents indicated that lack of and very poor

condition of child care services contributes to their inability to balance their carrier

with the obligations of their private life.

xliv

TABLE 4.10: IS IT HARDER FOR WOMEN TO BUILD A CAREER

THAN MEN?


VERY HARD 29 58%

NOT HARD 10 20%

UNDECIDED 11 22%

TOTAL 50 100%

Table 4.10 shows that 29 of the respondents which represent 58% of the total

respondents accepted that it is very hard for women to build a career than men, 10

respondents which represents 20% indicated that it is not hard while 11 of the

respondents which represent 22% of the total respondents were undecided.

TABLE 4.11: IF YOU HAVE A FAMILY, HOW HAS IT AFFECTED YOU?


POSITIVELY 21 42%

NEGATIVELY 16 32%

NO EFFECT 13 26%

TOTAL 50 100%

xlv

Considering the table above, 21 respondents, which represents 42% of the total

respondents accepted that having a family has contributed positively to their

career, 16 of respondents which represents 32% of the total respondents indicated

otherwise, while 13 of the respondents which is equivalent to 26% of the

respondents said that having a family has no effect whatsoever to their career

(work life).

4.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESES

HYPOTHESIS ONE

STEP I

Ho: Cultural background does not affect women in management positions,

H1: Cultural background affects women in management positions.

STEP II The statistical test is X2

Where: O = Observed frequency

E = Expected frequency

STEP III: The level of significance used is 5% = 0.05

STEP 1V: The Degree of freedom is given as K-1

Where: K = Number of row or Colum

∑(OE)2 E

xlvi

Therefore K = (3-1) =2

STEP V: Critical value is given as 5.991 (5.99)

STEP V1: Computing the test statistics using table 4.7

To get E (Expected frequency) = Total frequency/Number of

options. Therefore, E = 50/3 = 16.7

TABLE 4.12: HYPOTHESIS ONE

OPTIONS

0 E 0-E (0-E) 2

(0-E) 2/E

YES 25 16.7 8.3 68.89 4.13

NO 18 16.7 1.3 1.69 0.10

UNDECIED 7 16.7 -9.7 94.09 5.63

X2 9.86

STEP VII: Comparing the test statistics with critical value of x2

Calculated value =9.815

Critical value =5.991

STEP VIII: DECISION

xlvii

Since the calculated value of X2 is greater than the critical or table value of X

2, we

reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. We therefore

conclude that cultural background affects women in management position.

HYPOTHESIS TWO

STEP I:

Ho: Family background does not affect women in management positions.

Hi: Family background affects women in management positions.

STEP II: The statistical test is X2



STEP III: The level of significance used is 5%=0.05

STEP IV: The Degree of freedom is given as K-1

Where: K = Number of row or Colum

Therefore, K = (2-1) = 1


STEP VI: Computing the test statistics using table 4.5

∑(OE)2 E

xlviii

To get E (Expected frequency) = Total frequency/Number of options.

Therefore E=50/2=25

TABLE 4.13: HYPOTHESIS TWO

OPTONS O E O-E (0-E) 2

(0-E) 2/E

YES 16 25 -9 81 3.24

NO 34 25 9 81 3.24

X2 6.48

STEP VII: Comparing the test statistics with the critical value of X2

Calculated value = 6.48, Critical value = 3.841

STEP VIII: DECISION

Since the calculated value of X2 is greater than the critical or table value of X

2, we

reject the null hypothesis. We therefore conclude that family background affects

women in management positions.

xlix

HYPOTHESIS THREE

STEP I:

HO: Educational background does not affect women aspiration to management

positions

H1: Educational background affects women aspiration to management

positions.

STEP II: The statistical test is X2



STEP III: The level of significance used is 5% = 0.05

STEP IV: The Degree of freedom is given as K-1

Where: K= Number of row or Colum. Therefore, k = (4-1) = 3


STEP VI: Computing the test statistics using table 4.4

To get E (Expected frequency) = Total frequency/Number of options.

Therefore E = 50/4 = 12.5

TABLE 4.14: HYPOTHESIS THREE

∑(OE)2 E

l

STEP

VII:

Comp

aring

the

test

statisti

cs

with the critical value of X2.

Calculated value = 10.00

Critical value = 7.815

STEP VIII: DECISION

Since the calculated value of X2 is greater than the critical value X

2 we reject the

null hypothesis. We therefore conclude that educational background affects women

aspiring to management positions.

OPTIONS O E O-E (0-E) 2

(0-E) 2/E

NCE/ND 15 12.5 2.5 6.25 0.5

BSC/BED/HND 20 12.5 7.5 56.25 4.5

MSC/MBA 10 12.5 -2.5 6.25 0.5

HIGHER

DEGREE

5 12.5 -7.5 56.25 4.5

X2 10.00

li

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUTIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents a summary of findings as well as the conclusions from the

findings. It also presents the recommendations put forward as solutions to the

challenges indentified by the researcher.

5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The research study was conceptualized as an empirical examination of women in

management positions, challenges and prospects.

The cultural background of where a woman comes from affects her generally.

Socio-cultural belief system of Nigerians for example tends to restrict women to

home management and child bearing and care as well as other related jobs which

are an extension of home management. This condition has been confirmed with the

lii

acceptance of alternative hypothesis one which says that cultural background

affects women in management position. This finding is in line with what

Akinfenwa 2005 meant when she said that „women are responsible for training of

the children in the home, she is also to cater for the physical, emotional and

spiritual needs of the family, inculcate the virtues of obedience, tolerance, love

etc‟.

It was also observed that the type of family a woman comes from affects her. In

testing hypothesis two, it was discovered that family background affects women in

management position. The family background of women in management positions

contributes a lot in how she is perceived. If a woman is from a highly politically,

educationally, religiously or socially connected family in the society, the way she

is perceived differs. This supports what Ozioko (2003) meant when she said that

„the perception of women in leadership positions in Nigeria is determined by the

woman‟s family background, which ethnic (cultural) group is she coming from,

which religion or political ground does she come from‟.

From the findings, we also discovered that educational background affects women

aspiration to management positions. For women to be well placed and represented

in management positions of organizations, they have to be educated. No wonder

informal education was provided for the girl child in the traditional Igbo society in

order to enable them perform their roles as wives, mother and nation builder.

However, a sizeable number of the respondents are aware of these facts and

attested to its effects to women. It was also observed that to climb to the corporate

ladder, women must be rightly aware that success is achievable with hard work.

5.3 CONCLUSION

liii

The following conclusions are drawn from the analysis and interpretation of data

gathered during the course of this research study.

1. There exist some socio-cultural factors in the society that hinders women

advancement to higher management positions.

2. Women are gradually rising to management positions but are represented

more at the middle management level.

3. It is much difficult for women to meet up with both family and corporate

obligations because of lack of child care services and home obligations.

4. It was also discovered that child bearing, and other obligations of the family

as well as expectations from the society, religious groups, collogues and

friends encourages or discourages women from aspiring to higher

management positions.

5.4 RECOMMENDATION

In the light of the forgoing conclusions, the following recommendations are

proffered by the researcher:

a. Every woman should recognize that what become of her in life depends on

her. That is her plight is more in her hands than in the hand of men, society,

etc.

b. There should be no discrimination against women during employment, and

appointment should be based on merit within the corporation and not on

gender.

c. Management positions should be widely advertized.

liv

d. There is need for positive change of societal attitude towards women in

management positions.

e. Employers of labour should create a deregulated atmosphere that would

enable both men and women to attain top management positions within the

organizational framework through fair and healthy competition.

f. Finally, there should be public education for both men and women on the

dangers of gender discrimination and its effect on the organization and

society in general.

lv

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Education. Gender and Education Journal; December 2000, Vol.12 Issue 4, Pp:

13/435-447. http://search.ebscohost.com

Yang, Nini (1998). An International Perspective on Socio- Economic Changes and

their Effects on Life Stress and Career Success of Working Women. Advanced

Management Journal, Vol. 63, No.3 http://www.mgv.min.edu

APPENDIX 1

QUESTIONNAIRE

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Department of Management,

Faculty of Business Administration,

University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.

Dear Sir/Madam,

This questionnaire is intended to collect data on the topic; Women in Management

Positions: Challenges and Prospects.

The investigator has considered you suitable as one of those from whom she

intends to obtain information for this study. This project is strictly an academic

exercise. Please, answer the questions as sincerely as humanly possible.

Information given here will be treated with utmost secrecy.

Thanks for your cooperation.

Yours Sincerely,

Onyeama, Perpetua Ifeyinwa

PG/MBA/08/53290

APPENDIX 2

SECTION A

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PERSONAL DATA

Please tick ( ) from the alternatives given, the most applicable to you.

1. Sex: (a) Male ( ) (b) Female ( )

2. Age: (a) 25 – 35 ( ) (b) 35 – 45 ( ) (c) 45 – 55 ( )

(d) 55 – and above ( )

3. Marital Status: (a) Married ( ) (b) Single ( ) (c) Divorced ( )

(d) Widowed ( )

4. Educational Qualification: (a) NCE/ND ( ) (b) BSC/BED/HND

(c) MBA/MSC ( ) (d) Higher degree ( )

5. How many children do you have? (a) None ( ) (b) 1-2 ( )

(c) 3-5 ( ) (d) 5 and above ( )

6. Do you have domestic servants? (a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

SECTION B

7. In which industry do you work? (a) Financial ( ) (b) Product and services( )

(c) Industrial ( ) (d) Logistics and transport

(e) Government, Education and Non-profit ( ) (d) Healthcare ( )

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8. Which managerial position are you holding in your organization?

(a) Chairman / Managing director ( ) (b) Manager / Director ( )

(c) Company Secretary ( ) (d) Board Member ( )

(e) Others; specify------------------------------------------------------------

9. How long have you been with the company/office?

(a) 1-2 years ( ) (b) 3-5 years ( ) (c) 5-10 years ( )

(d) Above 10 years ( )

10. How long have you held the managerial position?

(a) 1-2 years ( ) (b) 3-5 years ( ) (c) 5-10 years ( )

(d) Above 10 years ( )

11. Is starting a family and home management a limitation for women professional

advancement in Nigeria?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( ) (c) Undecided ( )

12. If you have a family, how has it affected you?

(a) Positively ( ) (b) Negatively ( ) (c) No effect ( )

13. Which of this socio-cultural barrier did you encounter before attaining the

present position?

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(a) Child bearing ( ) (b) House Management ( ) (c) Lack of Confidence ( )

(d) All of the above ( ) (e) None of the above ( )

14. Is it harder for women to build a career than men?

(a) Very hard ( ) (b) Not hard ( ) (c) Undecided ( )

15. Is it easier for you to cooperate with men than women?

(a) Men ( ) (b) Women ( ) (c) No difference ( )

16. Who is more efficient in decision making?

(a) Men ( ) (b) Women ( ) (c) No difference

17. Do you think you are rewarded equally as men on similar position?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

18. Are you a member of any business association, board of directors, or do you

hold more than one management position?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) No ( )

19. Do you think that you have been able to balance your career with the

obligations of your private life?

(a) Yes ( ) (b) I have lack of spare time ( )

(c) Child care services are very poor ( ).

management - university of nigeria, nsukkafinally my thanks goes to my mother chief mrs j. n. eze,...

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