CHAPTER I

MALVINO SummaryMALVINO Summary

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

THE THREE KINDS OF FORMULAS1. A Definition

Is a formula invented for a new concept

2. A Law

Is a formula for a relation in nature

3. A Derivation

Is a formula produced with mathematics

- Sometimes called the ideal approximation, is useful for troubleshooting- Treating a connecting wire as a conductor with zero resistance is an example of theFIRST APPROXIMATION

- Is useful for premilinary circuit calculationsSECOND

APPROXIMATION

- Are used with computersHIGHER APPROXIMATION

- Has zero internal resistanceIDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

- Has small internal resistanceREAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

- Is defined as one whose internal resistance is less than 1/100 of the load resistanceSTIFF VOLTAGE SOURCE

CURRENT SOURCESa. Ideal Current Source

Has infinite internal resistance

b. Real Current Source

Has a large internal resistance in parallel with the source

c. Stiff Current Source

Is defined as one whose internal resistance is more than 100 times the load resistance

- Is defined as the voltage across an open loadTHEVENIN VOLTAGE

- Is defined as the resistance an ohm meter would measure with an open load and all sources reduced to zero- Is equal in value to the internal resistance of a Norton circuitTHEVENIN RESISTANCE

- Is a statement that we can prove mathematically, because of this, it is not a definition or a lawTHEOREM

- A French engineer, M. L. Thevenin, made one of these quantum leaps when he derived the circuit theorem named after him THEVENINS THEOREM

- Is sometimes called the shorted-load current

NORTON CURRENT

CHAPTER 2SEMICONDUCTORS

- is an element with electrical properties between those of a conductor and those of an insulator-as you might expect, the best semiconductor have four valence electrons.

SEMICONDUCTORS

- the positive nucleus attracts the planetary electrons. The reason why these electrons are not pulled into the nucleus is the centrifugal (outward) force created by their circular motion

STABLE ORBITS

-the outer orbit .This orbit controls the electrical properties of the atom

VALENCE ORBIT

- it has four electrons in the valence orbit. Germanium was the only material suitable for making semiconductor devices

GERMANIUM

- silicon is the most abundant element on the earth and the element used for semiconductor

SILICON

- when silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they arrange themselves into an orderly pattern called a crystal.

SILICON CRYSTALS

- shared electron is being pulled in opposite directions, the electron becomes a bond between the opposite cores. We call this type of chemical bond a covalent bond

COVALENT BONDS

- is the temperature of the surrounding air.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

- the departure of the electron creates a vacancy in the valence orbit.

HOLE

- the amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a free electron.

LIFETIME

-is the merging of a free electron and a hole.

RECOMBINATION

- is a pure semiconductor.

- a silicon crystal is an intrinsic semiconductor if every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

-the hole disappears and the free electron becomes a valence electron

DEPLETION LAYER

- each pair of positive and negative ions at the junction

- the creation of the dipole means that one free electron and one hole have been taken out of circulation

DIPOLE

- one way to increase conductivity of a semiconductor is by doping.

- a doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

DOPING A SEMICONDUCTOR

TWO TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

1. n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

- silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent impurity, where the n stands for negative.

- the free electrons are called the majority carriers and the holes are the minority carriers.

2. p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

- silicon that has been doped with a trivalent impurity, where the p stands for positive.

- since holes outnumber free electrons, the holes are referred to as the majority carriers and the free electrons are known as the minority carriers.

- the border between p-type and n-type

pn JUNCTION

- the electric field between the ions is equivalent to a difference of potential.

-at 25 degrees Celsius, the barrier potential equals approximately 0.3 V for germanium diodes and 0.7 V for silicon diodes.

BARRIER POTENTIAL

-the reverse current caused by the thermally produced minority carriers.

SATURATION CURRENT

- the thermally produced minority-carrier current, exist in a reverse-biased diode. A small current flows on the surface of the crystal.

- it is caused by surface impurities and imperfections in the crystal structure.

SURFACE-LEAKAGE

CURRENT

- have maximum voltage ratings, there is a limit to how much reverse voltage a diode can withstand before it is destroyed.

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

- the holes remain in the valence band, but the free electrons go to the next-higher energy band

CONDUCTION BAND

-as you would expect, the majority carries are the free electrons in the conduction band ,and the minority carriers are the holes in the valence band

n-TYPE ENERGY BANDS

-the majority carriers are the holes in the valence band, and the minority carriers are the free electrons in the conduction band

p-TYPE ENERGY BANDS

-has a depletion layer at the pn junction.

-the ions in this depletion layer produce a barrier potential

-at room temperature ,this barrier potential is approximately .7V for silicon diode and .3V for a germanium diode

UNBIASED DIODE

-when an external voltage aids the barrier potential, the diode is reverse-biased

-the width of the depletion layer increase when the reverse voltage increases

-the current is approximately zero

REVERSE BIAS

-the larger the orbit, the higher the energy level of an electron. If an outside force raises an electron to a higher energy level, the electron will emit energy when it falls back to its original orbit

ENERGY LEVELS

-the barrier potential of a diode looks like an energy hill. Electrons attempting to cross the junction need to have enough energy to climb this hill. An external voltage source that forward -biases the diode gives electrons energy required to pass thorough the depletion layer ENERGY HILL

-is the temperature inside a diode, right at the pn junction.JUNCTIONTEMPERATURE

-is the temperature of the air outside the diode.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

- the distance between the valence band and the conduction band.

ENERGY GAP

CHAPTER 3DIODE THEORY

- in the forward region, the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidlyKNEE VOLTAGE

- if the current in a diode is too large, the excessive heat can destroy the diode.

MAXIMUM DC FORWARD

CURRENT

- you can calculate the power dissipation of a diode the same way as you do for a resistor.

- it equals the product of diode voltage and current.

POWER DISSIPATION

- this is the first approximation of a diode.

- the equivalent circuit is a switch that closes when forward-biased and opens when reversed-

biased.

THE IDEAL DIODE

- we visualize a silicon diode as a switch in series with a knee voltage of 0.7 VTHE SECOND

APPROXIMATION

- we seldom use this approximation because bulk resistance is usually small enough to ignore.

- in this approximation, we visualize the diode as a switch in series with a knee, voltage and a bulk resistance.

THE THIRDAPPROXIMATION

- is the circuit inside electronics equipment that converts the ac input voltage to an almost perfect dc output voltage.

POWER SUPPLY

- is a special kind of power supply used in computers, monitors, and an increasing variety of equipment.SWITCHING REGULATOR

-a tool used to find the exact value of diode current and voltage

LOAD LINE

-SM diodes can be found anywhere there is a need for diode applications. SM diodes are small, efficient, and relatively easy to test, remove and replace on the circuit boardSURFACE MOUNT DIODES

- produces a dc output voltage equal to the peak value of the rectified voltage.

THE CAPACITOR-INPUT

FILTER

- is the maximum voltage across the non-conducting diode of a rectifier

-this voltage must be less than the breakdown voltage of the diode; otherwise, the diode will be destroyed

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE(PIV)

- the initial rush of current when the power is turned on.SURGE CURRENT

- is a circuit that removes either positive or negative parts of a waveform.

CLIPPER

- means applying an external voltage to change the reference level of a circuit.

BIAS

CHAPTER 4 DIODE CIRCUITS

- the half-wave rectifier has diode in series with a load resistor.

- the load voltage is a half-wave output

- the average or dc voltage out of a half-wave rectifier equals 31.8 percent of the peak voltage

half-wave rectifier

- input transformer is usually a step down transformer in which the voltage steps down and the current is steps up

- the secondary voltage equals the primary voltage divided by the turns ratio

transformer

- full-wave rectifier has a center-tapped transformer with two diodes and a load resistor.

- the load voltage is a full-wave signal whose peak value is half the secondary voltage

-the average or dc voltage out of full-wave rectifier equals 63.6 percent of the peak voltage, and the ripple frequency 120 Hz instead of 60Hzfull-wave rectifier

-has four diodes.

-the load voltage is a full-wave signal with a peak value equal to the secondary voltage

-the average or dc voltage out of half-wave rectifier equals 63.6 percent of the peak voltage, and the ripple frequency equals 120Hz

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

- the choke-input filter allows the peak value of the rectified signal to pass through to the load resistor

- with a large capacitor , the ripple is small, typically less than 10 percent of the dc voltage .

- the capacitor-input filter is most widely used in power supplies

CHOKE-INPUT FILTER

- is the same as average value. If you measure a signal with a dc voltmeter, the reading will equal the average value.DC VALUE OFHALF-WAVE SIGNAL

- with a half-wave rectifier, the output frequency equals the input frequency

OUTPUT FREQUENCY

- if we connect a full-wave or bridge rectifier to capacitor-input filter, the peak-to-peak ripple is cut in half.

FULL-WAVE FILTERING

- this is the part of the circuit that determines how much reverse voltage is across the diode

- peak inverse voltage across the non-conducting diode is: PIV=2Vp

HALF-WAVERECTIFIER WITHCAPACITORINPUT FILTER

- the essential part of a full-wave rectifier needed to calculate the peak inverse voltage. Again, the secondary voltage is at the negative peak

- Kirchoff's law implies: PIV = Vp

FULL-WAVE

RECTIFIER

WITH CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER

-part of a bridge rectifier. This is all you need to calculate the peak inverse voltage

-since the upper diode is shorted and the lower one is open, the peak inverse voltage across the lower diode is: PIV=Vp

BRIDGE RECTIFIERWITH CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER

- when the load current is large, the LC filters are an improvement over RC filters

LC FILTER

- a clipper shapes the signal. It clips off positive or negative parts of the signal. The limiter or diode clamp protects sensitive circuits from too much input

CLIPPERS AND LIMITERS

- the clamper shifts a signal positively or negatively by adding a dc voltage to the signal. The peak-to-peak detector produces a load voltage equal to the peak-to-peak value.CLAMPERS

- is a redesign of the peak-to-peak detector. It uses rectifier diodes instead of small-signal diodes. It produces an output equal to 2 times the peak value of the rectified signal voltage doubler

- multiply the input peak by factors of 3 and 4.Very high voltage power supplies are the main use of voltage multipliersvoltage tripler and

quadruplers

CHAPTER 5

SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODE

-is the backbone of voltage regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage almost constant despite large changes in line voltage and load resistance.

-is sometimes called a voltage-regulator diode

zener diode

-the increase in reverse current produces a slight increase in reverse voltage.

-this resistance equals the inverse of the slope in the breakdown region+

zener resistance

-when the breakdown voltage is greater then 6V,the cause of breakdown is avalanche effect

avalanche effect

-the zener diode and the load resistor are in parallel .the sum of their currents has to equal the total current, which is the same as the current through the series resistor Iz=Is+IL

zener current

-is the technology that combines optics and electronics

-this field includes many devices based on action of a pn junctionoptoelectronics

-the time it takes to turnoff a forward-biased diode

reverse recovery time (trr)

-this kind of diode uses a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum on one side of the junction and doped silicon (typical n-type) on the other side

-as frequency increases, the action of small-signal rectifier diodes begins to deteriorate. They are no longer able to switch off fast enough to produce a well defined half-wave signal. the solution to this problem is the Schottky diode.

-sometimes called hot-carrier diode

schottky diode

-also called voltage-variable capacitance, varicap, epicap and tuning diode-is widely used in television receivers, FM receivers, and other communications equipment because it can be used for electronic tuning

varactor

-this circuit has only one frequency at which maximum impedance occurs

resonant frequency

-one of the devices used for line filtering is varistors also called transient suppressor

-this semiconductor device is like two back-to-back zener diodes with high breakdown voltage in both directions

-varistors are commercially available with breakdown voltages from 10 to 1000V

varistors

-has the unusual doping profile. the density of carriers decreases near the junction. this unusual distribution of carriers causes a phenomenon called reverse snap-off

step-recovery diodes

-it conducts better in the reverse than in the forward bias

back diodes

-are severe voltage drops lasting microseconds or less

dips

-are very brief over voltages up to 2000V or more

spikes

-instead of holding the diode constant, these diodes hold the current constant

current-regulatordiodes (constant-current diodes)

-has unusual doping profile, it indicates that the density of carriers decreases near the junction.

-also known as a snap diode because this diode conducts reverse current for a while, and then suddenly snaps openstep recovery diode

-this diode conducts better in the reverse than in the forward directionback diode

-this type of diode exhibits a phenomenon known as negative resistance, it increase the forward voltage produces a decrease in forward current

tunnel diode

CHAPTER 6

BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

-is like two back-to-back diodes.

-each diode has a barrier potential of approximately .7V

-when you connect external voltage sources to the transistor, you will get currents through the different parts of the transistor

unbiased transistor

-for normal operation, you forward-bias the collector diode under these conditions, the emitter sends free electrons into the base

biased transistor

-can dissipate less than a watt

small-signal transistor

-one way to increase power rating of a transistor is to get rid of the internal heat fasterheat sinks

- the saturation and cutoff regions are useful in digital and computer circuits, referred to as switching circuits

- is needed for precise designthird approximation

- is a good compromise for both troubleshooting and designsecond approximation

- it can change the value of the transistor characteristicstemperature

CHAPTER 7

TRANSISTORS FUNDAMENTALS

-the graph of base current versus base-emitter voltage looks like the graph of an ordinary diode

base curve

2 basic ways to set up the operating point of a transistor

a. base bias -produces a fixed value of base current .It is more useful in switching circuit -useful in digital circuits because this circuits are usually designed to operate at saturation and cut-off

b. emitter bias - produces a fixed value of emitter current, pre dominant in amplifying circuits

-is the point where the load line intersects the saturation region of the collector curves

saturation point

-is the point at which the load line intersects the cutoff region of the collector curvescut-off point

2 basic kinds of transistor circuits

1. amplifying

The Q point must remain in the active region under all operating conditions, if it does not, the output signal will be distorted on the peak where saturation or cutoff occurs2. switching

The Q point usually switches between saturation and cutoff

-a designer who wants a transistor to operate in the saturation region under all conditions often selects a base resistance that produces a current gain of 10

hard saturation

-refer to any design in which the transistor is bare saturated, that is, in which the saturated current gain is only a little less than the active current gain

soft saturation

-every transistor circuit has a load line. Given any circuit, a work out saturation current and the cut-off voltage. These values are plotted o the vertical and horizontal axes. The line between two points to get the load line

operating point (Q point)

-often called switching circuits because their Q point switches between two points on the load line

-another name often used is two-state circuits ,referring to the low and high outputs

digital circuits

-refer to as the voltage between the base and ground

base voltage

-refer to as the voltage between collector and groundcollector voltage

-is virtually immune to changes in current gain. The process of analyzing emitter bias is to find the emitter voltage, emitter current, collector voltage, and the collector-emitter voltage. all you need for this process is Ohms law

emitter bias

- it contains all the possible dc operating points of a transistor circuitdc load line

CHAPTER 8

TRANSISTOR BIASING

-this circuit is the worst when it comes to setting up a fixed Q point Since the base current is fixed, the collector current varies when the current gain varies

emitter-feedback bias

-also called self-bias. Historically this was another attempt to neutralize any change in collection current

collector-feedback bias

-emitter-feedback bias and collector-feedback were the first steps toward a more stable bias for transistor circuits

-the basic idea is to use both emitter and collector feedback to try to improve the operation

collector-and emitter-feedback bias

-these pnp devices have all currents and voltages reversed from their npn counterparts. They maybe used with negative power supplies; more commonly, they are used with positive power supplies upside-down configuration- with pnp voltage-divider bias, you must use

- the largest current in a pnp transistor

- the majority carriers in the emitter of a pnp transistor are

- VDB has a stable Q point like

- VDB normally operates in the

- the collector voltage of a VDB circuit is not sensitive to changes in the

- base bias is associated with

- if the emitter resistance doubles in a VDB circuit, the collector current will

PNP transistor

resistors

emitter current

holes

emitter bias

active region

current gain

switching circuits

drop in half

CHAPTER 9AC MODELS

- the input signal is coupled into the base. This produces an ac collector voltage. The amplified and inverted ac collector voltage is then coupled to the load resistance

- good coupling occurs when the reactance of the coupling capacitor is much smaller than the resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source

base-biased amplifier

- good bypassing occurs when the reactance of the coupling capacitor is much smaller than the resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source

- the bypassed point is an ac ground. With either a VDB or TSEB amplifier, the ac signal is coupled into the base

- the amplified ac signal is then coupled to the load resistance

emitter-biased amplifier

2 TRANSISTOR MODEL

a. T model- as far as a small signal is concerned, the emitter diode of transistor acts like an ac resistance and the collector diode acts like current source

- also called Ebers-Moll model b. TT model- when ac input signal drives a transistor amplifier, an ac base-emitter voltage is across the emitter diode, these produces an ac base current The ac voltage source has to supply this ac base current, so that the transistor amplifier will work properly

- the ac collector current equals the ac base current times the

AC current gain

- the ac emitter current times the ac emitter resistance equals theAC base voltage

- the ac collector current is approximately equal to the AC emitter current

- the voltage across the load resistor of a capacitor-coupled CE amplifier isAC only

- the emitter of a CE amplifier has no ac voltage because of the bypass capacitor

- a graph of ac emitter current versus ac base-emitter voltage applies to the emitter diode

- to reduce the distortion in a CE amplifier, reduce theAC base voltage

- AC emitter resistance equals 25 m V divided by theDC emitter current

- when the ac base voltage is too large, the ac emitter current is distorted

- the ac equivalent circuit is derived from the original circuit by shorting allcapacitors

- reducing all dc sources to zero is one of the steps in getting theAC equivalent circuit

- the capacitor that produces an ac ground is called a bypass capacitor

- for dc, the current in a coupling circuit iszero

- the current in a coupling circuit for high frequencies ismaximum

-a coupling capacitor isdc open and ac short

CHAPTER 10

VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS

-the overall voltage gain equals the product of the individual gains.

-the input impedance of the second stage is the load resistance on the first stage

multistage amplifiers

-by leaving some of the emitter resistance unbypassed, we get negative feedback

swamped amplifier

-we can feedback the output voltage of the second collector to the first emitter through a voltage divider.

-this produces negative feedback, which stabilizes the voltage gain of the two-stage amplifier

two-stage feedback

- defined as the ac output voltage divided by the ac input voltage voltage gain

- because it has an ac voltage across it that opposes changes in voltage gain, the unbypassed resistance is calledfeedback resistor

- making one quantity much larger than a second quantity to eliminate changes in the secondswamping

CHAPTER 11

POWER AMPLIFIERS

classes of operation

the transistor operates in the active region at all times the collector current flows for 360 degrees of the ac cycle

the designer usually locates the Q point somewhere near the middle of the load line. This way, the signal can swing over the maximum possible range without saturating or cutting off the transistor, which would distort signal. class A operation

the collector of the current flows for only half cycle (180 degrees). to have this kind of operation, a designer locates the Q point at cutoff.

the positive half of ac base voltage can produce collector current

this reduces the wasted heat in power transistorclass B operation

the collector current flows for less than 180 degrees of the ac cycle with class C operation, only part of the positive half cycle of ac base

voltage produces collector current. As a result, we get brief pulses of collector current

class C operation

TYPES OF COUPLING

- the coupling capacitor transmits the amplified next stage ac voltage to the next stagecapacitive coupling

- the ac voltage is coupled through a transformer to the next stagetransformer coupling

-there is a direct connection between the collector of the first transistor and the base of the second transistor- also called dc amplifierdirect coupling

-the brief turn-on of the emitter diode at each positive peak produces narrow pulses of collector current

duty cycle

- the temperature of this air is 25 degrees Celsius, but it can get higher on hot days

- the heat produced at the junction passes through the transistor case(metal or plastic housing) and radiates to the surrounding air

ambient temperature

CHAPTER 12

EMITTER FOLLOWERS

-when the load resistance is small compared to the collector resistance, the voltage gain of a CE stage becomes small because the stage is overloaded. One way to prevent overloading is to use an emitter follower. This type of amplifier has a large input impedance and can drive small load resistance

Emitter follower

-the input signal is coupled at the base, and the output signal is taken from the emitter

common-collector( CC) amplifier

-the ac signal coming out of the emitter sees RE in parallel with RL: re = RE II RL

AC emitter resistance

-is a connection of two transistors whose overall current gain equals the product of the individual current gains

Darlington connection

- the slight forward bias implies that the conduction angle will be slightly greater than 180 degrees because the transistor will conduct for a bit more than half a cycle. Strictly speaking, we no longer have class B operation, because of this the operation 180 deg and 360 degrees

class AB

-one way to avoid thermal runaway is with diode bias. The idea is to use compensating diodes to produce the bias voltage for the emitter diode

diode bias

- a circuit that combines a zener regulator and an emitter follower : VOut = Vz - VBE

Zener follower

- Class B is more efficient than class A. In a class B push-pull emitter follower, complimentary npn and pnp transistor are used. The npn transistor conducts on one half cycle, and the pnp transistor on the other

Class B push-pullemitter follower

- to avoid crossover distortion, the transistors of a class B pus-pull emitter follower have a small quiescent current. With voltage divider bias, the Q point is unstable and may result in thermal runaway.

Biasing class B amplifiers

-rather than capacitively couple the signal into the output stage, we can used a direct-coupled driver stage.

Class B driver

CHAPTER 13

JFETS

- this type of device is unipolar because its operation depends on only one type of charge, either free electrons or holes

- FET has majority carriers but not minority carriers

FET (field-effectTransistor)

- the minimum active region voltage VP of JFET

pinchoff voltage

- the maximum active region VDS(max) of JFET

breakdown voltage

-the almost vertical-part of the drain curve below the pinchoff

RDS = VP/IDSS

ohmic region

-the voltage divider produces voltage that is a fraction of the supply voltage

VS = VG - VGS

voltage divider bias

- tells us how effective the gather-source voltage is in controlling the drain current

- the higher the transconductance, the more control the gate voltage over the drain current

transconductance

-the unit mho is the ratio of current to voltage.

- an equivalent and modern unit for the mho is the siemens (S)

siemens

- the input signal drives the gate, and the output signal is coupled from the source to the load resistor

source follower

- the JFET acts as a switch that either transmits a small ac signal

analog switching

the JFET is either conducting or cut off, depending on whether VGS is high or low

shunt switch

- when VGS is high, the switched is closed and the JFET equivalent to a resistance of RDSseries switch

- the gate voltage is the continuous square wave that continuously switches the JFET on and off

- JFET chopper can use either a shunt or a series switch

chopper

- ''many into one'' a circuit that steers one or more of the input signals to the output line

multiplexing

- we can build a direct coupled amplifiers by leaving out the coupling and bypass capacitors and connecting the output of each stage directly to the input of the next stage

chopper amplifiers

-major disadvantage of direct coupling, a slow shift in the final dc output voltage produced by minor changes in supply voltage, transistor parameters, and temperature variations

drift

- a stage that isolates the preceding stage from the following stage.

- ideally the, a buffer should have a high input impedance

buffer amplifier

- JFET is an outstanding low-noise device because it produces much less noise than a bipolar transistor

low-noise amplifier

- when JFET operates in the ohmic region, it usually has VGS = 0 to ensure hard saturation.But there is an exception It is possible to operate a JFET in the ohmic region with VGS values between 0 and VGS(OFF)

voltage controlled

resistance

- when receiver is tuned from a weak to a strong station, the loudspeaker will blare(become loud) unless the volume is immediately decreased.

automatic gain control

- the advanteg of this circuit is its low input capacitance, which is important with VHF and UHF signals

- the low input capacitance allows the circuit to amplify higher frequencies than are possible with only a CS amplifier

cascode amplifier

suppose you have a load that requires a constant current. One solution is to use a shorted-gate JFET to supply constant current

current sourcing

- instaed of sourcing current, a JFET can limit current. The JFET operates in the ohmic region rather than the active the active regioncurrent limitting

CHAPTER 14

MOSFETS

- Sometimes called an IGFET, which stands for insulated-gate FET, has a source. gate, and drainMETAL-OXIDE

SEMICONDUCTOR FET

TWO KINDS OF MOSFET

1. Depletion- mode Type

The D-MOSFET has limited use, mainly in RF circuits and has a source, gate, and drain

2. Enhancement-mode Type

Is widely used in both discrete and integrated circuits, and is normally off when the gate voltage is zero

- Is referred to as a depletion-mode device because its conductivity depends on the action of depletion layersJFET

- When it exists, free electrons can flow easily from the source to the drain, this thin conducting layer is

N-TYPE INVERSION

LAYER

- The minimum Vgs that creates the n-type inversion layer is calledTHRESHOLD VOLTAGE

- Since the E-MOSFET is primarily a switching device, it usually operates between cutoff and saturation, when it is biased and it acts like small resistanceTHE OHMIC REGION

- Includes high-power circuits as well as small-signal digital circuitsSWITCHING

- Means that one of the MOSFETs acts like a large resistor and the other like a switchACTIVE-LOAD

SWITCHING

- The output voltage is the opposite of the input voltageINVERTER

- Devices have the advantage of very low power consumptionCOMPLIMENTARY MOS

(CMOS)

CHAPTER 15

THYRISTORS

- Is a semiconductor device that uses internal feedback to produce switching actionTHYRISTOR

THE MOST IMPORTANT THYRISTORS

1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier

2. Triac

- Also called a Schockley diode, is the simplest thyristor, also known as pnpn diodeFOUR-LAYER DIODE

-Means that the returning signal aids the original change, a latch is based onPOSITIVE FEEDBACK

- The minimum input current that can turn on a thyristorTRIGGER CURRENT

- The only way to stop a four layer diode that is conducting is byLOW-CURRENT DROP

OUT

- The minimum anode current that keeps a thyristor turned on isHOLDING CURRENT

- To turn on a four layer diode, you needBREAKOVER

- The usual way to protect a load from excessive supply voltage is with aCROWBAR

- An RC snubber protects an SCR against FALSE TRIGGERING

- When a crowbar is used with a power supply, the supply needs to have a fuse orCURRENT LIMITING

- A basic circuit that can be modified and improved, it is adequate for many applications as isPROTOTYPE

- The photo-SCR responds to LIGHT

- The angle at which the SCR fires isFIRING ANGLE

- The angle between the start and end of conduction isCONDUCTION ANGLE

- The unijunction transistor acts as aLATCH

- The trigger voltage of an SCR is closest to0.7 V

When you troubleshoot a circuit to find defective resistors, diodes, transistors, and so on

TROUBLESHOOTING AT

THE COMPONENT

LEVEL

When you are troubleshooting to find a defective functional block

TROUBLESHOOTING AT

THE SYSTEM LEVEL

CHAPTER 16

FREQUENCY EFFECTS

- of an amplifier is the graph of its gain versus the frequency.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

- one designed to amplify ac signals.

AC AMPLIFIER

- one that can amplify dc signals.DC AMPLIFIER

- the frequencies at which the voltage gain equals 0.707 of its maximum value.

- also referred to as the half-power frequencies because the load power is half of its maximum value of these frequenciesCUTOFF FREQUENCY

- all impedances are matched because this produces maximum power transfer.

- in an impedance-matched system, the decibel power gain and the decibel voltage gain are equal.

IMPEDANCE MATCHING

- besides using decibels with power and voltage gains, we can use decibels above a reference.

- two popular references are the milliwatt and the volt.

- decibels with the 1 milliwatt reference are labeled dBm and decibels with the 1 volt reference are labeled dBV.

DECIBELS ABOVE

A REFERENCE

- an octave refers to a factor of 2 change of frequency.

- a decade refers to a factor of 10 change in frequency.

- a graph of decibel voltage gain versus frequencyBODE PLOTS

- in a lag circuit, the voltage gain breaks at the upper cutoff frequency and then rolls off at a rate of 20 dB per decade, equivalent to 6 dB per octave.

MORE BODE PLOTS

- a feedback capacitor from the output to the input of an inverting amplifier is equivalent to two capacitors.

- one capacitor is across the input terminals, and the other is across the output terminals.

- the Miller effect refers to the input capacitance being A + 1 times the feedback capacitanceTHE MILLER EFFECT

- the capacitor between the input and output terminals.

- because the amplified output signal is being fed back to the inputFEEDBACK CAPACITOR

- when a voltage step is used as the input to a dc amplifier, the rise time of the output is the time between the 10 and 90 percent points.

RISETIME-BAND-

WIDTH RELATIONSHIP

- the input coupling capacitor, output coupling capacitor, and emitter bypass capacitor produce the low cutoff frequencies.

- the collector bypass capacitor and the input Miller capacitance produce the high cutoff frequencies.

- frequency analysis of bipolar and FET stages is typically done with EWB or an equivalent circuit simulator.FREQUENCYANALYSIS

OF BIPOLAR

STAGES

CHAPTER 17

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

- a diff amp is the typical input stage of an op amp.

- it has no coupling or bypass capacitors.

- the input may be differential, noninverting, or inverting.

- the output may be single-ended or differential.

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

- it combines the two ac collector voltages into one voltage that equals the difference of the collector voltages.

DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT

- when both the noninverting and inverting input voltages are present.

- the output voltage equals the voltage gain times the difference of the input voltagesDIFFERENTIAL INPUT

- when a diff amp is perfectly symmetrical, each emitter current is half the tail current.

- ideally, the voltage across the emitter resistor equals the negative supply voltage.

DC ANALYSIS OF A

DIFF AMP

- because the tail current is ideally constant, an increase in the emitter current of one transistor produces a decrease in the emitter current of the other transistor.

AC ANALYSIS OF A

DIFF AMP

- most static interference, and other kinds of electromagnetic pickup are common-mode signals.

- the diff amp discriminates against common-mode signals.

- the CMRR is the voltage gain divided by the common-mode gain.

- the higher the CMRR, the better.

COMMON-MODE GAIN

- monolithic ICs are complete circuit functions on a single chip such as amplifiers, voltage regulators, and computer circuits.

- for high-power applications, thin-film, thick film, and hybrid ICs may be used.

- SSI refers to fewer than 12 components, MSI to between 12 and 100 components, LSI to more than 100 components, VLSI to more than 1000 components, and ULSI to more than 1 million components.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

- the current mirror is used in ICs because it is a convenient way to create current sources and active loads.

- the advantages of using current mirrors are increases in voltage gain and CMRR.

CURRENT MIRROR

- when a loaded resistance is used with a diff amp, the best approach is to use Thevenins theorem.

THE LOADED DIFF AMP

CHAPTER 18

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

- the perfect voltage amplifier that the ideal op-amp represent

voltage-controlled

voltage source (VCVS)

- the maximum voltage gain when no feedback path (or loop) is used

open-loop voltage gain

- first widely used monolithic op amp by Fairchild semiconductor

uA709

- deviation from 0V in the final stage of the amplified signal out in the CE driver stage

output error voltage

- using transistor instead of resistor for loads

- these active loads produce a typical voltage gain of 100,00 for 741C

- active loading is very popular in integrated circuits because it is easier and less expensive to fabricate transistors on a chip than it is to fabricate resistors

active loading

- circuits that uses op amps, resistors, and capacitors to tailor the frequency response for different applications

active filters

- an op amp that is internally compensated, such as 741C

- 20dB per decade roll off

first order response

- the most basic op amp circuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize the overall voltage gaininverting amplifier

- when we connect a piece of wire between some point in a circuit and ground, the voltage of the point becomes zero

- the wire provides a path for current to flow in the ground

mechanical ground

- this type of ground is widely used shortcut for analyzing an inverting amplifier

- a dashed line between the inverting input and ground.

- the concept of virtual ground is based on ideal op amp. When an op amp is ideal, it has infinite open-loop voltage gain and infinite input resistance

virtual ground

- it is the voltage when there is feedback path between the output and the input

- because of the heavy negative feedback, this closed-loop voltage gain is very stable

closed-loop voltage gain

- it uses negative feedback to stabilize the overall voltage gain

- the negative feedback increases the input impedance and decreases the output impedance

non inverting amplifier

- (a wire between two points) is a short for voltage and current to flow between two points

mechanical short

- this type of short can be used in analyzing non inverting amplifiers and related circuitsvirtual short

- if the noninverting input voltage increases or decreases, the inverting input voltage immediately increases or decreases to the same value

- the noninverting input pulls the inverting input up or down to an equal value.

bootstrapping

- are audio amplifiers with less than 50 mW of output power

- preamps are optimized for low noise because they are used at the front end of the audio systems, where they amplify weak signals for phonograph cartridges, magnetic tape heads, microphones, and so on

preamplifiers

- a video or wideband amplifier has a flat response( constant decibel voltage gain)over a very broad band of frequencies

- video amps are not necessarily dc amps , but they often do have a response that extends down to zero frequency

video amplifier

- have voltage gains and bandwidths that you can adjust by connecting different external resistors

IC video amps

- is usually the first stage in an AM, FM or television receiver

RF amplifier

CHAPTER 19

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

- the loop gain is the voltage gain of the forward and feedback paths.

- in any practical design, the loop gain is very large.

- as a result, the closed-loop voltage gain is ultrastable because it no longer depends on the characteristics.VCVS VOLTAGE GAIN

- the second term in the denominator, A olB, because it is the voltage gain of the forward and feedback paths.

- the loop gain is a very important value in the design of a negative-feedback amplifier.

LOOP GAIN

- VCVS negative feedback has a curative effect on the flaws of an amplifier because it stabilizes the voltage gain, increases the input impedance, decreases the output impedance, and decreases harmonic distortion.

OTHER VCVS EQUATIONS

- will occur with large signals because the input/output response of the amplifying devices becomes nonlinear.

NOLINEAR DISTORTION

- the rms value of all the harmonics measured together tells us how much distortion

HARMONIC DISTORTION

- an instrument we can measure harmonic distortion.

- This instrument measures the total harmonic voltage and divides it by the fundamental voltage to get the percent of total harmonic distortionDISTORTION ANALYZER

- it has an input current and an output voltage.

- is an almost perfect current-to-voltage converter because it has zero input impedance and zero output impedance.

THE ICVS AMPLIFIER

- this is a transconductance amplifier, equivalent to a voltage-to current converter.

- it ideally has infinite input impedance.

- the input voltage produces a precise value of output current.

- the output impedance approaches infinity.

THE VCIS AMPLIFIER

- because of the heavy negative feedback, the ICIS amplifier approaches the perfect current amplifier, one with zero input impedance and infinite output impedance.

THE ICIS AMPLIFIER

CHAPTER 20

LINEAR OP-AMP CIRCUITS

- one the advantage of this amplifier is that its voltage gain equals the ratio of the feedback resistance to the input resistance.

INVERTING-

AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

- advantages include stable voltage gain, high input impedance, and low output impedanceNONINVERTING-

AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

- the MC403 is a special function IC, a circuit that produces an extremely accurate and stable value of output voltage.

VOLTAGE REFERENCE

- circuits in which the input signal drives both inputs of the op amp simultaneously.

- when an input signal drives both inputs, we get both inverting and noninverting amplification at the same time.

INVERTER/NONINVERTER

CIRCUITS

- one of the most important characteristics of a differential amplifier is its CMRR because the typical input signal is a small differential voltage and a large common-mode voltage.

DIFFERENTIAL

AMPLIFIERS

- for instance, a photoresistor converts a change in light intensity into a change in resistance and a thermistor converts a change in temperature into a change resistanceINPUT TRANSDUCER

- a device that converts an electrical quantity into a nonelectrical quantity.

OUTPUT TRANSDUCER

- an instrumentation amplifier has a large voltage gain, a high CMRR, low input offsets, low temperature drift, and high input impedance.

INSTRUMENTATION

AMPLIFIERS

- to minimize the effects of leakage current and cable capacitance, the shield should be bootstrapped to the common-mode potentialGUARD DRIVING

- a circuit whose output equals the average of the input voltages.

- when all amplified outputs are added, we get an output that is the average of all input voltages.

AVARAGER

- (D/A) converter is a weighted summing circuit that produces an output equal to the weighted sum of the inputs. The weight is the same as the gain of the channel

DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG

CONVERTER

- a power transistor or other device that has a current rating than the op amp.

- another way to get more short-circuit output current is to use current booster.

CURRENT BOOSTERS

- means that the input and output voltages can swing all the way to the positive or negative supply voltages.

RAIL-TO-RAIL

OPERATION

- in many applications like radio and television, we want the voltage gain to change automatically when the input signal changes.

- when the input signal increases, we want the voltage gain to decrease.

- in this way, the output voltage of an amplifier will be approximately constant.AUTOMATIC

GAIN CONTROL

- the signal out of television camera has frequencies from 0 to well over 4 MHz, frequencies in this range is called video frequenciesVIDEO FREQUENCIES

- using dual supplies is the typical way to power op amps.

- but this is not necessary or even desirable in some applications.

SINGLE-

SUPPLY OPERATION

CHAPTER 21

ACTIVE FILTERS

-with a low-pass filter, the frequencies between zero and the cutoff frequency.

PASSBAND

- the frequencies above the cutoff frequencySTOPBAND

the roll off region between the pass band and the stopband.

TRANSITION

- the pass band is identified by its low attenuation and its edge frequency.

- the stop band is identified by its high attenuation and edge frequency.

- the order of a filter is the number of reactive components.

APPROXIMATE

RESPONSE

- refers to a loss of signal.

- with a constant input voltage, attenuation is defined as the output voltage at any frequency divided by the output voltage in the midband.

ATTENUATION

- in filter analysis and design, the low-pass filter is a prototype, a basic circuit that can be modified to get other circuits.PROTOTYPE

- the highest frequency in the pass band of a low-pass filter.

- this frequency is also referred to as the edge frequency because it is on the edge of the pass band.CUTOFF FREQUENCY

- symbolized by n, equals the number of inductors and capacitors in the filter.

- if a passive filter has two inductors and two capacitors, n=4.

- if a passive filter has five inductors and five capacitors, n=10.

ORDER OF A

PASSIVE FILTER

- depends on the number of RC circuits called POLES it contains.ORDER OF AN

ACTIVE FILTER

- is sometimes called the maximally flat approximation because the pass band attenuation is zero through most of the pass band and decreases gradually to Ap at the edge of the pass band.

BUTTERWORTH

APPROXIMATION

- may be preferred because it rolls off faster in the transition region than a Butterworth filter.

- the price paid for this faster roll-off is that ripples appear in the pass band of the frequency response.

- sometimes called the equal-ripple approximation.

CHEBYSHEV

APPROXIMATION

- means that the stop band has no ripplesMONOTONIC

- also known as the Cauer filter, this filter optimizes the transition region at the expense of the pass band and stop band.

ELLIPTIC

APPROXIMATION

- has a flat pass band and a monotonic stopband similar to those of the Butterworth approximation.

BESSEL APPROXIMATION

- which means that all frequencies in the passband are delayed by the same amount of time as they pass through the filter.

CONSTANT TIME DELAY

- a low-pass LC filter has a resonant frequency and a Q.

PASSIVE FILTERS

- first-order stages have a single capacitor and one or more resistors.

FIRST-ORDER STAGES

- named after the inventors, are also called VCVS filters because the op amp is used as a voltage-controlled voltage source.SALLEN-KEY LOW-

PASS FILTERS

- use from one to four op amps in each second-order stage.

- a band stop filter needs to block only a single frequency.

BANDSTOP FILTERS

- it is a phase filter because the filter shifts the phase of the output signal without changing the magnitude.ALL-PASS FILTER

- when used to compensate for the time delay of another filter, the all-pass filterDELAY EQUALIZERS

- having voltage gain, center frequency and bandwidth all independently tunable is a major advantage and one of the reasons for the popularity of biquadratic filters.

BIQUADS

- it has three op amps, two equal capacitors, and six resistors.

- is also referred to as a TT Tow Thomas filter.

BIQUADRATIC FILTERS

- is also called a KHN filter after the inventors (Kerwin, Huelsman, and Newcomb).

STATE-VARIABLE

FILTER

CHAPTER 22

NONLINEAR OP-AMP CIRCUITS

- diode clamps are often used to protect the comparator against excessively large input voltages.

COMPARATORS WITH

ZERO REFERENCE

a comparator with a reference voltage of zero

ZERO-CROSSING

DETECTOR

- appears on an oscilloscope when harmonically related signals are applied to the horizontal and vertical inputs.

LISSAJOUS

PATTERN

- also called the threshold or reference of a comparator is the input voltage that causes the output voltage to switch states (from low to high or from high to low).

TRIP POINT

- in some applications a threshold voltage different from zero may be preferred.

- although op amps may be used as comparators, IC comparators are optimized for this application by removing the internal compensating capacitor.

COMPARATORS

WITH NONZERO

REFERENCES

- comparators with a non-zero reference voltageLIMIT DETECTOR

- the positive feedback produces two separate trip points that prevent a noisy input from producing false transitions.

COMPARATORS

WITH HYSTERESIS

- is any kind of unwanted signal that is not derived from or harmonically related to the input signal.

NOISE

- is caused by the random motion of free electrons inside a resistor .

- the energy for this electron motion comes from the thermal energy of the surrounding air.

- the higher the ambient temperature, the more active the electrons.

THERMAL NOISE

- when the comparator is positively saturated, a positive voltage is fed back to the non inverting input.

SCHMITT TRIGGER

- the feedback voltage will hold the output in negative saturation until the input voltage becomes slightly more positive than UTP.

NONINVERTING CIRCUIT

- a window comparator, also called a double-ended limit detector, detects when the input voltage is between two limits- --to create the window, a window comparator uses two comparators with two different trip points.

WINDOW COMPARATOR

- an integrator is a circuit that performs a mathematical operation called integration.

- the integrator is sometimes called the Miller integrator, after the inventor.

THE INTEGRATOR

- an integrator can convert a square wave to a triangular wave.

- with an adjustable resistor we can control the duty cycle with a limit detectorWAVEFORM

CONVERSION

- with positive feedback, we can build oscillators, circuits that generate or create an output signal with no external input signal.WAVEFORM

GENERATION

- uses the charging of a capacitor to generate an output signal.

- by cascading a relaxation oscillator and an integrator, we can produce a triangular output waveform.

RELAXATION

OSCILLATOR

- the output of a non inverting Schmitt trigger can be used to drive an integrator

- if the output of the integrator is used as the input to the Schmitt trigger, we have an oscillator that produces both square and triangular waves.

ANOTHER

TRIANGULAR

GENERATOR

- with op amps, we can build active half-wave rectifiers, peak detectors, clippers, and clampers.ACTIVE DIODE

CIRCUITS

- is a circuit that performs a calculus operation called differentiation.

- it produces an output voltage proportional to the instantaneous rate of change of the input voltage. THE DIFFERENTIATOR

CHAPTER 23

OSCILLATORS

-to build a sinusoidal oscillator, we need to use an amplifier with positive feedback.

- for the oscillator to start, the loop gain must be greater than 1 when the phase shift around the loop is 0 degree.

THEORY OF

SINUSOIDAL

OSCILLATION

- this is the standard oscillator for low to moderate frequencies in the range of 5 Hz to 1 MHz.

- it produces an almost perfect sine wave.

THE WIEN-

BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

- a bypass circuit is also called lag circuit.

- the minus sign for phase angle means that the output voltage lags the input voltage.

LAG CIRCUIT

-coupling circuit is also called a lead circuit.

-The phase angle is positive, it means that the output voltage leads the input voltage.

LEAD CIRCUIT

- the Wien-bridge oscillator uses a resonant feedback circuit.

- at very low frequencies, the series capacitor appears open to the input signal, and there is no output signal.

LEAD-LAG CIRCUIT

- the lead-lag circuit is the left side of a bridge, and the voltage divider is the right side.

WIEN-BRIDGE

OSCILLATOR

- a circuit with zero output at one particular frequency.

- for a wien bridge, the notch frequency equal.

NOTCH FILTER

-uses an amplifier and RC circuits to produce the required loop gain and phase shift at the resonant frequency.

-It works well at one frequency but is not suitable for an adjustable frequency oscillator.

TWIN-T OSCILLATOR

- also uses an amplifier and RC circuits to produce oscillations.

- an amplifier can act like a phase-shift oscillator because of the stray lead and lag circuits in each stage.

PHASE-SHIFT

OSCILLATOR

-RC oscillators usually do not work well above 1 MHz because of the additional phase shift inside the amplifier.

- this is why LC oscillators are preferred for frequencies between 1 and 500 MHz.

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

- uses a transformer to produce the feedback signal.

- this is how you recognize variations of this basic circuit.

- the small secondary winding is sometimes called a ticker coil because it feeds back the signal that sustains the oscillations.

ARMSTRONG

OSCILLATOR

- uses an inductive voltage divider to produce the feedback signalHARTLEY OSCILLATOR

- has a small series capacitor in the inductive branch of the resonant circuit.

- this reduces the effect that stray capacitances have on the resonant frequency.

CLAPP OSCILLATOR

- when accuracy and stability of the oscillation frequency are important a quarts crystal oscillator is used.

- the feedback signal comes from a capacitive tapQUARTS CRYSTALS

- some crystals found in nature exhibit.

- when you apply an ac voltage across them, they vibrate at the frequency of the appliedPIEZOELECTRIC

EFFECT

- the crystal is cut and mounted to vibrate best at one of its resonant frequencies, usually the lowest frequency or fundamental frequency.

FUNDAMENTAL

FREQUENCY

- higher resonant frequencies, are almost exact multiples of the fundamental frequency.

OVERTONES

- the frequency of any oscillator tends to change slightly with time.

- this drift is produced by temperature, aging, and other causesCRYSTAL STABILITY

- the intention is to improve the frequency stability by reducing the effect of stray capacitance.

PIERCE

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

- contains two comparators, an RS flip-flop, and an npn transistor.

- it has an upper and lower trip point.

- when used in the monostable mode, the input triggers must fall below LTP to start the action.

THE 555 TIMER

- is a two-state circuit that has zero, one, or two stable output statesMULTIVIBRATOR

- when the 555 timer is used in the mono stable mode, it is sometimes called a mono stable multi vibrator because it has only one stable state.

- it is stable in the low state until it receives a trigger, which causes the output to temporarily change to the high state.

MONOSTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR

- when operating in the mono stable mode, the 555 timer is often referred to as a one-shot multi vibrator because it produces only one output pulse for each input triggerONE-SHOT

MULTIVIBRATOR

- the 555 timer can also be connected to run as an astable multi vibrator.

- when used in this way, the 555 timer has no stable states, which means that it can not remain indefinitely in either state.

ASTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR

- since no input trigger is needed to get an output, the 555 timer operating in the astable mode.

FREE-RUNNNING

MULTIVIBRATOR

- the 555 timer cal also be used as an astable or free-running multi vibrator.

- in this mode, it requires two external resistors and one capacitor to set the frequency of oscillations.

ASTABLE OPERATION

OF THE 555 TIMER

- the 555 timer can be used to create time delays, alarms, and ramp outputs.

- it can also be used to build a pulse-width modulator by applying a modulating signal to the control input and a train of negative-going triggers to the trigger input.

- the 555 time can also be used to build a pulse-position modulator by applying a modulating signal to the control input when the timer is in the astable mode.

555 CIRCUITS

- PWM pulse-width modulation is used in communications, it allows a low frequency modulating signal (voice or data) to change the pulse width of a high frequency signal.

- the modulated carrier can be transmitted over copper wire, over fiber-optic cable, or through space to a receiver.

- the receiver recovers the modulating signal to drive a speaker (voice) or a computer (data).

CARRIER

- a PLL contains a phase detector, a dc amplifier, a low pass filter, and a VCO.

- the phase detector produces a control voltage that is proportional to the phase difference between its two input signals.

- the amplified and filtered control voltage then changes the frequency of the VCO as needed to lock on to the input signal.

THE PHASE-LOCKED

LOOP

- the lock range of PLL is the range of input frequencies over which the VCO can remain locked on to the input frequency.

It is related to the maximum phase difference that can be detectedLOCK RANGE

- the range of input frequencies within which the PLL can reestablish the lock.

CAPTURE RANGE

CHAPTER 24

REGULATED POWER SUPPLIES

- A zener diode regulator is aSHUNT REGULATOR

- Voltage regulators normally useNEGATIVE FEEDBACK

- During regulation, the power dissipation of the pass transistor equals the collector-emitter voltage times theLOAD CURRENT

- One advantage of shunt regulators is that they have built inSHORT-CIRCUIT

PROTECTION

- A current sensing resistor is usually SMALL

- Simple current limiting produces too much heat in thePASS TRANSISTOR

- A capacitor may be needed in a discrete voltage regulator to preventOSCILLATIONS

- Is defined as the difference between the input and output voltageHEADROOM VOLTAGE

- The output impedance of a voltage regulator isVERY SMALL

- To protect against an accidental short across the load, series regulators usually include some form ofCURRENT LIMITING

- Is a standard line of fixed regulators, with output voltages from 5 to 24 VLM78XX

- Means that the chip will shut itself off when the internal temperature becomes too high, around 175 degree CelciusTHERMAL SHUTDOWN

- A series regulator is an example of aLINEAR REGULATOR

- A switching regulator is consideredNOISY

- If the load is shorted, the pass transistor has the least power dissipation when the regulator hasFOLDBACK LIMITING

- In a buck regulator, the output voltage is filtered with CHOKE-INPUT FILTER

- The regulator with the highest efficiency is the SWITCHING

REGULATOR

- In a boost regulator, the output voltage is filtered with aCAPACITOR-INPUT

FILTER

- One way to compare regulators of different designs is by using EFFICIENCY

- One way to get more load current is to use a CURRENT BOOSTER

- The external transistor, is a power transistor

OUTBOARD

TRANSISTOR

- The most basic topology for switching regulators, and always steps the voltage downBUCK REGULATOR

-end-

(ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES, 6th edition by Malvino)429