PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY(A Central University)

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Management AccountingPaper Code : MBFM 3005

MBA - FINANCE

III Semester

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT LESSON TITLE PAGE NO.

I

1.1 Management Accounting Basics 4

1.2 Responsibility Accounting 19

1.3 Transfer Pricing 23

II

2.1 Budgets and Budgetary Control 34

2.2 Standard Costing 58

2.3 Variance Analysis 66

III

3.1 Marginal Costing – Basic Concepts 110

3.2 Marginal Costing and CVP Analysis 127

3.3 Marginal Costing and Decision-making 148

IV

4.1 DU-Pont Analysis 164

4.2 Funds Flow Analysis 186

4.3 Cash Flow Analysis 211

4.4 Contemporary Issues in Management 226

V5.1 Social Cost Benefit Analysis 254

5.2 Reporting to Managment 258

Authors

ӵ Prof. S. Kumar

ӵ Prof. M. Zaheer Ahmed

ӵ Prof. Jonardan Koner

ӵ Prof. E. Raja Justics

Edited by

Prof. Malabika Deo, Professor,Dept.of Commerce, Pondicherry University,Puducherry.

© All Rights ReservedFor Private Circulation Only

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT LESSON TITLE PAGE NO.

I

1.1 Management Accounting Basics 4

1.2 Responsibility Accounting 19

1.3 Transfer Pricing 23

II

2.1 Budgets and Budgetary Control 34

2.2 Standard Costing 58

2.3 Variance Analysis 66

III

3.1 Marginal Costing – Basic Concepts 110

3.2 Marginal Costing and CVP Analysis 127

3.3 Marginal Costing and Decision-making 148

IV

4.1 DU-Pont Analysis 164

4.2 Funds Flow Analysis 186

4.3 Cash Flow Analysis 211

4.4 Contemporary Issues in Management 226

V5.1 Social Cost Benefit Analysis 254

5.2 Reporting to Managment 258

Notes

1

MBA (Finance) – III Semester Paper code: MBFM3005

PAPER -XV

Management Accounting

Objectives

➢ To apply various management accounting techniques to all types of organizations for planning, decision making and control purposes in practical situations and

➢ To familiarize Contemporary Issues in Management Accounting.

Unit - I

Management accounting – Objectives, nature, and scope of Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting, and Management Accounting – Managerial Decisions – Accounting Plan and Responsibility Centers – Significance of Responsibility Accounting – Responsibility Centers – Cost Centre, Profit Centre and Investment Centre – Determinants of Responsibility Centers – Transfer Pricing – Objectives of transfer pricing – Methods of transfer pricing (simple problems) – Conflict between a division and a company - Multi-National Transfer pricing.

Unit – II

Budgeting and Budgetary control – Fixed and flexible budget – Preparation of functional budget for operating and non-operating functions, Cash budgets, Capital expenditure budget, Master budget, Principal budget factors – Zero-base budgeting – Performance budgeting – Standard Costing and Variance Analysis – Material Variances – labour Variances, Overhead (Fixed and Variable) Variances – Sales Variances.

Notes

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Unit – III

Marginal Costing and Break-even Analysis – Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis – Break-Even Analysis – Assumptions and practical applications of Breakeven-Analysis – Decisions regarding Sales-mix – Make or Buy Decisions – Limiting Factor Decision – Export Decision – Plant Merger – Decision of Shutdown or Continuation of a product line.

Unit - IV

DuPont Analysis – Fund Flow Analysis – Cash flow analysis – Contemporary Issues in Management Accounting – Value chain analysis – Activity-Based Costing (ABC) – Quality Costing – Target and Life Cycle Costing – Theory of Constraints accounting (TOC).

Unit – V

Social Cost Benefit Analysis – Decision Tree in Management – Reporting to Management – Objectives of Reporting – Reporting needs at different managerial levels – Types of reports – Modes of Reporting, Reporting at different levels of Management.

[Note: Distribution of Questions between Problems and Theory of this paper must be 60:40 i.e., Problem Questions: 60 % & Theory Questions: 40%]

References

Dr Murthy, S Gurusamy, MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING, McGraw Hill, Delhi, 2009

Khan. MY, Jain P., MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING, McGraw Hill, Delhi, 2009

Singhvi. NM, MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING, PHI, Delhi, 2010

Notes

3

UNIT – I

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit you will be able to

➢ Understand the management accounting as an area of accounting

➢ Differentiate the management accounting with the financial accounting and cost accounting.

➢ Understand the concept of Responsibility Accounting and various types of Responsibility centers and how far it fixes the responsibilities and use of the same as device for the control mechanism under Management control structure.

➢ Understand the concept of transfer pricing

➢ Know the provisions, scope, and objectives of transfer pricing

➢ Understand different methods of the determination of transfer pricing

Unit Structure

Lesson 1.1 – Management Accounting Basics

Lesson 1.2 – Responsibility Accounting

Lesson 1.3 – Transfer Pricing

Notes

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Lesson 1.1 - Management Accounting Basics

Introduction

A business enterprise must keep a systematic record of what happens from day-to-day events so that it can know its position clearly. Most of the business enterprises are run by the corporate sector. These business houses are required by law to prepare periodical statements in proper form showing the state of financial affairs. The systematic record of the daily events of a business leading to presentation of a complete financial picture is known as accounting. Thus, Accounting is the language of business. A business enterprise speaks through accounting. It reveals the position, especially the financial position through the language called accounting.

Meaning of Accounting

Accounting is the process of recording, classifying, summarizing, analyzing and interpreting the financial transactions of the business for the benefit of management and those parties who are interested in business such as shareholders, creditors, bankers, customers, employees and government. Thus, it is concerned with financial reporting and decision making aspects of the business.

The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants Committee on Terminology proposed in 1941 that accounting may be defined as, “The art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of a financial character and interpreting the results thereof ”.

Branches of Accounting

Accounting can be classified into three categories:

1. Financial Accounting

2. Cost Accounting, and

3. Management Accounting

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Financial Accounting

The term ‘Accounting’ unless otherwise specifically stated always refers to ‘Financial Accounting’. Financial Accounting is commonly carried on in the general offices of a business. It is concerned with revenues, expenses, assets and liabilities of a business house. Financial Accounting has two-fold objective, viz.

1. To ascertain the result of the business, and

2. To know the financial position of the concern.

Nature and Scope of Financial Accounting

Financial accounting is a useful tool for management as well as for external users such as shareholders, potential owners, creditors, customers, employees and government as it provides information regarding the results of its operations and the financial status of the business. The following are the functional aspects of financial accounting:-

1. Dealing with Financial Transactions

Accounting as a process deals only with those transactions which are measurable in terms of money. Anything which cannot be expressed in monetary terms does not form part of financial accounting however significant it may be.

2. Recording of information

Accounting is an art of recording financial transactions of a business concern. As there is a limitation for human memory, it is not possible to remember all transactions of the business. Therefore, the information is recorded in a set of books called Journal and other subsidiary books and it is useful for management in its decision making process.

3. Classification of Data

The recorded data are arranged in a manner so as to group the transactions of similar nature at one place so that full information of these items may be collected under different heads. This is done in the

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book called ‘Ledger’. For example, we may have accounts called ‘Salaries’, ‘Rent’, ‘Interest’, Advertisement’, etc. To verify the arithmetical accuracy of such accounts, trial balance is prepared.

4. Summarizing Group of Information

The classified information of the trial balance is used to prepare profit and loss account and balance sheet in a manner useful to the users of accounting information. The final accounts are prepared to find out operational efficiency and financial strength of the business.

5. Analyzing

It is the process of establishing the relationship between the items of the profit and loss account and the balance sheet. The purpose is to identify the financial strength and weakness of the business. It also provides a basis for interpretation.

6. Interpreting the Financial Information

It is concerned with explaining the meaning and significance of the relationship established by the analysis. It is useful to the users, as it enables them to take correct decisions.

7. Communicating the Results

The profitability and financial position of the business as interpreted above are communicated to the interested parties at regular intervals so as to assist them to make their own conclusions.

Limitations of Financial Accounting

Financial accounting is concerned with the preparation of final accounts. The present day business has become so complex that mere final accounts are not sufficient in meeting financial needs. Financial accounting is like a post-mortem report. At the most it can reveal what has happened so far, but it does not have any control over the past happenings. The limitations of financial accounting are as follows:-

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1. It records only quantitative information.

2. It records only the historical cost. The impact of future uncertainties has no place in financial accounting.

3. It does not take into account price level changes.

4. It provides information about the whole concern. Product-wise, process-wise, department-wise or information of any other line of activity cannot be obtained separately from the financial accounting.

5. Cost figures are not known in advance. Therefore, it is not possible to fix the price in advance. It does not provide information to increase or reduce the selling price.

6. As there is no technique for comparing the actual performance with that of the budgeted targets, it is not possible to evaluate performance of the business.

7. It does not tell about the optimum or otherwise of the quantum of profit made and does not provide the ways and means to increase the profits.

8. In case of loss, whether loss can be reduced or converted into profit by means of cost control and cost reduction? Financial accounting does not answer such question.

9. It does not reveal which departments are performing well? Which ones are incurring losses and how much is the loss in each case?

10. It does not provide the cost of products manufactured

11. There is no means provided by financial accounting to reduce the wastage.

12. Can the expenses be reduced which results in the reduction of product cost and if so, to what extent and how? There is no answer to these questions in financial accounting.

13. It is not helpful to the management in taking strategic decisions like replacement of assets, introduction of new products, discontinuation of an existing line, expansion of capacity, etc.

14. It provides ample scope for manipulation like overvaluation or undervaluation. This possibility of manipulation reduces the reliability.

15. It is technical in nature. A person not conversant with accounting has little utility of the financial accounts.

Notes

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Cost Accounting

An accounting system is to make available necessary and accurate information for all those who are interested in the welfare of the organization. The requirements of majority of them are satisfied by means of financial accounting.

However, the management requires far more detailed information than what the conventional financial accounting can offer. The focus of the management lies not in the past but on the future.

For a businessman who manufactures goods or renders services, cost accounting is a useful tool. It was developed on account of limitations of financial accounting and is the extension of financial accounting. The advent of factory system gave an impetus to the development of cost accounting.

It is a method of accounting for cost. The process of recording and accounting for all the elements of cost is called cost accounting.

The Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, London defines costing as, “the process of accounting for cost from the point at which expenditure is incurred or committed to the establishment of its ultimate relationship with cost centres and cost units. In its wider usage it embraces the preparation of statistical data, the application of cost control methods and the ascertainment of the profitability of activities carried out or planned”.

The Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, India defines cost accounting as, “the technique and process of ascertainment of costs. Cost accounting is the process of accounting for costs, which begins with recording of expenses or the bases on which they are calculated and ends with preparation of statistical data”.

To put it simply, when the accounting process is applied for the elements of costs (i.e., Materials, Labour and Other expenses), it becomes Cost Accounting.

Notes

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Objectives of Cost Accounting

Cost accounting was born to fulfill the needs of manufacturing companies. It is a mechanism of accounting through which costs of goods or services are ascertained and controlled for different purposes. It helps to ascertain the true cost of every operation, through a close watch, say, cost analysis and allocation.

The main objectives of cost accounting are as follows:-

1. Cost Ascertainment

2. Cost Control

3. Cost Reduction

4. Fixation of Selling Price

5. Providing information for framing business policy.

1. Cost Ascertainment

The main objective of cost accounting is to find out the cost of product, process, job, contract, service or any unit of production. It is done through various methods and techniques.

2. Cost Control

The very basic function of cost accounting is to control costs. Comparison of actual cost with standards reveals the discrepancies (Variances). The variances indicate whether cost is within control or not. Remedial actions are suggested to control the costs which are within control.

3. Cost Reduction

Cost reduction refers to the real and permanent reduction in the unit cost of goods manufactured or services rendered without affecting the use intended. It can be done with the help of techniques called budgetary control, standard costing, material control, labour control and overheads control.

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4. Fixation of Selling Price

The price of any product consists of total cost and the margin required. Cost data are useful in the determination of selling price or quotations. It provides detailed information regarding various components of cost. It also provides information in terms of fixed cost and variable costs, so that the extent of price reduction can be decided.

5. Framing Business Policy

Cost accounting helps management in formulating business policy and decision making. Break even analysis, cost volume profit relationships, differential costing, etc are helpful in taking decisions regarding key areas of the business like-

a. Continuation or discontinuation of production

b. Utilization of capacity

c. The most profitable sales mix

d. Key factor

e. Export decision

f. Make or buy

g. Activity planning, etc.

Nature and Scope of Cost Accounting

Cost accounting is concerned with ascertainment and control of costs. The information provided by cost accounting to the management is helpful for cost control and cost reduction through functions of planning, decision making and control. Initially, cost accounting confined itself to cost ascertainment and presentation of the same, mainly to find out product cost. With the introduction of large scale production, the scope of cost accounting got widened and providing information for cost control and cost reduction assumed equal significance along with finding out cost of production. To start with cost accounting was applied in manufacturing activities but now it is applied also in service organizations, government organizations, local authorities, agricultural farms, extractive industries and so on.

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Cost accounting guides for ascertainment of cost of production. Cost accounting discloses profitable and unprofitable activities. It helps management to eliminate the unprofitable activities. It provides information for estimate and tenders. It discloses the losses occurring in the form of idle time spoilage or scrap etc. It also provides a perpetual inventory system. It helps to make effective control over inventory and for preparation of interim financial statements. It helps in controlling the cost of production with the help of budgetary control and standard costing. Cost accounting provides data for future production policies. It discloses the relative efficiencies of different workers and for fixation of wages to workers.

Limitations of Cost Accounting

i) It is based on estimation: as cost accounting relies heavily on predetermined data, it is not reliable.

ii) No uniform procedure in cost accounting: as there is no uniform procedure, with the same information different results may be arrived by different cost accountants.

iii) Large number of conventions and estimates: There are number of conventions and estimates in preparing cost records such as materials are issued on an average (or) standard price, overheads are charged on percentage basis, Therefore, the profits arrived from the cost records are not true.

iv) Formalities are more: Many formalities are to be observed to obtain the benefit of cost accounting. Therefore, it is not applicable to small and medium firms.

v) Expensive: Cost accounting is expensive and requires reconciliation with financial records.

vi) It is unnecessary: Cost accounting is an additional tool not essential tool and an enterprise can survive even without cost accounting.

vii) Secondary data: Cost accounting depends on financial statements for a lot of information. The errors or short comings in that information creep into cost accounts also.

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Management Accounting

Management accounting is not a specific system of accounting. It could be any form of accounting which enables a business to be conducted more effectively and efficiently. It is largely concerned with providing economic information to mangers for achieving organizational goals. It is an extension of the horizon of cost accounting towards newer areas of management.

Though much of the management accounting information are financial in nature but are organized in a manner relating directly to the decision on hand.

Management Accounting is comprised of two words ‘Management’ and ‘Accounting’. It means the study of managerial aspect of accounting. The emphasis of management accounting is to redesign accounting in such a way that it is helpful to the management in formation of policy, control of execution and appreciation of effectiveness.

Management accounting is of recent origin. This was first used in 1950 by a team of accountants visiting U. S. A under the auspices of Anglo-American Council on Productivity

Definition

Anglo-American Council on Productivity defines Management Accounting as, “the presentation of accounting information in such a way as to assist management to the creation of policy and the day to day operation of an undertaking”

The American Accounting Association defines Management Accounting as “the methods and concepts necessary for effective planning for choosing among alternative business actions and for control through the evaluation and interpretation of performances”.

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India defines Management Accounting as follows: “Such of its techniques and procedures by which accounting mainly seeks to aid the management collectively has come to be known as management accounting”

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From these definitions, it is very clear that financial data are recorded, analyzed and presented to the management in such a way that it becomes useful and helpful in planning and running business operations more systematically.

Objectives of Management Accounting

The fundamental objective of management accounting is to enable the management to maximize profits or minimize losses. The evolution of management accounting has given a new approach to the function of accounting. The main objectives of management accounting are as follows:

1. Planning and Policy Formulation

Planning involves forecasting on the basis of available information, setting goals; framing polices determining the alternative courses of action and deciding on the programme of activities. Management accounting can help greatly in this direction. It facilitates the preparation of statements in the light of past results and gives estimation for the future.

2. Interpretation process

Management accounting is to present financial information to the management. Financial information is technical in nature.

Therefore, it must be presented in such a way that it is easily understood. It presents accounting information with the help of statistical devices like charts, diagrams, graphs, etc.

3. Assists in Decision-Making Process

With the help of various modern techniques management accounting makes decision-making process more scientific. Data relating to cost, price, profit and savings for each of the available alternatives are collected and analyzed and thus it provides a base for taking sound decisions.

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4. Controlling

Management accounting is a useful tool for managerial control. Management accounting tools like standard costing and budgetary control are helpful in controlling performance.

Cost control is affected through the use of standard costing and departmental control is made possible through the use of budgets. Performance of each and every individual operation is controlled with the help of management accounting.

5. Reporting

Management accounting keeps the management fully informed about the latest position of the concern through reporting. It helps management to take proper and quick decisions. The performances of various departments are regularly reported to the top management.

6. Facilitates Organizing

Since management accounting stresses more on Responsibility Centers with a view to control costs and responsibilities, it also facilitates decentralization to a greater extent.

Thus, it is helpful in setting up effective and efficient organization framework.

7. Facilitates Coordination of Operations

Management accounting provides tools for overall control and coordination of business operations. Budgets are important means of coordination.

Nature and Scope of Management Accounting

Management accounting involves furnishing of accounting data to the management for basing its decisions. It helps in improving efficiency and achieving the organizational goals. The following paragraphs discuss about the nature of management accounting.

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1. Provides accounting information

Management accounting is based on accounting information. Management accounting is a service function and it provides necessary information to different levels of management.

Management accounting involves the presentation of information in a way it suits managerial needs. The accounting data collected by accounting department is used for reviewing various policy decisions.

2. Cause and Effect Analysis

The role of financial accounting is limited to find out the ultimate result, i.e., profit and loss, where as management accounting goes a step further. Management accounting discusses the cause and effect relationship. The reasons for the loss are probed and the factors directly influencing the profitability are also analyzed. Profits are compared to sales, different expenditures, current assets, interest payables, share capital, etc. to give meaningful interpretation.

3. Use of Special Techniques and Concepts

Management accounting uses special techniques and concepts according to necessity, to make accounting data more useful. The techniques usually used include financial planning and analyses, standard costing, budgetary control, marginal costing, project appraisal etc.

4. Taking Important Decisions

It supplies necessary information to the management which may be useful for its decisions. The historical data is studied to see its possible impact on future decisions. The implications of various decisions are also taken into account.

5. Achieving of Objectives

Management accounting uses the accounting information in such a way that it helps in formatting plans and setting up objectives. Comparing actual performance with targeted figures will give an idea to the management about the performance of various departments. When

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there are deviations, corrective measures can be taken at once with the help of budgetary control and standard costing.

6. No Fixed Norms

No specific rules are followed in management accounting as that of financial accounting. Though the tools are the same, their use differs from concern to concern. The deriving of conclusions also depends upon the intelligence of the management accountant. The presentation will be in the way which suits the concern most. 7. Increase in Efficiency

The purpose of using accounting information is to increase efficiency of the concern. The performance appraisal will enable the management to pin-point efficient and inefficient spots.

Effort is made to take corrective measures so that efficiency is improved. The constant review will make the staff cost – conscious.

8. Supplies Information and not Decision

Management accountant is only to guide to take decisions. The data is to be used by the management for taking various decisions. ‘How is the data to be utilized’ will depend upon the caliber and efficiency of the management.

9. Concerned with Forecasting

The management accounting is concerned with the future. It helps the management in planning and forecasting. The historical information is used to plan future course of action. The information is supplied with the object to guide management for taking future decisions.

Limitations of Management Accounting

Management Accounting is in the process of development. Hence, it suffers from all the limitations of a new discipline. Some of these limitations are:

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1. Limitations of Accounting Records

Management accounting derives its information from financial accounting, cost accounting and other records. It is concerned with the rearrangement or modification of data.

The correctness or otherwise of the management accounting depends upon the correctness of these basic records. The limitations of these records are also the limitations of management accounting.

2. It is only a Tool

Management accounting is not an alternate or substitute for management. It is a mere tool for management. Ultimate decisions are being taken by management and not by management accounting.

3. Heavy Cost of Installation

The installation of management accounting system needs a very elaborate organization. This results in heavy investment which can be afforded only by big concerns.

4. Personal Bias

The interpretation of financial information depends upon the capacity of interpreter as one has to make a personal judgment. Personal prejudices and bias affect the objectivity of decisions.

5. Psychological Resistance

The installation of management accounting involves basic change in organization set up. New rules and regulations are also required to be framed which affect a number of personnel and hence there is a possibility of resistance form some or the other.

6. Evolutionary Stage

Management accounting is only in a developmental stage. Its concepts and conventions are not as exact and established as that of other branches of accounting.

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Therefore, its results depend to a very great extent upon the intelligent interpretation of the data of managerial use.

7. Provides only Data

Management accounting provides data and not decisions. It only informs, not prescribes. This limitation should also be kept in mind while using the techniques of management accounting.8. Broad-based Scope

The scope of management accounting is wide and this creates many difficulties in the implementations process. Management requires information from both accounting as well as non-accounting sources. It leads to inexactness and subjectivity in the conclusion obtained through it.

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Lesson 1.2 - Responsibility Accounting

Definition of Responsibility Accounting

“Responsibility Accounting collects and reports planned and actual accounting information about the inputs and outputs of responsibility centers”.

It is based on information pertaining to inputs and outputs. The resources utilized in an organization are physical in nature like quantities of materials consumed, hours of labour, etc., which are called inputs. They are converted into a common denominator and expressed in monetary terms called “costs”, for the purpose of managerial control. In a similar way, outputs are based on cost and revenue data.

Responsibility Accounting must be designed to suit the existing structure of the organization. Responsibility should be coupled with authority. An organization structure with clear assignment of authorities and responsibilities should exist for the successful functioning of the responsibility accounting system. The performance of each manager is evaluated in terms of such factors.

Responsibility Centres

The main focus of responsibility accounting lies on the responsibility centres. A responsibility centre is a sub unit of an organization under the control of a manager who is held responsible for the activities of that centre. The responsibility centres are classified as follows:-

1) Cost Centres,

2) Profit Centres and

3) Investment centres.

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Cost Centres

When the manager is held accountable only for costs incurred in a responsibility centre, it is called a cost centre. It is the inputs and not outputs that are measured in terms of money. A cost centre records only costs incurred by the centre/unit/division, but the revenues earned (output) are excluded from its purview. It means that a cost centre is a segment whose performance is measured in terms of cost without taking into consideration its attainments in terms of “output”. The costs are the data for planning and control of cost canters. The performance of the managers is evaluated by comparing the costs incurred with the budgeted costs. The management focuses on the cost variances for ensuring proper control.

A cost centre does not serve the purpose of measuring the performance of the responsibility centre, since it ignores the output (revenues) measured in terms of money. For example, common feature of production department is that there are usually multiple product units. There must be some common basis to aggregate the dissimilar products to arrive at the overall output of the responsibility centre. If this is not done, the efficiency and effectiveness of the responsibility centre cannot be measure.

Profit Centres

When the manager is held responsible for both Costs (inputs) and Revenues (output) it is called a profit centre. In a profit centre, both inputs and outputs are measured in terms of money. The difference between revenues and costs represents profit. The term “revenue” is used in a different sense altogether.

According to generally accepted principles of accounting, revenues are recognized only when sales are made to external customers. For evaluating the performance of a profit centre, the revenue represents a monetary measure of output arising from a profit centre during a given period, irrespective of whether the revenue is realized or not.

The relevant profit to facilitate the evaluation of performance of a profit centre is the pre–tax profit. The profit of all the departments

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so calculated will not necessarily be equivalent to the profit of the entire organization. The variance will arise because costs which are not attributable to any single department are excluded from the computation of the department’s profits and the same are adjusted while determining the profits of the whole organization.

Profit provides more effective appraisal of the manager’s performance. The manager of the profit centre is highly motivated in his decision-making relating to inputs and outputs so that profits can be maximized. The profit centre approach cannot be uniformly applied to all responsibility centres. The following are the criteria to be considered for making a responsibility centre into a profit centre.

A profit centre must maintain additional record keeping to measure inputs and outputs in monetary terms. When a responsibility centre renders only services to other departments, e.g., internal audit, it cannot be made a profit centre.

A profit centre will gain more meaning and significance only when the divisional managers of responsibility centers have empowered adequately in their decision making relating to quality and quantity of outputs and also their relation to costs.

If the output of a division is fairly homogeneous (e.g., cement), a profit centre will not prove to be more beneficial than a cost centre.

Due to intense competition prevailing among different profit centers, there will be continuous friction among the centers arresting the growth and expansion of the whole organization. A profit centre will generate too much of interest in the short-run profit which may be detrimental to the long-term results.

Investment Centers

When the manager is held responsible for costs and revenues as well as for the investment in assets, it is called an Investment Centre. In an investment centre, the performance is measured not by profits alone, but is involved with investments effected. The manager of an investment centre is always interested to earn a satisfactory return. The return on investment

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is usually referred to as ROI that serves as a criterion for the performance evaluation of the manager of an investment centre. Investment centers may be considered as separate entities where the manager is entrusted with the overall responsibility of inputs, outputs and investment.

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Lesson 1.3 - Transfer Pricing

Introduction

In the post economic liberalization, multinational companies started expanding their business transactions across the border. The rapid growth of economic activities of multinational groups led to various complex issues regarding taxation. The multinational groups have more inter business activities like transfer of goods or services. One group transfers the goods and services to another group. Such transfers cause the problem of pricing the goods or services.

Thus it may not comply with necessary rules and regulations while transferring goods or services. This noncompliance with statutory provisions may tend to create revenue loss to the exchequer. Hence, there is a need to provide statutory framework which will lead to compute the profits and tax in a fair manner.

Provisions Regulating Transfer Pricing in India

The Finance Act, 2001 introduced law of transfer pricing in India through sections 92A to 92F of the Indian Income Tax Act, 1961 which guides computation of the transfer price and suggests detailed documentation procedures.

Scope & Applicability

Transfer Pricing Regulations (“TPR”) are applicable to the all enterprises that enter into an ‘International Transaction’ with an ‘Associated Enterprise’. Therefore, generally it applies to all cross border transactions entered into between associated enterprises. It even applies to transactions involving a mere book entry having no apparent financial impact. The aim is to arrive at the comparable price as available to any unrelated party in open market conditions and is known as the Arm’s Length Price (‘ALP’).

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Important Definitions

Transfer Pricing

“Transfer price” is a price at which the value of goods or services being transferred between independently operating units of an organization. But, the expression “transfer pricing” generally refers to prices of transactions between associated enterprises may be different from the prices at which an independent enterprise transfers to another the same goods or services.

Arm’s Length Price

The term arm’s length price refers to a price which is applied or proposed to be applied in a transaction between persons other than associated enterprises, in uncontrolled conditions.

Objectives of Transfer Pricing

There are three objectives that should be considered for setting-out a transfer price.

(a) Autonomy of the Division. The prices should seek to maintain the maximum divisional autonomy so that the benefits, of decentralization (motivation, better decision making, initiative etc.) are maintained. The profits of one division should not be dependent on the actions of other divisions,

(b) Goal congruence: The prices should be set so that the divisional management’s desire to maximize divisional earrings is consistent with the objectives of the company as a whole. The transfer prices should not encourage suboptimal decision-making.

(c) Performance appraisal: The prices should enable reliable assessments to be made of divisional performance.

Determination of Arm’s Length Price

The arm’s length price in relation to an international transaction can be determined by any of the following methods, The most appropriate

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method, may be chosen having regard to the nature of transaction or class of transaction or class of associated persons or functions performed by such persons or such other relevant factors as the Board may prescribed namely:—

(a) Comparable uncontrolled price method;

(b) Resale price method;

(c) Cost plus method;

(d) Profit split method;

(e) Transactional net margin method;

Suppose more than one price is determined by the most appropriate method, the arm’s length price shall be taken to be the arithmetical mean of such prices:

In case, the variation between the arm’s length price so determined and price at which the international transaction has actually been undertaken does not exceed five per cent of the latter, the price at which the international transaction has actually been undertaken shall be deemed to be the arm’s length price.

Computation of Arm’s Length Price

The Institute of Chartered Accountant of India (ICAI) has laid down certain guidelines which are to be followed when comparable uncontrollable price is determined. The guidelines are given below.

(a) Comparable Uncontrollable Price Method

i) Find out the price charged or paid for property transferred or services provided in a comparable uncontrolled transaction, or a number of such transactions, is identified,

ii) Adjust such price to account for differences, if any, between the international transaction and the comparable uncontrolled transaction, or between the enterprises entering into such transactions, which could materially affect the price in the open market;

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iii) the adjusted price arrived at is taken to be an arm’s length price in respect of the property transferred or services provided in the international transaction;

iv) If there is any variation between price charged (price paid) on the international transaction and arm’s length price, then an adjustment has to be made in order to remove the variance.

(b) Resale Price Method

(i) Find out the international transaction through which property purchased or services obtained

(ii) Identify the price at which the property or services are resold or provided to a third party

(iii) Deduct the normal gross profit earned by the enterprise from the resale price of such property or services. The normal gross profit can be taken of a profit on a similar transaction made with unrelated party.

iv) The price so arrived at is further reduced by the expenses incurred by the enterprise in connection with the purchase of property or obtaining of service; The price so arrived at is adjusted to take into account the functional and other differences, including differences in accounting practices, if any, between the international transaction and the comparable uncontrolled transactions, or between the enterprises entering into such transactions, which could materially affect the amount of gross profit margin in the open market;

v) the adjusted price arrived at is taken to be an arm’s length price in respect of the purchase of the property or obtaining of the services by the enterprise from the associated enterprise;

(c) Cost Plus Method

i) Find the direct and indirect costs of production incurred by the enterprise in respect of property transferred or services provided to an associated enterprise

ii) Find a comparable uncontrollable transaction or a series of transaction with a third party for same property or service

Notes

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iii) The amount of a normal gross profit mark-up to such costs (computed according to the same accounting norms) arising from the transfer or provision of the same or similar property or services by the enterprise, or by an unrelated enterprise, in a comparable uncontrolled transaction, or a number of such transactions, is determined;

iv) The normal gross profit mark-up to account the functional and other differences, if any, between the international transaction and the comparable uncontrolled transactions,

v) The sum so arrived at, is taken to be an arm’s length price in relation to the supply of the property or provision of services by the enterprise;

d) Profit Split Method

Which may be applicable mainly in international transactions involving transfer of unique intangibles or in multiple international transactions which are so interrelated determining the arm’s length price of any one transaction, by which,

i) The combined net profit of the associated enterprises arising from the international transaction, in which they are engaged, is determined;

ii) The relative contribution made by each of the associated enterprises to the earning of such combined net profit, is then evaluated on the basis of the functions performed, assets employed or to be employed and risks assumed by each enterprise and on the basis of reliable external market data which indicates how such contribution would be evaluated by unrelated enterprise and on the basis of reliable external market data which indicates how such contribution would be evaluated by unrelated enterprises performing comparable functions in similar circumstances;

iii) The combined net profit is then split amongst the enterprises in proportion to their relative contributions,

iv) The profit thus apportioned to the assessee is taken into account to arrive at an arm’s length price in relation to the international transaction;

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e) Transactional Net Margin Method

i) The net profit margin realized by the enterprise from an international transaction entered into with an associated enterprise is computed in relation to costs incurred or sales effected or assets employed or to be employed by the enterprise or having regard to any other relevant base;

ii) The net profit margin realised by the enterprise or by an unrelated enterprise from a comparable uncontrolled transaction or a number of such transactions is computed having regard to the same base;

iii) The net profit margin arising in comparable uncontrolled transactions is adjusted to take into account of the differences, if any, between the international transaction and the comparable uncontrolled transactions, or between the enterprises entering into such transactions, which could materially affect the amount of net profit margin in the open market;

iv) The net profit margin thus established is then taken into account to arrive at an arm’s length price in relation to be international transaction.

Illustration I

X Ltd., an Indian company, sells computer CPU to its 100 per cent subsidiary Y Ltd. in United States @ $ 50 per piece. X Ltd. also sells its computer CPU to another company Z Ltd. in United States @ $ 90 per piece. Total income of X Ltd. for the assessment year 2012-13 is 12, 00,000 which includes sales made for 100 computer CPU @ $ 50 to Y Ltd. Compute the arm’s length price and taxable income of X Ltd. The rate of one dollar may be assumed to be equivalent to 47.

Notes

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Solution

Computation of Arm’s Length Price and Taxable Income of X Ltd.

Arm’s length price: 100 x 90 x 47 = 4, 23,000 Total Income 12, 00, 000 Add: Arm’s length price 4, 23,000 16, 23,000 Less: Price charged 100 x 50 x 47 2, 35, 000 Taxable Income 13, 88, 000

Relevant Points

(1) Transfer pricing is the pricing of internal transfers between profit centres.

(2) Ideally the transfer prices should, promote goal congruence, enable effective performance appraisal and maintain divisional autonomy.

(3) Economy theory suggests that the optimum transfer price would be the marginal cost equal for buying division’s marginal revenue product. Transfer prices should always be based on the marginal costs of the supplying division plus the opportunity costs to the organization as a whole.

(4) Because of information deficiencies, transfers pricing in practice does not always follow theoretical guidelines. Typically prices are market based, cost based or negotiated.

(5) Where an appropriate market price exists then this is an ideal transfer price. However, there may be no market for the intermediate product, the market may be imperfect, or the price may be considered unrepresentative.

(6) Where cost based systems are used then it is preferable to use standard costs to avoid transferring inefficiencies.

(7) Full cost transfer pricing for full cost plus a markup suffers from a number of limitations,; it may cause suboptimal decision-making.

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The price is only valid at one output level, it makes genuine performance appraisal difficult.

(8) Provided that variable cost equates with economic marginal cost then transfers at variable cost will avoid gross sub optimality but performance appraisal becomes meaningless.

(9) Negotiated transfer prices will only be appropriate if there is equal bargaining power and if negotiations are not protracted.

Conclusion

Transfer price policies represent the selection of suitable methods relating to the computation of transfer prices under various circumstances. More precisely, transfer pricing should be closely related to management performance assessment and decision optimization. But the problem of choosing an appropriate transfer pricing for the two functions of management-performance measurement and decision optimization –does not hold any simple solution. There is no single measure of transfer price that can be adopted under all circumstances.

Activities

1. Bring out the differences between the Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting

2. Ascertain the differences between the Financial Accounting and Management Accounting

3. Find out the differences between the Cost Accounting and Management Accounting

4. Extract the differences between the Financial Accounting and Management Accounting.

Self Assessment Questions

1. What do you understand by ‘Management Accounting’?

2. State the objectives of Management Accounting.

3. Discuss in detail the nature and scope of management accounting.

4. How can financial accounting be made useful for the management

Notes

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accounting?

5. State the limitations of financial accounting and point out how management accounting helps in overcoming them.

6. “Accounting provides information various users”. Discuss accounting as an information system.

7. What is Responsibility Accounting? Explain the significance of Responsibility Accounting.

8. What is Transfer Pricing? Discuss the importance of Transfer Pricing.

9. What are the methods under which the arm’s length price, with regard to an international transaction is determined?

10. Write a note on the following:

i. Cost Centre

ii. Profit Centre

iii. Investment Centre

iv. Market based transfer pricing

v. Cost based transfer pricing

vi. Full cost transfer pricing

vii. Negotiated transfer pricing

viii. Variable cost transfer pricing

****

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Notes

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UNIT – II

Learning Objectives

After studying this unit you will be able to

➢ Understand the preparation of various operations and functional budgets of an organization

➢ Know the technique of standard costing,

➢ Differentiate between Standard Costing and Budgeting

➢ Know different types of variances

➢ Familiarize various formulas of material, labour, overheads and sales variances.

Unit Structure

Lesson 2.1 - Budgets and Budgetary Control

Lesson 2.2 - Standard Costing

Lesson 2.3 - Variance Analysis

Notes

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Lesson 2.1 - Budgets and Budgetary Control

Introduction

To achieve the organizational objectives, an enterprise should be managed effectively and efficiently. It is facilitated by chalking out the course of action in advance. Planning, the primary function of management helps to chalk out the course of actions in advance. But planning has to be followed by continuous comparison of the actual performance with the planned performance, i. e., controlling. One systematic approach in effective follow up process is budgeting. Different budgets are prepared by the enterprise for different purposes. Thus, budgeting is an integral part of management.

Definition of Budget

‘A budget is a comprehensive and coordinated plan, expressed in financial terms, for the operations and resources of an enterprise for some specific period in the future’. (Fremgen, James M – Accounting for Managerial Analysis)

‘A budget is a predetermined detailed plan of action developed and distributed as a guide to current operations and as a partial basis for the subsequent evaluation of performance’. (Gordon and Shillinglaw)

‘A budget is a financial and/or quantitative statement, prepared prior to a defined period of time, of the policy to be pursued during the period for the purpose of attaining a given objective’. (The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London)

Elements of Budget

The basic elements of a budget are as follows:-

1. It is a comprehensive and coordinated plan of action.

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2. It is a plan for the firm’s operations and resources.

3. It is based on objectives to be attained.

4. It is related to specific future period.

5. It is expressed in financial and/or physical units.

Budgeting

Budgeting is the process of preparing and using budgets to achieve management objectives. It is the systematic approach for accomplishing the planning, coordination, and control responsibilities of management by optimally utilizing the given resources.

‘The entire process of preparing the budgets is known as Budgeting’ (J. Batty)

‘Budgeting may be said to be the act of building budgets’ (Rowland & Harr)

Elements of Budgeting

1. A good budgeting should state clearly the firm’s expectations and facilitate their attainability.

2. A good budgeting system should utilize various persons at different levels while preparing the budgets.

3. The authority and responsibility should be properly fixed.

4. Realistic targets are to be fixed.

5. A good system of accounting is also essential.

6. Wholehearted support of the top management is necessary.

7. Budgeting education is to be imparted among the employees.

8. Proper reporting system should be introduced.

9. Availability of working capital is to be ensured.

Definition of Budgetary Control

CIMA, London defines budgetary control as, “the establishment of the budgets relating to the responsibility of executives to the requirements of a policy and the continuous comparison of actual with budgeted result

Notes

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either to secure by individual action the objectives of that policy or to provide a firm basis for its revision”

‘Budgetary Control is a planning in advance of the various functions of a business so that the business as a whole is controlled’. (Wheldon)

‘Budgetary Control is a system of controlling costs which includes the preparation of budgets, coordinating the department and establishing responsibilities, comprising actual performance with the budgeted and acting upon results to achieve maximum profitability’. (Brown and Howard)

Elements of Budgetary Control

1. Establishment of budgets for each function and division of the organization.

2. Regular comparison of the actual performance with the budget to know the variations from budget and placing the responsibility of executives to achieve the desired result as estimated in the budget.

3. Taking necessary remedial action to achieve the desired objectives, if there is a variation of the actual performance from the budgeted performance.

4. Revision of budgets when the circumstances change.

5. Elimination of wastes and increasing the profitability.

Budget, Budgeting and Budgetary Control

A budget is a blue print of a plan expressed in quantitative terms. Budgeting is a technique for formulating budgets. Budgetary Control refers to the principles, procedures and practices of achieving given objectives through budgets.

According to Rowland and William, ‘Budgets are the individual objectives of a department, whereas Budgeting may be the act of building budgets. Budgetary control embraces all and in addition includes the science of planning the budgets to effect an overall management tool for the business planning and control’.

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Objectives of Budgetary Control

Budgetary Control assists the management in the allocation of responsibilities and is a useful device to estimate and plan the future course of action. The general objectives of budgetary control are as follows:

1. Planning

(a) A budget is an action plan and it is prepared after a careful study and research.

(b) A budget operates as a mechanism through which objectives and policies are carried out.

(c) It is a communication channel among various levels of management.

(d) It is helpful in selecting a most profitable alternative.

(e) It is a complete formulation of the policy to be pursued for attaining given objectives.

2. Co-Ordination

It coordinates various activities of the business to achieve its com-mon objectives. It induces the executives to think and operate as a group.

3. Control

Control is necessary to judge that the performance of the organization confirms to the plans of business. It compares the actual performance with that of the budgeted performance, ascertains the deviations, if any, and takes corrective action at once.

Installation of Budgetary Control System

There are certain steps necessary to install a good budgetary control system in an organization. They are as follows:

1. Determination of the Objectives

2. Organization for Budgeting

3. Budget Centre

Notes

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4. Budget Officer

5. Budget Manual

6. Budget Committee

7. Budget Period

8. Determination of Key Factor

1. Determination of Objectives

It is very clear that the installation of a budgetary control system presupposes the determination of objectives sought to be achieved by the organization in clear terms.

2. Organization for Budgeting

Having determined the objectives clearly, proper organization is essential for the successful preparation, maintenance and administration of budgets. The responsibility of each executive must be clearly defined. There should be no uncertainty regarding the jurisdiction of executives.

3. Budget Centre

It is that part of the organization for which the budget is prepared. It may be a department or any other part of the department. It is essential for the appraisal of performance of different departments so as to make them responsible for their budgets.

4. Budget Officer

A Budget Officer is a convener of the budget committee. He coordinates the budgets of various departments. The managers of different departments are made responsible for their department’s performance.

5. Budget Manual

It is a document which defines the objectives of budgetary control system. It spells out the duties and responsibilities of budget officers regarding the preparation and execution of budgets. It also specifies the relations among various functionaries.

Notes

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6. Budget Committee

The heads of all important departments are made members of this committee. It is responsible for preparation and execution of budgets. The members of this committee may sometimes take collective decisions, if necessary. In small concerns, the accountant is made responsible for the same work.

7. Budget Period

It is the period for which a budget is prepared. It depends upon a number of factors. It may be different for different concerns/functions.

The following are the factors that may be taken into consideration while determining budget period:

a. The type of budget,

b. The nature of demand for the products,

c. The availability of finance,

d. The economic situation of the cycle and

e. The length of trade cycle

8. Determination of Key Factor

Generally, the budgets are prepared for all functional areas of the business. They are inter related and inter dependent. Therefore, a proper coordination is necessary. There may be many factors that influence the preparation of a budget.

For example, plant capacity, demand position, availability of raw materials, etc. Some factors may have an impact on other budgets also. A factor which influences all other budgets is known as Key factor.

The key factor may not remain the same. Therefore, the organization must pay due attention on the key factor in the preparation and execution of budgets.

Notes

40

Types of Budgeting

Budget can be classified into three categories from different points of view. They are:

1. According to Function

2. According to Flexibility

3. According to Time

I. According to Function

(a) Sales Budget

The budget which estimates total sales in terms of items, quantity, value, periods, areas, etc is called Sales Budget.

(b) Production Budget

It estimates quantity of production in terms of items, periods, areas, etc. It is prepared on the basis of Sales Budget.

(c) Cost of Production Budget

This budget forecasts the cost of production. Separate budgets may also be prepared for each element of costs such as direct materials budgets, direct labour budget, factory materials budgets, office overheads budget, selling and distribution overheads budget, etc.

(d) Purchase Budget

This budget forecasts the quantity and value of purchase required for production. It gives quantity wise, money wise and period wise particulars about the materials to be purchased.

(e) Personnel Budget

The budget that anticipates the quantity of personnel required during a period for production activity is known as Personnel Budget.

Notes

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(f) Research Budget

This budget relates to the research work to be done for improvement in quality of the products or research for new products.

(g) Capital Expenditure Budget

This budget provides a guidance regarding the amount of capital that may be required for procurement of capital assets during the budget period.

(h) Cash Budget

This budget is a forecast of the cash position by time period for a specific duration of time. It states the estimated amount of cash receipts and estimation of cash payments and the likely balance of cash in hand at the end of different periods.

(i) Master Budget

It is a summary budget incorporating all functional budgets in a capsule form. It interprets different functional budgets and covers within its range the preparation of projected income statement and projected balance sheet.

II. According to Flexibility

On the basis of flexibility, budgets can be divided into two categories. They are:

1. Fixed Budget

2. Flexible Budget

1. Fixed Budget

Fixed Budget is one which is prepared on the basis of a standard or a fixed level of activity. It does not change with the change in the level of activity.

Notes

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2. Flexible Budget

A budget prepared to give the budgeted cost of any level of activity is termed as a flexible budget. According to CIMA, London, a Flexible Budget is, ‘a budget designed to change in accordance with level of activity attained’. It is prepared by taking into account the fixed and variable elements of cost.

III. According to Time

On the basis of time, the budget can be classified as follows:

1. Long term budget

2. Short term budget

3. Current budget

4. Rolling budget

1. Long-Term Budget

A budget prepared for considerably long period of time, viz., 5 to 10 years is called Long-term Budget. It is concerned with the planning of operations of the firm. It is generally prepared in terms of physical quantities.

2. Short-Term Budget

A budget prepared generally for a period not exceeding 5 years is called Short-term Budget. It is generally prepared in terms of physical quantities and in monetary units.

3. Current Budget

It is a budget for a very short period, say, a month or a quarter. It is adjusted to current conditions. Therefore, it is called current budget.

4. Rolling Budget

It is also known as Progressive Budget. Under this method, a budget for a year in advance is prepared. A new budget is prepared after

Notes

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the end of each month/quarter for a full year ahead. The figures for the month/quarter which has rolled down are dropped and the figures for the next month/quarter are added. This practice continues whenever a month/quarter ends and a new month/quarter begins.

Preparation of Budgets

I. Sales Budget

Sales budget is the basis for the preparation of other budgets. It is the forecast of sales to be achieved in a budget period. The sales manager is directly responsible for the preparation of this budget. The following factors are taken into consideration:

a. Past sales figures and trend

b. Salesmen’s estimates

c. Plant capacity

d. General trade position

e. Orders in hand

f. Proposed expansion

g. Seasonal fluctuations

h. Market demand

i. Availability of raw materials and other supplies

j. Financial position

k. Nature of competition

l. Cost of distribution

m. Government controls and regulations

n. Political situation.

Example

1. The Royal Industries has prepared its annual sales forecast, expecting to achieve sales of ` 30, 00,000 next year. The Controller is uncertain about the pattern of sales to be expected by month and asks you to prepare a monthly budget of sales. The following is the sales data pertained to the year, which is considered to be representative of a normal year:

Notes

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Month Sales (`) Month Sales (`)

January 1,10,000 July 2,60,000

February 1,15,000 August 3,30,000

March 1,00,000 September 3,40,000

April 1,40,000 October 3,50,000

May 1,80,000 November 2,00,000

June 2,25,000 December 1,50,000

Prepare a monthly sales budget for the coming year on the basis of the above data.

Answer

Sales Budget

MonthSales

(given)Sales estimation based on

cash sales ratio given

January 1,10,000 (1,10,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,32,000

February 1,15,000 (1,15,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,38,000

March 1,00,000 (1,00,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,20,000

April 1,40,000 (1,40,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,68,000

May 1,80,000 (1,80,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 2,16,000

June 2,25,000 (2,25,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 2,70,000

July 2,60,000 (2,60,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 3,12,000

August 3,30,000 (3,30,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 3,96,000

September 3,40,000 (3,40,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 4,08,000

October 3,50,000 (3,50,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 4,20,000

November 2,00,000 (2,00,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 2,40,000

December 1,50,000 (1,50,000/25,00,000) x 30,00,000 = 1,80,000

Total 25,00,000 30,00,000

Note: Sales budget is prepared based on last year’s month-wise sales ratio.

Notes

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Example

2. M/s. Alpha Manufacturing Company produces two types of products, viz., Raja and Rani and sells them in Chennai and Mumbai markets. The following information is made available for the current year:

Market Product Budgeted Sales Actual Sales

Chennai Raja 400 units @ ` 9 each 500 units @ ` 9 each

,, Rani 300 units @ ` 21 each 200 units @ ` 21 each

Mumbai Raja 600 units @ ` 9 each 700 units @ ` 9 each

Rani 500 units @ ` 21 each 400 units @ ` 21 each

Market studies reveal that Raja is popular as it is under priced. It is observed that if its price is increased by ` 1 it will find a readymade market. On the other hand, Rani is overpriced and market could absorb more sales if its price is reduced to ` 20. The management has agreed to give effect to the above price changes.

On the above basis, the following estimates have been prepared by Sales Manager:

Product% increase in sales over current budget

Chennai Mumbai

Raja +10% + 5%

Rani + 20% + 10%

With the help of an intensive advertisement campaign, the following additional sales above the estimated sales of sales manager are possible:

Product Chennai Mumbai

Raja 60 units 70 units

Rani 40 units 50 units

You are required to prepare a budget for sales incorporating the above estimates.

46

AnswerSales Budget

Area ProductBudget for

current yearActual sales Budget for

future period

Units Price`

Value `

Units Price`

Value `

Units Price`

Value `

ChennaiRaja 400 9 3600 500 9 4500 500 10 5000

Rani 300 21 6300 200 21 4200 400 20 8000

Total 700 9900 700 8700 900 13000

MumbaiRaja 600 9 5400 700 9 6300 700 10 7000

Rani 500 21 10500 400 21 8400 600 20 12000

Total 1100 15900 1100 14700 1300 19000

TotalRaja 1000 9 9000 1200 9 10800 1200 10 12000

Rani 800 21 16800 600 21 12600 1000 20 20000

Total Sales

1800 25800 1800 23400 2200 32000

Workings

1. Budgeted sales for Chennai

RajaUnits

RaniUnits

Budgeted Sales 400 300

Add: Increase (10%) 40 (20%) 60

440 360

Increase due to advertisement 60 40

Total 500 400

2. Budgeted sales for Mumbai

RajaUnits

RaniUnits

Budgeted Sales 600 500

Add: Increase (5%) 30 (10%) 50

630 550

Increase due to advertisement 70 50

Total 700 600

Notes

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II. Production Budget

Production = Sales + Closing Stock – Opening Stock

Example

3 The sales of a concern for the next year is estimated at 50,000 units. Each unit of the product requires 2 units of Material ‘A’ and 3 units of Material ‘B’. The estimated opening balances at the commencement of the next year are:

Finished Product : 10,000 units Raw Material ‘A’ : 12,000 unitsRaw Material ‘B’ : 15,000 units

The desirable closing balances at the end of the next year are:

Finished Product : 14,000 units Raw Material ‘A’ : 13,000 unitsRaw Material ‘B’ : 16,000 units

Prepare the materials purchase budget for the next year.

Answer

Production Budget

Estimated Sales 50,000 units 14,000 ,,Add: Estimated Closing Finished Goods

64,000 ,,10,000 ,,Less: Estimated Opening Finished Goods

Production 54,000 ,,

Materials Purchase Budget

Material ‘A’ Material ‘B’

Material Consumption 1,08,000 units 1,62,000 units

Add: Closing stock of materials 13,000 ,, 16,000 ,,

1,21,000 ,, 1,78,000 ,,

Less: Opening stock of materials 12,000 ,, 15,000 ,,

Materials to be purchased 1,09,000 ,, 1,63,000 ,,

Notes

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Workings

Materials consumption: Material ‘A’ Material ‘B’

Material required per unit of production 2 units 3 units

For production of 54,000 units 1,08,000 1,62,000

Iii. Cash Budget

It is an estimate of cash receipts and disbursements during a future period of time. “The Cash Budget is an analysis of flow of cash in a business over a future, short or long period of time. It is a forecast of expected cash intake and outlay” (Soleman, Ezra – Handbook of Business administration).

Procedure for Preparation of Cash Budget

1. First take into account the opening cash balance, if any, for the beginning of the period for which the cash budget is to be prepared.

2. Then Cash receipts from various sources are estimated. It may be from cash sales, cash collections from debtors/bills receivables, dividends, interest on investments, sale of assets, etc.

3. The Cash payments for various disbursements are also estimated. It may be for cash purchases, payment to creditors/bills payables, payment to revenue and capital expenditure, creditors for expenses, etc.

4. The estimated cash receipts are added to the opening cash balance, if any.

5. The estimated cash payments are deducted from the above proceeds.

6. The balance, if any, is the closing cash balance of the month concerned.

7. The closing cash balance is taken as the opening cash balance of the following month.

8. Then the process is repeatedly performed.

9. If the closing balance of any month is negative i.e the estimated cash payments exceed estimated cash receipts, then overdraft facility may also be arranged suitably.

Notes

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Example

4. From the following budgeted figures prepare a Cash Budget in respect of three months to June 30, 2006.

MonthSales

`

Materials`

Wages`

Overheads`

January 60,000 40,000 11,000 6,200

February 56,000 48,000 11,600 6,600

March 64,000 50,000 12,000 6,800

April 80,000 56,000 12,400 7,200

May 84,000 62,000 13,000 8,600

June 76,000 50,000 14,000 8,000

Additional Information

1. Expected Cash balance on 1st April, 2006 – ` 20,000

2. Materials and overheads are to be paid during the month following the month of supply.

3. Wages are to be paid during the month in which they are incurred.

4. All sales are on credit basis.

5. The terms of credits are payment by the end of the month following the month of sales: Half of credit sales are paid when due the other half to be paid within the month following actual sales.

6. 5% sales commission is to be paid within in the month following sales

7. Preference Dividends for ` 30,000 is to be paid on 1st May.

8. Share call money of ` 25,000 is due on 1st April and 1st June.

9. Plant and machinery worth ` 10,000 is to be installed in the month of January and the payment is to be made in the month of June.

Notes

50

Answer

Cash Budget for three months from April to June, 2006

ParticularsApril

`

May `

June`

Opening Cash Balance 20,000 32,000 (-) 5,600

Add: Estimated Cash Receipts:Sales Collection from debtors Share call money

Less: Estimated Cash Payments:Materials Wages Overheads Sales Commission Preference DividendPlant and Machinery

60,00025,000

72,000 82,00025,000

1,05,000 1,04,600 1,01,400

50,00012,400

6,8003,200------

56,00013,000

7,2004,000

30,000---

62,00014,000

8,6004,200

---10,000

72,400 1,10,200 98,800

Closing Cash Balance 32,600 (-) 5,600 2,600

Workings

1. Sales Collection

Payment is due at the month following the sales. Half is paid on due and other half is paid during the next month. Therefore, February sales ` 50,000 is due at the end of March. Half is given at the end of March and other half is given in the next month i.e., in the month of April. Hence, the sales collection for the month of April will be as follows:

For April – Half of February Sales (56,000 x ½) = 28,000

– Half of March Sales (64,000 x ½) = 32,000

Total Collection for April = 60,000

Similarly, the sales collection for the months of May and June may be calculated.

Notes

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2. Materials and Overheads

These are paid in the following month. That is March is paid in April, April is paid in May and May is paid in June.

3. Sales Commission

It is paid in the following month. Therefore,

For April – 5% of March Sales (64,000 x 5 /100) = 3,200

For May – 5% of March Sales (80,000 x 5 /100) = 4,000

For April – 5% of March Sales (84,000 x 5 /100) = 4,200

Iv. Flexible Budget

A flexible budget consists of a series of budgets for different level of activity. Therefore, it varies with the level of activity attained. According to CIMA, London, A Flexible Budget is, ‘a budget designed to change in accordance with level of activity attained’. It is prepared by taking into account the fixed and variable elements of cost. This budget is more suitable when the forecasting of demand is uncertain.

Points to be remembered while preparing a flexible budget

1. Cost has to be classified into fixed and variable cost.2. Total fixed cost remains constant at any level of activity.3. Total Variable cost varies in the same proportion at which the level

of activity varies.4. Fixed and variable portion of Semi-variable cost is to be segregated.

Example

5. The following information at 50% capacity is given. Prepare a flexible budget and forecast the profit or loss at 60%, 70% and 90% capacity.

Fixed expenses: Expenses at 50% capacity (`)

Salaries 5,000

Rent and taxes 4,000

Notes

52

Depreciation 6,000

Administrative expenses 7,000

Variable expenses:

Materials 20,000

Labour 25,000

Others 4,000

Semi-variable expenses:

Repairs 10,000

Indirect Labour 15,000

Others 9,000

It is estimated that fixed expenses will remain constant at all capacities. Semi-variable expenses will not change between 45% and 60% capacity, will rise by 10% between 60% and 75% capacity, a further increase of 5% when capacity crosses 75%.

Estimated sales at various levels of capacity are:

Capacity Sales (`) 60% 1,10,000 70% 1,30,000 90% 1,50,000

Answer

Flexible Budget

(Showing Profit & Loss at various capacities)

Particulars

Capacities

50% 60% 70% 90%

` ` ` `

Fixed Expenses:

Salaries 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000

Rent and taxes 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

Depreciation 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000

Administrative expenses 7,000 7,000 7,000 7,000

Variable expenses:

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Materials 20,000 24,000 28,000 36,000

Labour 25,000 30,000 35,000 45,000

Others 4,000 4,800 5,600 7,200

Semi-variable expenses:

Repairs 10,000 10,000 11,000 11,500

Indirect Labour 15,000 15,000 16,500 17,250

Others 9,000 9,000 9,900 10,350

Total Cost 1,05,000 1,14,800 1,28,000 1,49,300

Profit (+) or Loss (-) (-) 4,800 (+) 2,000 (+) 700

Estimated Sales 1,10,000 1,30,000 1,50,000

Example

6. The following information relates to a flexible budget at 60% capacity. Find out the overhead costs at 50% and 70% capacity and also determine the overhead rates:

ParticularsExpenses at

60% capacity

Variable overheads: `

Indirect Labour 10,500

Indirect Materials 8,400

Semi-variable overheads:

Repair and Maintenance (70% fixed; 30% variable)

7,000

Electricity (50% fixed; 50% variable)

25,200

Fixed overheads:

Office expenses including salaries 70,000

Insurance 4,000

Depreciation 20,000

Estimated direct labour hours 1,20,000 hours

Notes

54

Answer

Flexible Budget

50 % Capacity

60% Capacity

70% Capacity

` ` `

Variable overheads:

Indirect Labour 8,750 10,500 12,250

Indirect Materials 7,000 8,400

Semi-variable overheads:

Repair and Maintenance (1) 6,650 7,000

Electricity (2) 23,100 25,200

Fixed overheads:

Office expenses including salaries 70,000 70,000 70,000

Insurance 4,000 4,000 4,000

Depreciation 20,000 20,000 20,000

Total overheads 1,39,500 1,45,100 1,50,700

Estimated direct labour hours 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,50,000

Overhead rate per hour (`) 1.395 1.21 1.077

Workings

1. The amount of Repairs and maintenance at 60% Capacity is ` 7,000. Out of this, 70% (i.e ` 4,900) is fixed and remaining 30% (i.e ` 2,100) is variable. The fixed portion remains constant at all levels of capacities. Only the variable portion will change according to change in the level of activity. Therefore, the total amount of repairs and maintenance for 50% and 70% capacities are calculated as follows:

Repairs and maintenance 50% 60% 70%

Fixed (70%) Variable (30%)

4,9001,750

4,9002,100

4,9002,450

Total 6,650 7,000 7,350

Notes

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2. Similarly, electricity expenses at different levels of capacity are calculated as follows:

Electricity 50% 60% 70%

Fixed (50%) Variable (50%)

12,60010,500

12,60012,600

12,60014,700

Total 23,100 25,200 27,300

Zero Base Budgeting (ZBB)

It is a management technique aimed at cost reduction. It was introduced by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1961. Peter A. Phyrr popularized it. In 1979, president Jimmy Carte issued a mandate asking for the use of ZBB by the Government.

ZBB - Definition

“It is a planning and budgeting process which requires each manager to justify his entire budget request in detail from scratch (Zero Base) and shifts the burden of proof to each manager to justify why he should spend money at all.

The approach requires that all activities be analyzed in decision packages, which are evaluated by systematic analysis and ranked in the order of importance”. – Peter A. Phyrr.

It implies that-

➢ Every budget starts with a zero base

➢ No previous figure is to be taken as a base for adjustments

➢ Every activity is to be carefully examined afresh

➢ Each budget allocation is to be justified on the basis of anticipated circumstances

➢ Alternatives are to be given due consideration

Notes

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Advantages of ZBB

1. Effective cost control can be achieved

2. Facilitates careful planning

3. Management by Objectives becomes a reality

4. Identifies uneconomical activities

5. Controls inefficiencies

6. Scarce resources are used judiciously

7. Examines each activity thoroughly

8. Controls wasteful expenditure

9. Integrates the management functions of planning and control

10. Reviews activities before allowing funds for them.

Performance Budgeting

It involves evaluation of the performance of the organization in the context of both specific as well as overall objectives of the organization. It provides a definite direction to each employee and a control mechanism to top management.

Definition

Performance Budgeting technique is the process of analyzing, identifying, simplifying and crystallizing specific performance objectives of a job to be achieved over a period of the job. The technique is characterized by its specific direction towards the business objectives of the organization. – The National Institute of Bank Management.

The responsibility for preparing the performance budget of each department lies on the respective departmental head. It requires preparation of performance reports. This report compares budget and actual data and shows any existing variances. To facilitate the preparation, the departmental head is supplied with the copy of the master budget appropriate to his function.

Notes

57

Master Budget

Master budget is a comprehensive plan which is prepared from and summarizes the functional budgets. The master budget embraces both operating decisions and financial decisions. When all budgets are ready, they can finally produce budgeted profit and loss account or income statement and budgeted balance sheet. Such results can be projected monthly, quarterly, half-yearly and at year end. When the budgeted profit falls short of target it may be reviewed and all budgets may be reworked to reach the target or to achieve a revised target approved by the budget committee.

****

Notes

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Lesson 2.2 - Standard Costing

Standard: According to Prof. Erie L. Kolder, “Standard is a desired attainable objective, a performance, a goal, a model”.

Standard Cost: Standard cost is a predetermined estimate of cost to manufacture a single unit or a number of units during a future period.

The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London, defines “Standard Cost” as, “a pre-determined cost which is calculated from management’s standards of efficient operation and the relevant necessary expenditure. It may be used as a basis for price fixing and for cost control through variance analysis”.

Standard Costing: According to the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, London Standard Costing is “the preparation and use of Standard Cost, their comparison with actual costs, and the analysis of variances to their causes and points of incidence”.

The study of standard cost comprises of:

1. Ascertainment and use of standard costs.

2. Comparison of actual costs with standard costs and measuring the variances.

3. Controlling costs by the variance analysis.

4. Reporting to management for taking proper action to maximize the efficiency.

Budgetary Control and Standard Costing

Both standard costing and budgetary control aim at maximum efficiency and managerial control. Budgetary control and standard costing have the common objective of controlling business operations by establishing pre-determined targets, measuring the actual performance and comparing it with the targets, for the purposes of having better efficiency

Notes

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and of reducing costs. The two systems are said to be interrelated but they are not inter-dependent. The budgetary control system can function effectively even without the system of standard costing in operation but the vice-versa is not possible.

Standard Costing as a Controlling Technique

It is essential for management to have knowledge of costs so that decision can be effective. Management can control costs on information being provided to it. The technique of standard costing is used for building a proper budgeting and feedback system. The uses of standard costing to management are as follows.

1. Formulation of Price and Production Policies

Standard Costing acts as a valuable guide to management in the fixation of price and formulation production polices. It also assists management in the field of inventory pricing, product, product pricing profit planning and also in reporting to top management.

2. Comparison and Analysis of Data

Standard Costing provides a stable basis for comparison of actual with standard costs. It brings out the impact of external factors and internal causes on the cost and performance of the concern. Thus, it helps to take remedial action.

3. Cost Consciousness

An atmosphere of cost consciousness is created among the staff. Standard costing also provides incentive to workers for efficient performance.

4. Better Capacity to Anticipate

An effective budget can be formulated for the future by laving price knowledge of the deviations of actual costs from standard costs. Data are available at an early stage and the capacity to anticipate about changing conditions is developed.

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5. Better Economy, Efficiency and Productivity

Men, machines and materials are more effectively utilized and thus benefits of economies can be reaped in business together with increased productivity.

6. Delegation of Authority and Responsibility