LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:.

1. Explain the concept of and nature of staffing

2. Enumerate the importance of staffing

3. Mention the nature and importance of motivation

4. Explain the types of motivation

5. State and explain four types of motivation theories

6. Describe leadership and explain its importance

7. Mention the traits of a leader

8. Give three styles of leadership

INTRODUCTION

1. The quality of an organization is determined by the

quality of people it employs.

2. Staffing and human resource management decisions

and methods are critical to ensuring that the

organization hires and keeps the right personnel.

STAFFING-DEFINITION AND ACTIVITIES

Definition: Staffing is the process of acquiring, deploying, and

retaining a workforce of sufficient quantity and quality in

order to achieve organisational goals.

1. Acquisition involves:

human resource planning

recruitment and selection

2. Deploying involves:

placement and orientation

training and development

Recognition and Promotion

STAFFING

3. Retention involves:

Managing labour turnover: voluntary resignations and

involuntary activities such as retirement, redundancy,

dismissals etc.

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

After assessing the manpower needs of an organisation, the

next step is recruitment and selection.

1. Recruitment: The process of generating a pool of

qualified applicants for organisational jobs.

2. Recruitment Process:

identify job vacancies

identifying alternative sources of recruitment (internal or

external).

Placing job postings (on noticeboards or adverts in media)

sorting and generating a short-list of qualified applicants

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

3. Selection: is the process of choosing individuals who

have needed qualifications to fill jobs in an organisation.

4. Selection Process:

short-list of qualified applicants

call for interviews or test

Selection of qualified candidate

Call for reference letters

doing background investigation

Medical examination or drug test

conditional job offer and acceptance

OTHER STAFFING REQUIREMENTS

Other staffing requirement include:

Probation period

performance appraisal

training and development

promotions

termination

IMPORTANCE OF STAFFING

The human resource is the most important resource of every organisation. It is the human resource that combines and coordinates the other resources for the attainment of organisational objectives. The importance of staffing include:

1. To obtain the right quantities and quality of employees at the right time and at the place.

2. To ensure employee-organisation fit and person-job fit.

3. To gain competitive advantage over the organisation’scompetitors

4. To ensure effective transfer of skills, experiences and attitudes.

5. To meet the varied needs of employees and the organisation as a whole

6. To ensure effective performance management systems.

MOTIVATION

Learning out comes:

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Explain the nature and importance of motivation;

2. List the types of motivation theories

3. Compare and contrast content motivational theories and needs

motivational theories

MOTIVATION

Definition:s

1. Motivation is the arousal, direction and persistence of

behaviour (Daft and Marcic, 2007)

2. Motivation is concerned with the strength and direction

of behaviour and the factors that influence people to

behave in certain ways, (Armstrong ,2009)

3. According to Arnold et al (1991), motivation has three

components:

i. Direction: what a person is trying to do

ii. Effort: How hard a person is trying

iii. Persistence: how long a person keeps on trying

TYPES OF MOTIVAITON

There are two types of motivation:

1. Intrinsic Motivation: the self-generated factors that

influence people’s behaviour. Examples: the type of work,

opportunity to achieve. advancement, autonomy to

develop skills etc.

Intrinsic motivators can be enhanced by job or role design such

as variety of job, complexity of job and sufficient challenge.

2. Extrinsic Motivation: is when people are aroused to act

as a result of an external factor given to or done for

them.

Examples: high pay, praise, promotion, punishments etc.

External motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect

but will not necessarily last for long.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation theories could be put into Three main groups:

1. Behavioral Theories

i. Instrumentality Theory-based of Taylorism

ii. Reinforcement Theory

Hull (1951)

Skinner (1974)

2. Content or Needs Theories

i. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1954)

ii. The ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer (1972)

iii. Achievement and Affiliation Power Needs of David

McClelland

iv. Frederick Herzberg’s Factor Theory (1961)

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation theories could be put into Three main groups:

3. Process Theories

i. Expectancy Theory of Vroom (1964) and Porter &

Lawler

ii. Equity Theory (Adams)

iii. Goal Theory (Edwin Locke & Latham

iv. Theory X and Y of McGregor (1960)

v. Z Theory by Ouchi

MOTIVATION-INSTRUMENTALITY THEORY

1. Based on the principles of Scientific Management Theory

2. People are motivated to work if rewards and punishments

are tired to their performance

3. The theory provides rationale for incentive pay

4. This form of motivation is still used today

Disadvantages

i. Does not give recognition to intrinsic motivation

ii. Does not factor in other needs of people

iii. Does not consider the informal relationships in organisations

MOTIVATION-REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Proponents-Hull (1951) and F. Skinner (1974)

Similar to instrumentality theory

Reinforcement Theory states that peoples’ behaviour tend to change as a result of the consequence of a stimulus.

That stimulus could be a reinforcer or a punishment.

Reinforcers increase behaviour: e.g. A child is given a candy for reciting a poem well. Any time a candy is presented to the child, it will serve as motivator to recite the next poem well.

Punishments reduce behaviour: e.g. a child is isolated for 15 minutes for being late to school. This could serve to reduce the behaviour of lateness.

MOTIVATION-CONTENT THEORIES

MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY

Assumptions of the Theory

1. There are five major need categories of people;

2. These needs are in a hierarchy of importance and levels

of satisfaction;

3. When one lower need is satisfied, that need seizes to

motivate and people move to the next need in the

hierarchy;

4. Psychological development takes place as one moves

up the hierarchy of needs;

5. This is not a straight forward progression.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Self-actualisationNeeds-growth,

creativity, advancement

etc.

Self-esteem Needs-autonomy, recognition, position, responsibility

Social Needs-companionship, work groups, love, respect etc

Safety Needs-peace, clothes, shelter, safe work, job security

Psychological Needs-food, water, oxygen, sex,

APPLYING MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY

NEEDS LEVEL GENERAL

REWARDS

ORGANISATIONAL

FACTORS

Physiological Food, water, sex,

sleep, rest

Pay, working

conditions, cafeteria

Safety Safety, security,

stability, protection

Safe working

conditions, company

benefits, job security

Social Love, affection,

belongingness

Cohesive work group,

friendly supervision,

professional

associations

Esteem Self-esteem, self-

respect, prestige,

status

Social recognition, job

title, high-status job,

feedback from job

itself

Self-actualisation Growth, advancement,

creativity

Challenging job,

opportunities for

creativity, achievement

in work, advancement

in the organisation

MOTIVATION-ERG THEORY

Proponent: Clayton Alderfer

He modified the needs theory of Maslow

Identified three needs:

i. Existence needs: e.g. hunger, thirst-pay, fringe benefits

and working conditions.

ii. Relatedness needs: satisfactory relationships with others-

e.g. acceptance, understanding, confirmation and influence

iii. Growth needs: the development of the human potential

such as advancement, recognition, participation in decision

making etc. this level is similar to the last two levels of

Maslow

MOTIVATION-THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Proponent: Frederick Herzberg

He identified two factors:

i. Hygiene Factors: these include pay, security, supervision,

working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.

The absence of these create dissatisfaction

i. Growth Factors or Motivators: these include achievement,

recognition, responsibility, personal growth, work, etc.

The presence of these bring about satisfaction thereby

motivating employees.

MOTIVATION-THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Implications of Two Factor Theory for Managers

i. Providing hygiene factors will eliminate employee

dissatisfaction but may not motivate workers to high

achievement levels

ii. Providing growth factors will promote high satisfaction and

performance

The manager’s role is to remove dissatisfiers by providing

sufficient hygiene factors like pay, better working conditions,

security; and motivate employees towards greater

achievements by providing growth factors like career

development, promotions, delegation etc.

MOTIVATION-THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Hi

Motivators

Achievement,

responsibility,

recognition,

work, personal

growth

Hygiene

Factors

Working

conditions,

pay, security,

supervision,

relationships

High Satisfaction

Neither satisfied

nor dissatisfied

Highly Dissatisfied

MOTIVATION-X & Y THEORY

PROCESS THEORIES

Proponent: Douglas McGregor (1960)

He came with two views about humans and that

depending on the view you take, you may

develop strategies to motivate people. These

views are:

MOTIVATION-X & Y THEORY

X THEORY

CHARACTERISTICS

i. Average person is lazy and dislikes work

ii. People must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with

punishment if the organisation is to achieve its objectives

iii. The average person avoids responsibility, prefers tob directedm lacks

ambition and values security most of all, and

iv. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels

MOTIVATION-X & Y THEORY

Y THEORY

CHARACTERISTICS

i. For most people work is as natural as play

ii. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in achieving objectives they are commited

iii. Rewards are associated with the achievement of objectives

iv. Given the right conditions, the average person can learn to accept and take responsibility

v. The capacity of creativiity is distributed widely in the population

vi. The intellectual capacity of the individual is only partially utilised

vii. Motivation occurs at all the needs levels of Maslow

MOTIVATION-X & Y THEORY

Z THEORY BY OUCHI (1981)

CHARACTERISTICS

i. Long term employment for a life-time

ii. Relatively slow process of evaluation and promotion

iii. Development of company-specific skills, and moderately specialised

career path

iv. Implicit, informal control mechanisms supported by explicit formal

measures

v. Participative decision-making and individual ultiamte responsibility

vi. Collective decision-making but individual ultimate responsibilty

vii. Broad concern for the welfare of subordinates and co-workers as a

natural part of a working relationship, and informal relations among

people.

OTHER PROCESS MOTIVATION THEORIES

1. Expectancy Theory by Vroom.: it states that people’s motivation to do

work will be high if they have the expectation that putting “effort” into a

task will lead to high “performance” which will in tend lead to the

desired “outcome”.

2. Example: A student learns hard to obtain an “A” in Management and

Organisational Behaviour and that the “A” will lead to a first class.

3. Elements of the Expectancy Theory

i. Valence: the value an individual has for an outcome

ii. Instrumentality: the probability that if effort is exerted it will to another

thing (high performance

iii. Expectancy: The probability that high performance will lead to a desired

outcome.

Relationship of the elements:

E P O where “E” stands for Effort, “P” for performance and “O”

for Outcome.

OTHER PROCESS MOTIVATION THEORIES

Equity Theory: Deals with peoples perceptions of how they are treated compared to others in an orgaisation . It states that people will be motivated if they are treated equitably or demotivated if they are treated inequitably.

2. Proponent: Adams Smith (1965)

Goal-setting Theory-Locke

This theory states that people are more motivated to act if they have specific targets or objectives to work towards. It emphasises that if the goals are challenging, and are accepted by subordinates, it increases motivation.

Assumptions of Theory:

i. Specific goals

ii. Difficulty level of goal, i.e. hard goals give motivation more than easy goals

iii. Goal Acceptance, i.e. subordinates must buy into the goal

iv. Feedback

LEADERSHIP

Learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

i. Define leadership and explain its importance

ii. Enumerate the traits of a leader

iii. Describe the leadership styles

LEADERSHIP-INTRODUCTION

Definition: Leadership is the ability to influence people toward the

attainment of orgainational goals.

LEADERSHIP VERSUS MANAGEMENT

LEADERSHIP STYLES

INTRODUCTION

Kurt Lewin (1938) identified three main leadership styles.

Further studies by people like Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973)

developed their leadership styles continuum.

Recent studies have developed other leadership styles.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

The main leadership styles are:

1. Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic): authoritarian leaders, also known

as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what needs to be done,

when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is

strongly focused on both command by the leader and control of the followers.

There is also a clear division between the leader and the followers.

Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from

the rest of the group.

2. Participative Leadership (Democratic)

Participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is generally

the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to

group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from

other group members.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

The main leadership styles are:

3. Delegative (Laissez-Faire) Leadership

Researchers found that children under delegative leadership, also known

as laissez-fair leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The

children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little

cooperation and were unable to work independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave

decision-making up to group members. While this style can be effective in

situations where group members are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it

often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.

LEADERSHIP APPROACHES

The leadership approaches include:

1. The Traits Approach

2. Functional Approach

3. Behavioral Approaches

4. Contingency Approaches

5. Transitional and transformational Leadership approaches

6. Inspirational Leadership

LEADERSHIP TRAITS

What are traits? Traits are distinguishing personal

characteristics , such as intelligence, values, and

appearance.

The traits theory believed that people were born with

certain traits that automatically made them leaders.

Leaders are to be selected rather than taught (Drucker

1955)

There have researched into the common traits of leaders

which included personality, physical or mental

characteristics

Apart from personal characteristics, social and work-

related characteristics of leaders have been added to the

traits (Marc & Marcic 2007).

LEADERSHIP TRAITS

Traits of leaders could therefore include the following:

Physical

• Energy

• Physical

stamina

Personal

• Self-confidence

• Honesty and

integrity

• Enthusiasm

• Independence

• Desire to lead

Cognitive

• Intelligence

• Judgement

• Decisiveness

Social

• Interpersonal

skills

• Cooperativene

ss

• Tact and

diplomacy

• Education

• Experience

• mobility

Work-related

• Achievement

• Desire to excel

• Conscientiousne

ss

• Tenacity

• foresight

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

Assumptions

i. This type of leadership focuses not on the personality of the leader but

on the functions of leadership

ii. Leadership is always present in a group of people

iii. Views leadership in terms of how the leader’s behaviour affects and is

affected by the group of followers

iv. It focuses on the content of leadership

v. The skills of leadership can be learned, developed and perfected.

vi. With careful selection and nurturing majority of people can play

leadership roles in an organisation

vii. Everybody can be a leader, you do not need to be the boss to be a

leader.

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

Action-centred leadership by John Adair

This theory indicates that the effectiveness of the

leader is dependent upon the following:

1.Task Needs

2.Team Maintenance Needs

3.Individual Needs

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

1.Task Functions/Needs include:

i. Achieving objectives of the work group

ii. Defining group tasks

iii. Planning the work

iv. Allocation of resources

v. Organisation of duties and responsibilities

vi. Controlling quality and checking performance

vii. Reviewing progress

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

2. Team functions include:

i. Maintaining morale and building team spirit

ii. Maintaining cohesiveness of the group

iii. Setting standards and maintaining discipline

iv. Systems of communications within the group

v. Training the group

vi. Appointment of sub-leaders

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

3. Individual functions include:

i. Meeting the needs of individual members of the

group

ii. Attending to personal problems

iii. Giving praise and status

iv. Reconciling conflicts between group needs and

the needs of the individual

v. Training the individual

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

This approach draws attention on the behaviour of

people in leadership situations.

Major Proponents:

1. The Ohio State University Leadership Studies

2. The Michigan University Study

3. McGregor’s X and Y theory

4. Blake and McCanse’s Leadership Greed

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

1. The Ohio State University Leadership Studies

The focus of this study was on the effect of leadership styles on group performance.

The results identified two dimensions of leadershipi. Consideration: which reflects the extent to which leaders

establish trust, mutual respect and rapport with the group.-this is concerned with communication, participation and the human relations approach to leadership.

ii. Structure: reflects the extent to which the leader defines and structures group activities towards the attainment of group objectives-this approach is associated with efforts to achieve organisational goals.

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

2. The Michigan University Leadership Studies

This approach also came out with two approaches as summarised by Likert:

i. Employee-Centred Functions: which involves:

delegation of authority and avoidance of close supervision

Concern for subordinates

Participative problem-solving

ii. Production-Centred: which involves

High standards of performance and structure

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

3. The Leadership Grid

This approach measures the leader’s concern for people and production.

They represented this on a two dimension grid with nine scales each ranging from low concern for people to high concern and from low concern for production to high concern.

(9,9) is considered the best form of management.

Country-club management (1,9) occurs when emphasis is given to people rather than to work output

Authority-compliance management (9,1) occurs when primary emphasis is given to structure .

Middle-of-the-road management (5,5) reflects a moderate concern of people and production.

THE MANAGEMENT GRID OF BLAKE & McCANSE

High

.

Low

Low Concern for productionHigh

9 (1,9) (9,9)

8

7

6

5 (5,5)

4

3

2

1 (1,1) (9,1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Country-club

managementTeam

Management

Middle-of-the-

road

Management Authority-

compliance

Impoverishe

d

Management

Co

nc

ern

fo

r p

eo

ple

CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR BY

Tannerbaum and Schmidt-1973 Tannerbaum and Schmidt present a continuum of possible leadership

behaviour available to a manager and along with various styles of

leadership may be exerted.

There are four styles of leadership open to the manager which are:

i. Telling: the manager identifies a problem, makes a decision and

announces it to his subordinates, expecting them to implement it without

opportunity for participating

ii. Selling: manager makes the decision and persuades subordinates to

accept.

iii. Consulting: the manager identifies the problem, presents the problem to

the subordinates, listens to the advice and suggestions of subordinates

before taking decision

iv. Joining: the manager defines the problem and the limits within which the

decisions must be made, and passes to the group the right to make

decisions with the manager as a member of the group.

CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR BY

Tannerbaum and Schmidt-1973 Tannerbaum and Schmidt identified three forces that determine the type

of management style to use. These are:

1. Forces in the manager which are:

Value systems;

Confidence in subordinates;

Leadership inclinations; and

Feelings of security in the uncertain situation.

2. Forces of the subordinate

Strength of the need for independence

Readiness to assume responsibility for decision making

The degree of tolerance for ambiguity

Interests in the problem and feeling as to its importance

Necessary knowledge and experience to deal with the problem

CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR BY

Tannerbaum and Schmidt-1973 Tannerbaum and Schmidt identified three forces that determine the type

of management style to use. These are:

3. Forces in the situation which are:

Type of organisation;

Group effectiveness

Nature of the problem; and

Pressure of time.

Tannerbaum and Schmidt conclude that successful leader keenly aware of those

forces which could influence their behaviour at any particular time.

Manager power and

influence

Non-manager power

and influenceAria of Freedom

for Manager

Area of

Freedom for

non-manager

Manager

makes

decisions

which non-

managers

accept

Manager

sells

decision

before

gaining

acceptanc

e

Manager

presents

decision

but

responds

to question

from non-

managers

a

Manager

presents

problem,

gets inputs

from non-

managers

and takes

decision

Manager

defines

limits

within

which non-

managers

make

decisions

Manager

and non-

managers

jointly make

decisions

Organisational and

external environment

LEADERSHIP STYLES

The main leadership styles are:

4. Transformational Leadership Style

Transformational leadership is often identified as the single most effective style. The style was first described in the late 1970s and later expanded upon by researcher Bernard M. Bass. Some of the key characteristics of his style of leadership are the abilities to motivate and inspire followers and to direct positive changes in groups. Transformational leaders tend to be emotionally intelligent, energetic, and passionate. They are not only committed to helping the group achieve its goals, but also to helping group members fulfill their potential.

Research has revealed that this style of leadership is linked to higher performance and improved group satisfaction than other leadership styles. One study also found that transformation leadership was linked to improved well-being among group members.

.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

The main leadership styles are:

The Transactional Leadership Style

The transactional leadership style views the leader-follower relationship as a

transaction. By accepting a position as a member of the group, the individual

has agreed to obey the leader. In most situations, this involves the employer-

employee relationship and the transaction focuses on the follower completing

required tasks in exchanged for monetary compensation.

One of the key benefits of this leadership style is that it creates clearly defined

roles. People know what they are required to do and what they will be

receiving in exchange for completing these tasks. It also allows leaders to

offer a great deal of supervision and direction if it is needed. Group members

may also be motivated to perform well in order to receive rewards. One of the

biggest downsides is that the transactional style tends to stifle creativity and

out-of-the-box thinking.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

The main leadership styles are:

The Transactional Leadership Style

Situational theories of leaders stress the important influence of the environment

and the situation on leadership.

Some of the proponents of Situational Leadership include:

Hershey and Blankard’s Leadership Styles

.