malcolm x is the important person in the history of the united states
TRANSCRIPT
MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
Department of English Language and Literature
Malcolm X and the African-American Self Concept
Bachelor thesis
Brno 2012
Bachelor thesis supervisor: Written by:
Michael George, M.A. Dominika Kováčová
2
Declaration
I proclaim that this bachelor thesis is a piece of individual writing and that I
used only the sources cited in the bibliography list.
I agree with this bachelor thesis being deposited in the Masaryk University Brno
in the library of the Department of English Language and Literature and with
the access for studying purposes.
……………………………………………………
Dominika Kováčová
3
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank to Mr. Michael George, M.A. for his professional
and friendly attitude and valuable advice on recommended literature
as well.
4
Content
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 1 – GENERAL BACKGROUND ........................................................................... 6
1. Jim Crow Laws ............................................................................................................... 6
2. Situation in 1950s ........................................................................................................... 9
3. Situation in 1960s ......................................................................................................... 12
4. The Question of the Civil Rights .................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 2 – MALCOLM X‘S BACKGROUND ................................................................ 16
1. Malcolm X and His Life ............................................................................................... 16
2. Malcolm‘s Life before Prison ...................................................................................... 16
3. Malcolm‘s Life in Prison .............................................................................................. 19
4. Malcolm‘s Life after Prison and the Role of Islam in His Life .................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................. 25
1. Malcolm X and His Attitude towards the Civil Rights ................................................ 25
2. Opinion of Malcolm vs. Opinion of M.L. King ........................................................... 26
3. Melting Pot vs. Be Sticking out in the Crowd .............................................................. 28
4. Different Ideas – Different „Political Weapons― ......................................................... 30
5. Malcolm‘s Influence of Black People in 1960s ........................................................... 33
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................. 36
1. Positive and Negative Points of View on Malcolm X ................................................. 36
2. His Death and the Effect of Malcolm X after His Death ............................................. 39
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 42
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 44
Print Sources ........................................................................................................................ 44
Electronic Sources ................................................................................................................ 44
5
Introduction
This thesis is dealing with the person considered the second most influential figure in
the period of the civil right movement – Malcolm X and his impact on the African-Americans
in those days. Although this period of time is usually connected with Martin Luther King,
Malcolm remains unknown in the Czech Republic. But his importance is not neglected in the
United States, because he contributed to the creation of the African-American Self-Concept.
His attitude, speeches and actions had the important impact on the black people in the United
States, when they were searching their own place in the society in those days.
Malcolm X is the important person in the history of the United States, because he also helped
to change the situation of the black people there. This thesis is focused on how he did it, what
his suggestions for solving the situations were and it also examines the motif, which led him
to actively enter the fight for the civil rights.
Even though his attitudes were quite radical, he had a lot of followers. This work is dealing
with the reasons why it was so and what was his most powerful weapon to attract so many
black people. It shows that people still pay attention to him and points out the legacy of
Malcolm.
6
CHAPTER 1 – GENERAL BACKGROUND
The African – Americans did not come to the United States from choice, but from the
16th
to the 19th
centuries, they were taken from their families and from their land to English,
Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch and other colonies as slaves. Therefore they had to look
for their place in the nation, which did not even perceive them as the human beings. Under
these circumstances, the position of the black people was really difficult. So the beginning of
their history in the United States was not easy and natural.
The white people brought the blacks into the United States with the clear purpose – they
needed the work labourers. Due to the fact, that the black people came from Africa and had
different culture, different lifestyle, different habits and the language, which the white people
did not know and did not understand, they did not accepted the black people as equal. As the
result, they did not tolerate the African-Americans as a part of the society and they could not
live near their slavemasters and any kind of connection between the black and white cultures
was forbidden.
This caused that the African-Americans protected their original culture for many years and
therefore it did not mix it with the culture of the whites, which also allowed their culture to
raise and evolve in its own way. It brought the new genres of music and new styles in
dancing. So the isolation of the black people can be considered as positive in this way, even
though the main purpose of it was inhuman.
Nevertheless, the struggle of the African-Americans was better from time to time. The slavery
was abolished in 1865 after the American Civil War by the thirteenth amendment, which was
ratified on 6th December 1865. After all these events, the Reconstruction began. Even though
the question of slavery was solved, the view of the whites on the black people could not been
changed after one day. African-Americans started to build schools and communities to
become their own masters without any white control. It seemed hopefully but the situation
changed with Jim Crow laws.
1. Jim Crow Laws
The origins of Jim Crow Laws can be seen in so-called Black Codes. It was passed by
all Southern states after the Civil War and the main purpose was to control African-
7
Americans‘ migration and labour. For example, according the Black Codes, the African
Americans could legalize their marriage and owned some property but it denied them to vote
and testify against the white people. (Foner, 561)
The Black Codes were not accepted by the North, therefore after Republicans‘ winning the
elections in1866, the Southern states were under restraint of the military troops. The situation
did not change till 1877, till the Reconstruction Era ended. (Friedman, 21)
During this period of time, the civil rights of the formerly slaves were protected, but after that
year, white democrats‘ power started to raise, which led to the codification of Jim Crow laws.
The motto of Jim Crow laws was ―separate but equal‖, but it was not equal at all and the
result was that African Americans were treated as inferior and it brought to them a
discrimination in social, economic and educational fields. It mandated the segregation by law
in public facilities and embodied the absurd and serious laws as well. The segregation started
with the disfranchisement of African Americans by making voter registration more restrictive
and electoral rules more complicated. Until 1910, disfranchisement was also legalized in ten
Confederate States. (www.jtbf.org)
Here are some examples of the Jim Crow laws:
Mississippi
Promotion of Equality: -Any person...who shall be guilty of printing, publishing or
circulating printed, typewritten or written matter urging or presenting for public acceptance or
general information, arguments or suggestions in favor of social equality or of intermarriage
between whites and negroes, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and subject to fine or not
exceeding five hundred (500.00) dollars or imprisonment not exceeding six (6) months or
both.
Hospital Entrances: -There shall be maintained by the governing authorities of every hospital
maintained by the state for treatment of white and colored patients separate entrances for
white and colored patients and visitors, and such entrances shall be used by the race only for
which they are prepared.
Prisons: -The warden shall see that the white convicts shall have separate apartments for both
eating and sleeping from the negro convicts.
8
Missouri
Education: Separate free schools shall be established for the education of children of African
descent; and it shall be unlawful for any colored child to attend any white school, or any
white child to attend a colored school.
Intermarriage: All marriages between...white persons and negroes or white persons and
Mongolians...are prohibited and declared absolutely void...No person having one-eighth part
or more of negro blood shall be permitted to marry any white person, nor shall any white
person be permitted to marry any negro or person having one-eighth part or more of negro
blood.
New Mexico
Education: Separate rooms [shall] be provided for the teaching of pupils of African descent,
and [when] said rooms are so provided, such pupils may not be admitted to the school rooms
occupied and used by pupils of Caucasian or other descent.
North Carolina
Textbooks: Books shall not be interchangeable between the white and colored schools, but
shall continue to be used by the race first using them.
Libraries: The state librarian is directed to fit up and maintain a separate place for the use of
the colored people who may come to the library for the purpose of reading books or
periodicals.
Militia: The white and colored militia shall be separately enrolled, and shall never be
compelled to serve in the same organization. No organization of colored troops shall be
permitted where white troops are available, and while white permitted to be organized,
colored troops shall be under the command of white officers.
(http://academic.udayton.edu)
As these examples show, it touched all fields of the human life. The punishments were
imposed not only on the black people, but on the white people as well. If there was somebody,
who tried to help the black people, or consorted with them, then he/she was punished as well.
(http://academic.udayton.edu)
9
The first important but unsuccessful attempt to reverse and point out the absurdity of Jim
Crow laws took place in1896. This case is known as Plessy v. Ferugson1.
All it started in 1890, when the new law called the Separate Car Act was enacted in Louisiana.
It meant the separate railway cars for black and white people, but before 1890, coloured
people could ride with the white people. This was the reason why the Comité des Citoyens
decided to act in this way with the cooperation with Homer Plessy.
―Homer Adolph Plessy was a successful Louisiana businessman living in Baton Rouge.
Comfortable in the society of both racial groups, Plessy had had one African-American
grandparent. Although he did not consider himself African American, Louisiana law defined
him as ‗octaroon‘–one-eighth African American.
Plessy, acting on behalf of a committee that had been formed to challenge Jim Crow laws,
intentionally broke the law in order to initiate a case. Returning by rail from New Orleans to
Baton Rouge, Plessy was asked by railroad officials to sit in the segregated area of the train.
He refused. Then he was arrested.‖ (https://pantherfile.uwm.edu)
The trial took place in Orleans Parish, where the judge John Ferguson decided the acting of
railroad companies by Lousiana was justified. As the result, Plessy was fined and had to pay
25 dollars. Despite this decision, the Comité des Citoyens appealed to the Supreme Court of
Louisiana, but they lost again, because the Supreme Court said that Ferguson‘s decision was
constitutional.
This case and its result meant the consolidation of the segregation and Jim Crow laws for the
next fifty eight years.
2. Situation in 1950s
The situation in 1950s was quite complicated. During the last decade, migration to
North was easier than before, so many black people travelled to North to find a job there. As
Thomas N. Maloney writes in his article ―African Americans in the Twentieth Century‖: ―By
1940, there were large black communities in a number of Northern cities. Newspapers
produced by these communities circulated in the South, providing information about housing,
1 Ferguson is the name of the judge, who rendered the decision, which supported the segregation for next fifty
years.
10
jobs, and social conditions. Many Southern African Americans now had friends and relatives
in the North to help with the transition.‖ (eh.net)
The black people started to be employed to war-related jobs after starting the government to
enforce fair employment polices, which included hiring as white as black workers equally and
this resulted into the decrease of black unemployment. This migration also helped the black
people in the question of wage. They were migrating to North, where the wages were higher.
It meant more money for black people, but as Maloney suggested, still the wage of black
people were one half less than the white people.
Many African-Americans enlisted to the military services and fought against the fascism in
Europe, but the segregation was abided even in units. It means there were two types of
military units – the black ones and the white ones. (http://www.army.mil)
Even though, after the Second World War, African-Americans hoped that situation would
change, but nothing like that happened and discrimination continued. Therefore, the protest of
black people became more visible as the way in what they tried to change their situation.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas can be considered as the first big breaking
case in the situation of African-Americans. The chance to have equal and adequate education
for black children in the public school was negligible.
In this case, Linda Brown had to walk over twenty blocks to her school because she was
denied to attend the local only-white school. Moreover, the schools for black children were
overpopulated and bad-equipped, so one class had usually forty to fifty students and the study
materials were not supplied for all of them. These facts led Linda‘s father to the Board of
Education to court. Even though he lost in this case, he did not give it up and with the help of
the NAACP2, the case reached the Supreme Court of the United States. The decision was
done on May 17. ―Accepting the arguments put forward by the plaintiffs, Warren3 declared
‗To separate [some children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of
their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect
their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone [...] We conclude that in the field
2 NAACP is the abbreviation for the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People; for more
information see the section The question of the Civil Rights bellow. 3 Warren was a judge, who represented the Supreme Court of the United States in this case.
11
of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational
facilities are inherently unequal…. segregation [in public education] is a denial of the equal
protection of the laws‘.‖ (https://pantherfile.uwm.edu)
As the result of this decision, the segregation in schools had to be cancelled ―with all
deliberate speed‖. (https://pantherfile.uwm.edu)
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas was not the only important attempt of the
African-Americans to change their situation. As it was discussed before, there were many
fields in which the black people were discriminated. One of the big issues was segregation in
transports.
Due to Jim Crow laws, the buses had two notional separate parts, which also meant that the
whites and the blacks could not enter a bus through the same door. The black people could sit
only in their parts which were usually at the back of the buses.
It was on December 1, 1955 when Rosa Parks4, an African-American woman, refused to
surrender her seat on a public bus for a white passenger. She was immediately arrested, found
guilty and fined and the event, which started as a protest, overgrew into something much
bigger that is nowadays called the Montgomery Bus Boycott. This boycott lasted more than
one year, exactly 381 days. It was organized by fifty African-American leaders and many
important civil rights figures took part in this event. Moreover, almost all black citizens of
Montgomery took part as well, and persevered in their determination.
(montgomeryboycott.com)
Even though ―the Court on June 19, 1956 enacted the segregation was in conflict with the
U.S. Constitution, the municipal council appealed. However, on November 13, 1956, the
Supreme Court of the United States decided that segregation in buses of the Montgomery City
was illegal and against the U.S. Constitution‖. (montgomeryboycott.com)
It was another partial success of the African-Americans on their way to equality.
In 1950s, there were other important events, such as establishing the organizations concerning
the civil rights. The reasons, why those kinds of organizations were established, were several.
4Rosa Parks was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP and also the civil rights activist, who is also known as
"the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement" (Friedman, 46)
12
In 1955, a black boy, Emmett Till, was brutally murdered by two white boys ―for whistling at
a white woman in Mississippi. Those two white men were acquitted by jury consisted by
only-whites.‖ (Sitkoff, 44)
As Rosa Parks said later, Emmett was the person who she was thinking of, when she refused
to give up a seat in a bus. And this kind of cases such as Emmett Till and Little Rock Nine5
are also considered as one of the motive powers for establishing the civil rights organizations
and movement.
3. Situation in 1960s
In 1960s, the civil rights movement was in full-strength and the events escalated.
Many new civil rights organizations were established and different sit-ins started. The groups
were well-organized and there was some kind of hierarchy in it. This hierarchy is described
by Clayborne Carson in his article ―African – American Leadership and Mass Mobilization‖:
The national civil rights organizations supported the Black Belt voting rights campaign, but
in this instance too local leadership played crucial roles in mobilizing black communities.
In areas of Mississippi and Alabama where white resistance was most fierce, SNCC (and to
a lesser extent CORE and SCLC) organizers worked under the auspices of the Council of
Federated Organizations (COFO), a coordinating body led by black Mississippians.
(http://www.stanford.edu)
Due to this fact, the African-Americans were able to mobilize and cooperate throughout the
whole United States.
As it was already mentioned, many non-violent sit-ins started. The first non-violent sit-in
began in North Carolina, where four black students took part in it. They started this protest
against the segregated lunch counters in the school. It took six months, but their protest was
successful and triggered many similar sit-ins in the South. (Sitkoff, 61-81)
The different organizations arranged different events. One of the interesting ones was a test of
the new laws, which prohibited the segregation in public transports. This test was sponsored
by the Congress of Racial Equality. They called themselves as the freedom riders and they
5 In this case, nine black students were prevented entry the integrated school by troops, even though they were
chosen to attend this school because of their excellent grades.
13
travelled throughout the South by buses and trains and tested if the laws were adhered.
(Sitkoff, 88-94)
Nevertheless, the marches, protests and other events were organized in a non-violent way; we
can mark the period of 1960s as a period of riots. The best way in what we can understand
turning a non-violent event into riot is the example.
In 1962, James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi as a first black student
there. Immediately, the riot broke out, which was started by the whites. The troops had to
come to calm down the riot. (Sitkoff, 114)
Actually, the riots broke out just at the side of the whites. So after killing four young black
girls by a bomb attack during the Sunday school, the riots in Birmingham started and it ended
tragically.
During the 1960s, the ideas of the particular African-American leaders became different and
crystallized. Some of them prefer the non-violent way how to deal with the situation and how
to provide the equality and become the American citizen, some of the have the opposite ideas.
The most famous leaders of these contradictory ideas are Martin Luther King and Malcolm X.
Martin Luther King entered his name into the history of the United States with the March on
Washington, which was the biggest march ever seen in Washington and also well-known for
presenting King‘s famous speech I have a Dream; while Malcolm X‘s attitude can be
expressed by his famous statement:
―We have formed an organization known as the Organization of African-American Unity
which has the same aim and objective to fight whoever gets in our way, to bring about the
complete independence of people of African descent here in the Western Hemisphere, and
first here in the United States, and bring about the freedom of these people by any means
necessary. That‘s our motto. We want freedom by any means necessary. We want justice by
any means necessary. We want equality by any means necessary.‖ (http://www.blackpast.org)
14
4. The Question of the Civil Rights
The question of the Civil Rights of the African-Americans can be seen through the
whole history of black nation in the United States. The events what can be seen as small
pieces in the history form the complex and clarify why one or another event broke out.
This section is focused on the particular period of time, concretely the period of time between
the years 1954-1968 and roughly clarifies the context of that time.
This period of time refers to the African-American Civil Rights Movement, which embodies
all organizations and social movements concerning the discrimination against the African-
Americans and trying to improve the situation of the black people. At this point of the work, it
is briefly described several of these movements, which were part and parcel of the fight
against the segregation and they also helped to form self-concept of the African-Americans.
The first important and very powerful association was established by prominent whites and
one black, who was also a significant leader of this organization - William E.B. Du Bois. The
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People – NAACP was founded in 1909
in New York and became most influential organization concerning the civil rights.
(http://www.usm.edu)
CORE – Congress of Racial Equality was founded in1942 in Chicago. The founder was
James Farmer and they saw the solution of the civil rights question in non-violent actions and
in improving racial relations. They also sponsored so-called freedom rides. This organization
is still active. (http://www.usm.edu)
SCLC – Southern Christian Leadership Conference – was established by Martin Luther King,
Jr. in 1957.Their aim was to remove the segregation with the non-violent actions. Using this
method, they helped to desegregate swimming pools, libraries, and other public
accommodations. They were also successful in keeping the question of the civil rights in
American media. (http://www.usm.edu)
15
SNCC – the organization was founded at the Shaw University in North Carolina, 1960. It was
formed by the students and they supported and coordinated the activities of activists and sit-
ins and also they made them visible through what they tried to achieve the equality for the
African-Americans. (http://www.usm.edu)
Beside these movements, there were also important leaders, who stood for the African-
Americans in their fight for equality. Some of them are mentioned in connection with the
movements, some of them were not part of any, nevertheless, their speech and actions were
powerful and influenced the masses.
16
CHAPTER 2 – MALCOLM X’S BACKGROUND
1. Malcolm X and His Life
There is nobody in the world who has never heard the name of the Reverend Martin
Luther King. He was the one who wanted the black people to be a part of the American
society within the rights which belong to them. But only few people in the world know that
besides Mr. King there was also somebody else who contributed to the change of the role of
the black people in the American society. Moreover his attitude towards the role of the blacks
in the society was totally different than the King‘s one. His name is Malcolm X.
This chapter is focused on the life of Malcolm X who was and still is the important person in
the history of the United States of America. In this chapter, there is also introduced his life
and the reasons, which led him to become one of the well-known spokesmen for the Black
Nationalism.
One of his quotes can clarify his attitude towards fulfilling the aims in life: ―... early in life, I
had learned that if you want something, you had better make some noise.‖ (malcolmx.com),
but when to know more about the reasons which provoked Malcolm X to act in the question
of the civil rights and the events which influenced his attitude towards the position of the
black people in the society, first it is important to learn some details from his life.
Malcolm‘s life can be easily divided into two main parts: Malcolm‘s life before prison and his
life after prison. As it is known, the event that Malcolm affected the most was the period of
his life spent in prison.
2. Malcolm’s Life before Prison
Malcolm X was born in Omaha, Nebraska as Malcolm Little in 1925. His father was a
Baptist reverend and a local leader of U.N.I.A6. His mother had the Scottish ancestors so
Malcolm inherited the light-skin after her. Malcolm‘s childhood was very difficult because of
several tragedies. (malcolmx.com)
6 Universal Negro Improvement Association
17
As it is known Malcolm‘s father was an active supporter of U.N.I.A, which caused his family
considerable troubles. They had to move from place to place because they were threatened by
Black Legion7. Therefore they had to move but their home burned to the ground. In fact,
Malcolm was born in very difficult period of time when the Ku Klux Klan8 flourished and
harassed the black people all over the United States. (malcolmx.com)
Actually, Malcolm firstly met with the exposure of this harassment and discrimination before
he was born:―When my mother was pregnant with me, she told me later, a party of hooded Ku
Klux Klan riders galloped up to our home … Brandishing their shotguns and rifles, they
shouted for my father to come out.‖ (biography.com)
That is how their lives looked like regardless of their efforts to change it. After burning their
house, two years later, Malcolm‘s father was found dead. Even though he was likely killed by
Black Legion, the police closed his case as a suicide. (biography.com)
After his father was killed and Malcolm‘s mother was declared insane after a nervous
breakdown, Malcolm and his siblings were sent to different foster homes. But as Malcolm
affirmed in the book The Autobiography of Malcolm X: ―Despite the artificially created
separation and distance between us, we still remained very close in our feelings toward each
other.‖ (Haley, 26)
Despite all these circumstances, Malcolm was one of the best students in the junior high
school as the only black student there, but after the humiliating event when a teacher in the
school asked him about his future dreams and after Malcolm answering that he would like to
be a lawyer, the teacher told him: ―Malcolm, one of life‘s first needs is for us to be realistic.
Don‘t misunderstand me, now. We all here like you, you know that. But you‘ve got to be
realistic about being a nigger. A lawyer – that‘s no realistic goal for a nigger. You need to
think of something you can be … Why don't you plan on carpentry?‖ (biography.com), he left
the school at the age of fifteen.
After dropping out of school, he moved to Boston to his half-sister Ella, where he started
working. Ella gave some advice to Malcolm and also helped Malcolm to arrange the job.
7 It was the white supremacist organization, which arose from the Ku Klux Klan in 1930s. 8 This nationalist, supremacist and violent organization is still an active group in the U.S.A and its name is
derived from the sound of the gun when it is loaded
18
Boston was the city, where Malcolm felt different – better. He was getting to know Boston as
Ella advised him, and he was surprised by everything he saw there. Malcolm himself
described his first experience with Boston ghetto in the book The Autobiography of Malcolm
X like that:
―I began going down into the town ghetto section. That world of grocery stores, walk-up flats,
cheap restaurants, poolrooms, bars, storefront churches, and pawnshops seemed to hold a natural
lure for me. Not only was this part of Roxbury much more exciting, but I felt more relaxed among
Negroes who were being their natural selves and not putting on air.‖(49)
During his stay in Boston, Malcolm tried several jobs such as a shoeshine boy, busboy and
waiter. His life at that stage was closely connecting with the travelling - from city to city,
from job to job. Regardless of how he tried hard to be a part of the society, he also met some
different people, and living on his own, he acquainted with the criminal life there.
(malcolmx.com)
In 1943, he moved to New York City. At this point his criminal life began involving drug
dealing, gambling and robbery. He loved the nightlife and he needed to finance his lavish
lifestyle. He gambled every night, which became demanding. During this period, Malcolm
was also given a nickname in the criminal ring; they started to call him ―Red‖ allegedly
because of the reddish colour of his hair. Concerning his journey to this kind of business, it
was not complicated to get into. Malcolm in the book The Autobiography of Malcolm X
describes this phase of his life in detail and this part is demonstrating in what way he was
thinking at that time:
… I could make money immediately. For anyone with even a little brain, no experience was
needed, especially if one had any knack at all with people. Both Sammy and I knew some
merchant seamen and others who could supply me with loose marijuana. And musicians,
among whom I had so many good contacts, were the heaviest consistent market for reefers.
And then, musicians also used the heavier narcotics, if I later wanted to graduate to them. That
would be more risky, but also more money. (109)
During the next three years, his criminal activity continued and culminated in arresting for
burglary. Even though people who are sentenced to prison are usually supposed to change
their behaviour but the reality is different. But what happened to Malcolm, nobody would
expect.
19
3. Malcolm’s Life in Prison
Malcolm was sentenced to 10 years in prison. At this point Malcolm‘s life was
completely transformed. First of all, Malcolm furthered his education taking the
correspondence course in English. He also read constantly the books from the prison library to
make up for the years of education that he missed when he left the school.
(brothermalcolm.net)
Secondly, his family was a member of the Black Muslim religious movement9 and Malcolm
was seriously interested in its ideas. His siblings visited him in prison several times, and told
him about this religious group, which they were part of. It started slowly, because he just
followed the not-to-do instructions given by his brother Reginald. The moment that is so
important in Malcolm‘s life happened in prison, when his brother came to visit him. This first
visit was the start of the transformation of Malcolm life. After second visit, Malcolm
described his feelings as:
When Reginald left, he left me rocking with some of the first serious thoughts I had ever had in
my life: that the white man was fast losing his power to oppress and exploit the dark world; that
the dark world was starting to rise to rule the world again, as it had before; that the white man‘s
world was on the way down, it was on the way out. ‗You don‘t even know who you are,‘
Reginald had said. ‗You don‘t even know, the white devil has hidden it from you, that you are a
race of people of ancient civilizations, and riches in gold and kings. You don‘t even know your
true family name and you wouldn‘t recognize your true language if you heard it. … You have
been a victim of the evil of the devil white man ever since he murdered and raped and stole you
from your native land in the seeds of your forefathers…‘. (Haley, 175-176)
After this experience Malcolm began to study the religion of Islam presented by Elijah
Muhammad. Moreover, he stopped smoking and refused to eat pork following the advice of
Reginald.
Actually, it can be told that his life went through a lot of changes in the prison. Surprisingly,
when Malcolm came to the prison, the inmates gave him a nickname ―Satan‖, because of
Malcolm‘s antireligious attitude. (Haley, 167) So he came to the prison as the atheist and
during three years his mind was totally reversed. Studying the message of the Nation of
9 The official name of the organization was the Lost-Found Nation of Islam, with national headquarters in
Chicago. Its spiritual leader was Elijah Muhammad.
20
Islam10
, Malcolm also gained a kind of negative attitude to the whites. His conclusion about
the relationships with the whites was that all of them were dishonest, greedy and wrong.
The ideology of the Nation of Islam, involving the ideas of Black Nationalism and also the
ideas of equality and freedom for the blacks, which practically meant African-Americans‘
need to establish their own state separated from the whites, was considered by Malcolm as his
own.
Avid for more information, Malcolm wrote directly to Elijah Muhammad. As Alex Haley told
in The Autobiography of Malcolm X, the answer of Elijah encouraged and strengthened him:
―Mr. Muhammad sent me a typed reply. It had an all but electrical effect upon me to see the
signature of the ‗Messenger of Allah‘.‖ (184)
Thereafter, the correspondence between them became regular and through this
correspondence the teaching of Elijah Muhammad was realized.
In the book Crisis in Black and White, Silberman also stresses the teaching of Elijah
Muhammad and its impact on the blacks, including Malcolm. He describes the moments and
stories that changed Malcolm‘s mind and which Malcolm presented later, as his own. He
depicted one of the stories of Elijah Muhammad, where was described that the whole world
was ruled and badly treated by the whites who tried to remake the blacks, because they did
not consider the blacks good enough and therefore the blacks would get their revenge. (149-
155)
In 1952 Malcolm was paroled released from prison. Till then he was studying and gaining the
new attitudes towards the world ruled by the whites, so there is no surprise that Malcolm‘s
first steps, after release from prison, lead to Detroit where he joined the temple of practicing
Muslims.
10 The Nation of Islam is the African-Americans‘ organization established in Detroit in 1930. In those days, its
spiritual leader was Elijah Muhammad and the main idea of this organization was to improve the situation of the
blacks in USA on the basis of traditional Islam religion but adapted for the black needs concerning their
experience of the slavery.
21
4. Malcolm’s Life after Prison and the Role of Islam in His Life
It is obvious that the impact of Islam on Malcolm‘s life was more than big. It turned
whole his life and all attitudes up and down.
The adoption of the ideology of the Nation of Islam also caused that Malcolm wanted to start
the brand-new life in Detroit by joining his brothers and sisters there. At that time, he worked
there and lived there, but it did not fulfil his expectation and he was inpatient to meet Elijah
Muhammad. Before the end of the 1952, this Malcolm‘s dream came true. (malcolmx.com)
In 1952, the Detroit Muslims came to Chicago to hear Elijah Muhammad, so Malcolm joined
them and the speech of Elijah Muhammad literally electrified him because of two reasons.
First, he got to know more about the devil and the history of the black people and also how it
was twisted and bleached throughout the centuries, describing as:
Elijah Muhammad spoke of how in this wilderness of North America, for centuries the ‗the
blue-eyed devil white man‘ had brainwashed the ‗so called Negro‘. He told us how, as one
result, the black man in America was ‗mentally, morally and spiritually dead‘. Elijah
Muhammad spoke of how the black man was Original Man, who had been kidnapped from
his homeland and stripped of his language, his culture, his family structure, his family name,
until the black man in America did not even realize who he was. (Haley, 214)
The second reason, why it had so great impact on Malcolm was the fact that Elijah
Muhammad talked directly to him in front of two hundred other listeners. Concerning the
situation of the black people in those days and personally the situation of Malcolm as a
suggestible man who was just out of the prison, it must have been a powerful weapon to bring
his close to the thinking of the Nation of Islam. At that moment, the career of Malcolm began.
(brothermalcolm.net)
As another evidence of great influence of the Nation of Islam on Malcolm, there is the change
of his surname. After hearing the idea of Elijah Muhammad, that Malcolm Little changed his
surname from Little to X. Not knowing his ―real‖ name and thinking about his surname given
by ―the white devil‖ he chose to have the name that he considered more appropriate.
Malcolm describes gaining of the surname ―X‖ and the reasons, which lead him to this
change, in this way:
22
My application had, of course, been made and during this time I received from Chicago my
‗X‘. The Muslim‘s ‗X‘ symbolized the true African family name that he never could know.
For me, my ‗X‘ replaced the white slave master name of ‗Little‘ which some blue-eyed devil
named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears. The receipt of my ‗X‘ meant that
forever after in the Nation of Islam, I would be known as Malcolm X, Mr. Muhammad taught
that we would keep this ‗X‘ until God Himself returned and gave us a Holy Name from His
own mouth. (Haley, 216)
After changing his name, Malcolm started to work hard for the benefit of the Nation of Islam,
especially he was involved in the recruiting the new members of NOI11
. Therefore, Elijah
Muhammad was attracted by Malcolm and offered him a help and his direct tutoring. In late
1952, Malcolm was named the assistant of minister of NOI in Detroit. Malcolm‘s way of
recruitment was more than successful, what practically meant that in the period since 1952 till
1955, he expanded the Temple in Philadelphia and also established several new ones in
Boston, Springfield, Massachusetts, Hartford, Connecticut and Atlanta, Georgia. During
those years, Malcolm also became the minister of Temple No.7 in Harlem and Temple No.11
in Boston. (http://brothermalcolm.net)
His power in recruiting was not only the strong belief in Elijah Muhammad and the message
of NOI, but also his personal skills. Between the most powerful skills, which Malcolm used in
recruiting, were his great ability to speak influentially and his look as well. He was tall,
charismatic person with the charming voice. He was aware of these characteristics; moreover
he knew how to work with them and used it well.
It can be said that Malcolm was responsible for a quick boom connecting with the growing of
NOI. According to A+E Networks, during the period of time, when it was under the
Malcolm‘s leadership, it is said that:‖… the Nation of Islam grew from a mere 400 members
at the time he was released from prison in 1952 to 40,000 members by 1960.―
(biography.com)
Similarly to the speed of Malcolm‘s career, his prominence was increasing in the same way.
Malcolm came to the public attention for the first time in 1957, after one event in New York,
when one Black Muslim – Hinton - was beaten by police and taken to the police station. It
11 NOI – it is an abbreviation of the Nation of Islam.
23
was Malcolm who gathered the crowd in front of the police station and insisted to see Hinton.
Under these circumstances, police officers let Malcolm see Hinton and he called the
ambulance. After Hinton was treated and sent back to the police station, Malcolm silently
discharged the crowd. (http://www.malcolmxbio.com)
Malcolm tried to be an active member all the time in order to bring the message of NOI
between the masses. It also included the establishment of the national newspaper called
―Muhammad Speaks‖, which should spread the NOI between all black
people.(http://www.malcolmx.com)
In those days, Malcolm became the public spokesman for the blacks. He proclaimed the
attitudes of the Black Muslims everywhere and became very popular among the blacks and
was also considered the second most influential leader of the NOI.
As the time went, Malcolm stood out more fearless than before, which brought with it also the
change of attitudes which became more radical.
Even though Malcolm dedicated almost all his time and energy to the NOI, he did not forget
to take care about his own faith. In the late 1950s, he changed his name again, but for this
time he changed the whole name. He was known as El Hajj Malik El-Shabazz that he took
when he completely converted. For this purpose, he travelled several times, and he also
visited Mecca, Nigeria, Ghana, Morocco, Algeria and other African states.
(brothermalcolm.net)
Although Malcolm‘s faith seemed to be strong all the time, there were the hard times for it. It
was tested several times, but the biggest test of all occurred when the rumours about Elijah
Muhammad started and the truth was revealed. About how much his faith was shaken,
Malcolm says:
In my twelve years as a Muslim minister, I had always taught so strongly on the moral issues
that many Muslims accused me of being ‗anti-women‘. The very keel of my teaching and my
most bone-deep personal belief was that Elijah Muhammad in every aspect of his existence was
a symbol of moral, mental, and spiritual reform among the American black people. … My faith
had been shaken in a way that I can never fully describe. For I had discovered Muslims had
been betrayed by Elijah Muhammad himself.‖ (Haley, 322)
Even though it was a strong attack on Malcolm‘s faith, it remained the same.
24
As the consequence of those events, the link between them weakened, which resulted in the
separation, and in 1963, Malcolm left the NOI.
After leaving the NOI, Malcolm remained active in the fight for the civil rights of the black
people and therefore, in 1964, he publicly announced that he was establishing the new
organizations, namely: the Muslim Mosque and the Organization of African-American
Unity12
; nevertheless, it did not flourish as the NOI did while he was a member. After
establishing the OAAU13
and the Muslim Mosque, he travelled to Europe and Africa that
changed his opinion about the white people. He returned more optimistic and he claimed:
Since I learned the truth in Mecca, my dearest friends have come to include all kinds -- some
Christians, Jews, Buddhists, Hindus, agnostics, and even atheists! I have friends who are called
capitalists, Socialists, and Communists! Some of my friends are moderates, conservatives,
extremists -- some are even Uncle Toms! My friends today are black, brown, red, yellow, and
white! (http://www.islamdaily.org)
After this break with Elijah Muhammad, there were many people set against Malcolm.
On February 21, 1965, Malcolm was assassinated during the event of the Organization of
African-American Unity. (Parks, 53-54)
12 The Organization of African-American Unity was established in 1964, and its main aim was to fight for the
rights of African Americans and find the way in cooperation among the Africans and African descents in USA. 13 The OAAU – is the abbreviation of the Organization of African-American Unity.
25
CHAPTER 3
1. Malcolm X and His Attitude towards the Civil Rights
As it was already suggested, Malcolm X lived in a quite difficult time, especially for
the black people. He was born into the segregation and he came across a kind of the
discrimination before he was born. Nowadays, it is difficult to imagine what the feelings of
that generation should be like.
The feelings describing by Gordon Parks14
in his book Born Black can be considered the most
accurate expression of the feelings of that generation. Even though he succeed in the world of
whites and also admitted that without help and support of the whites he would be no one, he
felt the truth in the words of Malcolm X. After being asked to write about Black Muslims, he
started to doubt about his own opinions about ―the black problem‖. He caught the feeling of
his generation in this way:
At the beginning of my career I missed the soft, easy laughter of Harlem and the security of black
friends about me. Although en route to my home in Westchester I occasionally drove through
Harlem in those days, there was hardly ever enough time to become a physical part of it again.
Eventually I found myself on a plateau of loneliness, not knowing really where II belonged. In
one world I was a social oddity. In the other I was almost a stranger. (29-30)
So if this is the picture of the successful black man, what would have been the picture of
common black people like?
After becoming the member of NOI, Malcolm‘s attitude towards civil rights was sharply
shaped. He clearly saw just one way how to liberate the black people from the supremacy
of white oppression and that was to make the black people independent in all ways. He also
saw the only enemy of the black people and their freedom - a white man calling him the
white devil. Actually, in those days, it can be said that Malcolm literally hated the whites
because according to Malcolm, they were the only tool, which caused humiliation of the
blacks and also raped their culture and history. As Harvard Sitkoff pointed out in the book
The Struggle for Black Equality, Malcolm showed his attitude publicly, which was also
used against him:
14 Gordon Parks was an American photographer, writer and film director. He was well-known for his work for
the magazine Life where he publicized his photographic essays.
26
Near the end of the year, a two-hour television documentary, ‗The Hate That Hate Produced,‘
shocked the nation with its portrayal of the Black Muslims, nearly a hundred thousand strong,
rejecting Christianity and integration. The program focused national attention on Malcolm X and
his fiery denunciations of all white people and their Negro stooges in the civil right movement. …
Malcolm X dismissed any chance of meaningful racial change in the United States. He insisted
that true African-Americans did not want ‗to integrate into this corrupt society, but to separate
from it, to a land of our own, where we can reform ourselves, lift up our moral standards, and try
to be godly.‘ (59)
Malcolm also maintained another idea - the idea of Original man, which focused on the black
man as on the Original man. This theory also said that the black man was placed at the top of
the civilization before he was kidnapped by the white man and every link to his origin such as
culture, family and language was chopped. As a result of these events, according to the theory
of NOI, the black man cannot remember and realize who he is. (Haley, 214-215)
This kind of opinions contributed to the negative reactions, which were usually formed by the
white supremacists. Sitkoff explained why they did it in this way: ―White supremacists,
moreover, played on the obsessive American fear of Communism to discredit the civil-rights
cause. They equated challenges to the racial status quo with un-Americanism, and missed no
opportunity to link the black struggle with Communist ideology and subversion.‖ (17)
Moreover, the white supremacists supported the more provocative opinions, which were
evoked by the similar ideas like Malcolm‘s was. They focused on everything, which showed
some kind of black extremism. So for example; they pointed out the Black Nationalism and
supported the fear which it evoked.
2. Opinion of Malcolm vs. Opinion of M.L. King
This chapter is dealing with the comparison of the opinions, strategies, attitudes and
manners of two main personas in the civil rights movement; Malcolm X and Martin Luther
King. Even though they both were controversial in some way, and they were totally different,
they had something in common – the hunger for justice, freedom and equality for the black
people.
27
M. L. King was born on 15th January in 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia. In his family, there was a
long tradition among the man generation of being Reverends of Baptist Church. King
attended the segregated public school and graduated from high school. Continuing his studies,
he attended Morehouse College, where he received the B.A. degree. He also attended the
three-year study at Crozer Theological Seminary. After this, he enrolled at Boston University,
where he finished his doctorate in 1955. (biography.com)
During his studies, he became pastor of Baptist Church in Montgomery and at that time, he
was already the member of NAACP. In 1955, King was elected to be a leader in the bus
boycott15
, which can be considered as the first King‘s great victory, in spite of the fact it cost
him a lot. Although during this boycott he was arrested and his home was attacked several
times, he never gave up. (http://www.lib.lsu.edu)
He is best-known for using the tactics of the non-violent civil disobedience, which is quite
similar to the Gandhi method. He was also a great rhetorician and it turned out on the March
on Washington, which he directed. Besides the several awards from different magazines, he is
the youngest man who received the Nobel Peace Prize at the age of thirty-five. In 1968, King
was assassinated in Memphis, where he was to lead a march. (nobelprize.org)
It is obvious that they both had quite similar destiny. Both were smart and intelligent young
men, who devoted their lives to the fight for the civil rights movement and became the
spokesmen for the black people. Moreover, their lives also ended in a same way. They both,
at the age of forty, were assassinated during the events connecting with the civil right
movement.
What can be seen as a difference between these two interesting figures, is the attitude towards
school system. King decided to finish his studies, even more, he continued in educating.
Malcolm could not stand the school system and the system of race predestination and while
King attended the high school to the end, Malcolm chose another way of life. This standpoint
can be understood as a moment when their lives starting to differ and their ways split.
15 The bus boycott and its progression is described in the Chapter One.
28
As it was already mentioned, both of them were active members of the organizations
connecting with the civil rights movement, what we can consider as the main difference,
because every organization had its own policy, attitudes and suggestions how to change the
situation of the black people, and in this way, they shaped their members as well.
Due to this fact, it is quite obvious they had to differ. The main standpoints in what they did
not share the same opinions were crucial concerning the whole issue of the civil rights.
3. Melting Pot vs. Be Sticking out in the Crowd
First of all, and maybe it can be understood as the main guidepost in their philosophy,
they maintained different ideas about the place of the black people in the American society. It
can be said that these opinions not only differed but they were totally contradictory. Actually,
it meant there was no possibility to cooperate at the same goal.
Martin Luther King, as a member of NAACP, supported the idea of being the part of the
society. His main aim was to integrate the black people to the American society, where,
according to him, they belonged. The idea originated from the historic fact, that the black
people were the part of it for a long time, so it was natural that after more than 200 years they
became the Americans. Moreover, there were no people from Africa any longer, they all were
born in the United States, so according to King, it was already a fact, he just wanted to
stabilize and confirm this place of the black people in the United States and so give them what
they deserved.
Even though this strategy was successful in the end, the reactions of the black people were
miscellaneous. Illustrated by the writers Kwame Ture and Charles Hamilton in their book
Black Power: the Politics of Liberation, they are talking about this kind of leader, like King
was, in this way: ―All too frequently, these ‗integrated‘ people are used to blunt the true
feelings and goals of the black masses. They are picked as ‗Negro leaders‘, and the white
power structure proceeds to talk to and deal only with them. Needless to say, no fruitful,
meaningful dialogue can take place under such circumstances.‖ (31)
On the other hand, the opinion of Malcolm was the other way round. He taught black
supremacy and saw the only way in separation of black and white Americans. Malcolm
29
argued that the white people - the Americans – brought all the suffering and misery to the
black people – the African descendants - and they were also responsible for the brainwash of
the blacks who were made to forget their origins and roots.
Many writers were brought to this idea through Malcolm, so James H. Cone in the book Black
Theology & Black Power also resulted from Malcolm‘s idea explaining the reason why
integration is not the right way: ―Any careful assessment of the black man in America must
conclude that black self-hatred is the worst aspect of the legacy of slavery. ‗The worst crime
the white man has committed,‘ writes Malcolm X, ‗has been to teach us to hate ourselves.‘ …
When blacks were rewarded, it was because they behaved according to the stereotypes
devised by whites.‖(18) Therefore, according to Cone and Malcolm X, the white people were
also responsible for the unpleasant situation in what the black people were found. As a result,
there was Malcolm‘s opinion, which said that identifying with the whites is ineligible and
hypocritical.
As Cone further suggests, Malcolm X did not see the point in integration, because it would
mean that the black man should want to be like the white one and should accept the values of
white man as his own and dismiss his history and the whole race. (17)
So Malcolm X wanted to separate the black people from the whites. According to Malcolm, it
was good to be different because the white men made the blacks hate themselves. Actually, he
was talking about it during one of his speeches in 1962 in Los Angeles:
Who taught you to hate the colour of your skin? Who taught you to hate the texture of your
hair? Who taught you to hate the shape of your nose and the shape of your lips? Who taught
you to hate yourself from the top of your head to the soles of your feet? Who taught you to hate
your own kind? Who taught you to hate the race that you belong to so much so that you don't
want to be around each other? No... Before you come asking Mr. Muhammad does he teach
hate, you should ask yourself who taught you to hate being what God made you. (YouTube,
org)
Malcolm‘s attitudes can be understood that he just wanted the blacks to love themselves and
teach them how to be proud of themselves. Moreover, he considered the black man as
a perfect human being, so there are no doubts; he was a supporter of the idea that if the black
man is sticking out of the crowd, it is something he should be proud of.
30
Unlike King - he saw the solution for the blacks in becoming the Americans and in
cooperation. It is obvious from his speech, when he said: ―We must learn to live together as
brothers or perish together as fools.‖-- Speech in St. Louis, Missouri, March 22, 1964
(gooogreads.com)
It can be said that he was one of the representatives of the theory, which is known as melting
pot16
. It can be also supported by his famous quotations:
―I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character…
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of
former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.‖
-- "I Have a Dream" speech, August 28, 1963 (goodreads.com)
Although King‘s idea partly works today, it was a difficult quest to make it work in those
days. Mainly the white people were dismissive, because they could not imagine living with
the blacks shoulder to shoulder.
Both these approaches have its own truth inside, but as the best way it can be considered the
third one. Even though they were both right, the third way works today in the United States,
and it contains both approaches. Actually, the best solution developed from the cooperation of
Malcolm‘s and King‘s ideas - so it is good to share your culture with others, but it is very
important not to forget what your roots are.
4. Different Ideas – Different „Political Weapons“
The second important attitude not shared by Malcolm and King, is the means used for
the achievement of their main goal.
After knowing their approaches towards integration, it is reasonable that their means how to
reach it would be different. Actually, they can be called contradictory, because that is what
16 This term was used in 1782 for the first time. It was used by Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, who used it in
connection with the immigrants. The melting pot changed its meaning slightly, and nowadays, we use it as a
description of the society, where everybody shares his/her culture with other members of the society and
therefore they obtain a brand new identity. But mainly it became popular after the play of the same name by
Israel Zanwill in 1908.
31
they really are. On the one side, there is King and his non-violence, and on the other side,
there is Malcom and his obtaining the freedom by any means.
Malcolm‘s suggestion neither excluded nor included King‘s non-violence. Inasmuch as their
characters differed, King‘s standpoint did not appear effective to Malcolm. The best way how
to express Malcolm‘s character is through his own words: ―Be peaceful, be courteous, obey
the law, respect everyone; but if someone puts his hand on you, send him to the cemetery.‖
(brainyquotes.com)
As it can be understood from his words, the main features of Malcolm‘s character were
eagerness and impulsivity and of course the hatred of the white men. Consequently, his
speeches were very dynamic, electrical and full of energy and therefore it could be applied at
masses of the unsatisfied blacks looking for the leader, who wanted to act.
On the other hand, there is M.L.King, whose actions and non-violence theory were inspired
by Mahatma Gandhi. In King‘s words, the most powerful mean in the world was just non-
violence and he used it well. Thanks to his great rhetorical skills, he spread it over the whole
country and was quite successful in working with that.
As far as it is known, they are considered to be the most important leaders in the period of the
civil rights movement and the number of their followers confirms this fact as well. Maybe
their followers were also the reason why these two men usually indirectly reacted at each
other.
The best and the most effective way in what it can be explained and understood the difference
between Malcolm‘s and King‘s political weapons, is to compare their suggestion and ideas
expressed by them.
Here are the several of their quotations, which fit the best for explaining their different
attitudes:
M.L.King:
―Non-violence is a powerful and just weapon, which cuts without wounding and ennobles the
man who wields it. It is a sword that heals.‖ (huffingtonpost.com)
Versus
Malcolm X:
32
―I don't even call it violence when it's in self defense; I call it intelligence.‖ (brainyquotes.com)
M.L.King:
―Non-violence is the answer to the crucial political and moral questions of our time — the need
for mankind to overcome oppression and violence without resorting to violence and oppression.‖
(brainyquotes.com)
Versus
Malcolm X:
―We declare our right on this earth...to be a human being, to be respected as a human being, to be
given the rights of a human being in this society, on this earth, in this day, which we intend to
bring into existence by any means necessary.‖ (brainyquotes.com)
M.L.King:
―The ultimate weakness of violence is that it is a descending spiral, begetting the very thing it
seeks to destroy. Instead of diminishing evil, it multiplies it. Through violence you may murder the
liar, but you cannot murder the lie, nor establish the truth. Through violence you may murder the
hater, but you do not murder hate. In fact, violence merely increases hate. So it goes. ... Returning
hate for hate multiplies hate, adding deeper darkness to a night already devoid of stars. Darkness
cannot drive out darkness: only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate: only love can do that.‖
(goodreads.com)
Versus
Malcolm X:
―I am for violence if non-violence means we continue postponing a solution to the American black
man's problem just to avoid violence.‖ (brainyquotes.com)
These quotations confirm the diversity of Malcolm‘s and King‘s attitudes, opinions and
characters as well. They also introduce us the reactions on each other. They indirectly but
publicly expressed their disapproval with the contradictory ideas. According to these
quotations, it can be claimed that Malcolm‘s ideas were quite radical and impatient, asking for
immediate action, while King‘s suggestions were full of calm and tolerance. Of course, it had
its consequences in different forms, from fluctuant popularity through significant affecting the
history to tragic ends of their lives.
Even though they confronted each other quite often through the public speeches and they
were rivals in fight for the same thing, surprisingly they met just once in their lives. It
33
happened after a news conference when King was leaving and Malcolm stepped out of the
crowd with a view to shake the hands with King. Whole that meeting lasted just about one
minute.
5. Malcolm’s Influence of Black People in 1960s
In 1960s, the fight for the civil rights was fully operational, but the improvement took
place quite slowly. As a result of this slow progress, people were looking for something more
effective. Perhaps, this was also the reason, why so many people started to pay attention to
Malcolm X. Sitkoff also evaluates the situation in those days:
The civil rights offensive envisioned by King seemed to many in the late 1950s more like a
retreat before the forces of racism. Not surprisingly, King‘s strategy of non-violent resistance
struck many African-Americans as unproductive, unbearable, even suicidal. […] Some
considered non-violence debasing; others questioned what fundamental conditions it could
change; many simply tired of turning the other cheek. (57-58)
So many people were looking for something different, something more effective. As a result
of this kind of despair can be the case of Robert William, which is described by Sitkoff in The
Struggle for Black Equality. Robert William was a member of NAACP, who organized a gun
club. It was in 1959, when William estimated the process of non-violence fruitless and so he
started to act. It is visible that the inspiration was taken from Malcolm X. As it is known,
Malcolm said that the blacks should gain the freedom whatever it took. So William did so - by
organizing the gun club and publicly defending the street guerilla wars by blacks. For this
kind of behaviour he was dismissed from NAACP. (58)
There were many followers of Malcolm, who literally rose from Malcolm‘s statements, and
the Black Power Movement17
can be considered the most remarkable followers. The theory of
this movement is based on Malcolm‘s words and it could be seen in their works. Kwame
Ture, who used the term Black Power as a political slogan, was fed up with the current
situation. Ture took part in the March against Fear, where one March member was shot,
which led to the change of Ture‘s mind.
17 This is a political movement throughout the world among the black people. It dealt with the Black
Nationalism, the need of racial separation and the using violence as the means for achieving their goals. The
term was coined by a politician Adam Clayton Powell in 1966, but it was used as a political slogan by Stokely
Carmichael, later known as Kwame Ture.
34
Moreover, Ture and Hamilton in the book Black Power: the Politics of Liberation are
evolving Malcolm‘s idea of separation and pointing out that integration also deals with the
question of humanity: ―The goal of black people must not be to assimilate into middle-class
America, for that class – as a whole – is without a viable conscience as regards humanity. …
Thus we reject the goal of assimilation into middle-class America because the values of that
class are in themselves anti-humanist and because that class as a social force perpetuates
racism.‖ (40-41)
Another interesting example is James H. Cone, an American theologian. He linked to
Malcolm‘s ideas as well. Cone was very supportive of Black Power and the independence of
the black people. In his book Black Theology & Black Power, he also criticizes the American
society by confirming Malcolm‘s theory: ―The demonic forces of racism are real for the black
man. Theologically, Malcolm X was not far wrong when he called the white man ‗the devil‘.
The white structure of this American society, personified in every racist, must be at least part
of what the New Testament meant by the demonic forces.‖ (41)
His theology was heavily influenced by Malcolm, what can be seen also in his standpoint
towards the obtaining freedom: ―The man of Black Power will not rest until the oppressor
recognizes him for what he is - man. He further knows that in this campaign for human
dignity, freedom is not a gift but a right worth dying for.‖ (12)
Since Cone was convinced that the black people could not follow the ―white‖ church, he tried
to find the right way in religion for the black people. He argued that the Christianity is full of
oppression and therefore, the blacks should follow their own teachers:
What is meant is a removal of the oppressive ideas from the black community which the
seminaries perpetuate. We must replace them with black consciousness – that is, with Nathaniel
Paul, Daniel Payne, Nat Turner (not Styron‘s), Marcus Gravey, Elijah Muhammad, and
Malcolm X. ... we need to deal with the theology of Henry Garnet and other black
revolutionaries. (131)
Ture, Cone and Hamilton showed in what way the blacks were influenced by Malcolm and
his presented attitudes. On the basis of Malcolm‘s opinions, they evolved something new and
bigger. They encouraged the blacks in being proud of their origins and roots, tried to show
35
them who they should follow and supported their own statements by something, which
seemed to them right - by Malcolm‘s ideas.
36
CHAPTER 4
1. Positive and Negative Points of View on Malcolm X
As it was already suggested, Malcolm was a figure with radical and extreme attitude
almost towards everything. And so were also the reactions on him. Similarly, the opinions
about him always differ. During the research for this work, there was nobody, who would
have no opinion about Malcolm like an important person in the history of the United States.
Everybody has at least some opinion. It can be also considered the proof of Malcolm‘s power
and power of his actions.
Thinking about negative point of view, there is a question: who would be the most accurate
person to criticize Malcolm? Surprisingly, the answer is as easy as it can be – Martin Luther
King. As it was already mentioned he was Malcolm‘s most significant rival in the choosing
the way in what they wanted to fulfil the same goals and because of this, it is understandable
he was also his most remarkable critic. The most cogent and accurate way in what King
expressed the point of view on Malcolm embraced King‘s attitudes towards him:
He is very articulate, but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views-at
least insofar as I understand where he now stands. I don't want to sound self-righteous, or
absolutist, or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the
answers. I know that I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence
is not going to solve our problem. And, in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro
without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our
people a great disservice. Fiery, demagogic oratory in the black ghettos, urging Negroes to arm
themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief.
(stanford.edu)
Moreover, it is interesting to mention that there is the whole chapter about Malcolm X in
King‘s autobiography, where King analysed the relations between them and showed his
opinion about Malcolm. Actually, it is not so surprising, because as Cornel West18
suggests in
his book Race Matters that ―… Malcolm X dangles as the skeleton in the closet lodged in the
racial memory of most black professionals.‖ (97)
18 He is an American academic, author, critic and philosopher. He is well-educated and studied at Harvard
University and Princeton University. Nowadays, he is a professor at the Union Theological Seminary in New
York.
37
On the other side, there were definitely the positive points of view on Malcolm as well. After
knowing King‘s critique of Malcolm X, is there any good in his actions? Did Malcolm leave
any positive footprint in this world? And if he did, why is it so?
The best way in answering these questions is to use the words of Cornel West:
Malcolm X articulated black rage in a manner unprecedented in American history. His style of
communicating this rage bespoke a boiling urgency and an audacious sincerity. The substance
of what he said highlighted the chronic refusal of most Americans to acknowledge the sheer
absurdity that confronts human beings intelligence, beauty, character, and possibility. His
profound commitment to affirm black humanity at any cost and his tremendous courage to
accent the hypocrisy of American society made Malcolm X the prophet of black rage – then
and now.
Malcolm X was the prophet of black rage primarily because of his great love for black people.
His love was neither abstract nor ephemeral. Rather, it was a concrete connection with a
degraded and devalued people in need of psychic conversion. This is why Malcolm X‘s
articulation of black rage was not directed first and foremost at white America. Rather,
Malcolm believed that if black people felt the love that motivated that rage the love would
produce a psychic conversion in black people; they would affirm themselves as human beings,
no longer viewing their bodies, minds, and souls through white lenses, and believing
themselves capable of taking control of their own destinies. (96-97)
Accepting West‘s opinion, the main reason why Malcolm should be considered as positive
figure is the fact that there was nobody who would cry out for black people so loudly and so
publicly in the way that he did; he clearly expressed the urgency and the need of action; he
pointed out the American hypocrisy with no shame, with no fear. He also showed to the black
people how important is to love their origins and therefore overcome the injustice and become
equal members of the society. This can be considered the real legacy of Malcolm X.
This fact can also help to explain why he is still the matter to which many people return again.
For instance, after Barrack Obama was elected for the first time, there was published quite
interesting article ―Legacy of Malcolm X‖ in the Atlantic. It was written by Ta-Nehisi
Coates19
, who found the parallel between Malcolm and Barrack. Coates grew up in the
19 He is an American author, who worked for Time, New York Times Magazine and The Washington Post. Now,
he is an editor in The Atlantic.
38
community, which supported Malcolm‘s ideas and lived according to them. In this article, he
is describing his life and his personal connection with Malcolm. This article also clarifies why
Coates linked Malcolm and Obama. First of all, Coates is showing that without Malcolm and
his contribution to the history, there would not be any possibility to vote for the black man:
―As surely as 2008 was made possible by black people‘s long fight to be publicly American, it
was also made possible by those same Americans‘ long fight to be publicly black. That latter
fight belongs especially to one man, as does the sight of a first family bearing an African
name. Barack Obama is the president. But it‘s Malcolm X‘s America.‖
Even though Malcolm‘s nature was quite wild and no everyone could consider it as the good
value, Malcolm was still the man of manner and his actions always contained some kind of
moral message, which is usually disregarded because of the way he presented it. Coates points
out this fact and focuses on it as well. After describing Malcolm as a well-behaved man of
moral attitude, he is focusing on Obama, whose manners are very close to Malcolm‘s:
Ossie Davis famously eulogized Malcolm X as ‗our living, black manhood‘ and ‗our own black
shining prince.‘ Only one man today could bear those twin honorifics: Barack Obama. Progressives
who always enjoyed Malcolm‘s thundering denunciations more than his moral appeals are
unimpressed by that message. But among blacks, Obama‘s moral appeals are warmly received, not
because the listeners believe racism has been defeated, but because cutting off your son‘s
PlayStation speaks to something deep and American in black people—a belief that, by their own
hand, they can be made better, they can be made anew.
Coates makes a visible connection between two important figures in the history of the United
States. It is more remarkable, realising that Obama confesses the influence of Malcolm in his
memoir. (http://www.ontheissues.org)
But the most crucial fact from Coates‘s article is the conclusion. As it was already suggested,
Malcolm‘s life changed in the school after realising the fact he was not good enough for the
society to be a lawyer because he was black. This changed everything in his life and fed it the
anger in him, which made him act. In this point, Coates concluded: ―What animated
Malcolm‘s rage was that for all his intellect, and all his ability, and all his reinventions, as a
black man in America, he found his ambitions ultimately capped. The right of self-creation
had its limits then. But not anymore. Obama became a lawyer, and created himself as
president, out of a single-parent home and illicit drug use.‖
39
Additionally, it can be seen the link between Malcolm and Obama from Coates‘s point of
view, where he suggested that Barrack Obama made himself a president through Malcolm and
his life experience. Comparing nowadays society and society 40 years ago, Coates also
suggested that the American society evolved. Actually, agreeing with Coates, the lives of
Obama and Malcolm did not differ much. But there was one crucial difference: Obama
already lives in the society, where the opportunity was given to him, no matter of race.
2. His Death and the Effect of Malcolm X after His Death
February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated. The country did not get over the
death of President Kennedy yet and there was another unexpected shock.
The reactions differed but everybody was surprised. Eldridge Cleaver remembers exactly that
day and describes it in his book Soul on Ice:
‗Brother J sent me to tell you it just came over the TV that Malcolm X was shot as he addressed
a rally in New York.‘ For a moment the earth seemed to reel in orbit. The skin all over my body
tightened up. … I was thinking that if Malcolm‘s wounds were not too serious, that if he
recovered, the shooting might prove to be a blessing in disguise: it would focus more
intensified attention on him and create a windfall of sympathy and support for him throughout
America‘s black ghettos, and so put more power into his hands. The possibility that the wound
may have been fatal, that as I sat there Malcolm was lying dead, was excluded from my mind.
(57-58)
For him, as for many Malcolm‘s followers, it was a painful event, and they just hardly
believed that. Whereas there were also the Elijah Muhammad supporters who considered it
as a punishment for Malcolm for what he had done to Elijah. While Cleaver was in prison,
he also experienced the reactions of other inmates on Malcolm‘s death:
… and yet I was keen to observe the effect of the assassination on my fellow inmates. From most of
the whites there was a leer and a hint of a smile in the eyes. They seemed anxious to see a war
break out between the followers of Elijah and the followers of Malcolm. … Among the Negroes
there was mass mourning for Malcolm X. Nobody talked too much for a few days. The only
Negroes who were not indignant were a few of the Muslims who remained loyal to Elijah
Muhammad. They interpreted Malcolm‘s assassination as the will of Allah descending upon his
head for having gone astray. (60)
As it was suggested, the country mourned twice more in that moment, because the
assassination of Malcolm was a significant event as such. Everybody knew who Malcolm was
40
and there were other people who saw it similarly as Cleaver did at a first moment when he
realised Malcolm was shot. He wanted to use it for the benefit of their thing and so did the
others. Cleaver observing the situation for several weeks after Malcolm‘s death and realised
that some black inmates considered Malcolm‘s assassination like the important argument in
their hands: ―Many Negroes convicts saw Malcolm‘s assassination as a historic turning point
in black America. Whereas Negroes often talk heatedly about wiping out all the so-called
Negro leaders whom they do not happen to like or agree with, this was the first significant
case of Negro leader-killing that anyone could remember.‖ (60)
Even though this attitude was partly true and there was an expectation of something to
happen; as the result of Malcolm‘s assassination, nothing important changed. But there was
one thing what really changed and it was the attitude of people towards Malcolm. As the
consequence of his death, people started to look at him differently and also his importance
rose. Parks correctly commented at Malcolm‘s assassination: ―Monuments to his memory are
mushrooming all over the country. It seems that he has become more powerful in death than
he was in life, a black martyr to the black man‘s cry for justice.‖ (54)
His tragic death caused the change of attitude of people and this could be a reason why they
are still talking about him, they are making the movies about him, and when there is some
important change in the United States such as the vote of the first black President in the
history, there are people who always turn back to Malcolm and his importance for their
nation. He is still the living matter for people, because even though his suggestions were
radical, but his opinions were not wrong at all.
Actually, his most powerful weapon was not violence as some people suggest, but it was a
power to make people think. Although it is not visible at first glance, going deeper in the
problematic issue of the civil rights, it can be found that everybody was thinking about him,
doubting about his/her attitude, which also helped them to form his/her own opinion about
this issue.
That is why the words of Parks can be considered right. Yes, Malcolm can be understood as a
martyr, who devoted his life to a good thing, because this is his legacy; to be ready to fight for
what is yours and do not give up even when the majority is against you, but it would not be
possible without knowing and loving yourself and believing in yourself, anyway this is also
41
the legacy, which Malcolm left here for the world. Therefore, the importance of Malcolm is
not in his actions, but in his legacy, because this kind of thoughts should be remembered
forever.
42
Conclusion
The situation of the black people in the United States was always difficult. Since they
were brought to the New World, they had difficult times. Since slavery, through the period of
the oppression, to the fight for their civil rights. Their history in the United States progressed
quite quickly comparing with the rest of the world.
Even though the slavery was abolished and they thought the situation would be better, their
position in the society did not change much. After beating slavery, there was another knock-
down – Jim Crow Laws, which established legal the segregation and therefore also the
humiliation of the black people for a long time. Unless, the civil right movement came and
started to act for the improving of black people‘s situation and the words like justice, equality
and freedom became the stable part of the vocabulary of every black man.
Concerning the Civil Right Movement, every period of time had its leaders. And so it was
also in this case. Knowing almost everything about Martin Luther King, there was another
important leader of that time. It was Malcolm X.
This bachelor thesis was dealing with Malcolm, his life, his influence of the black people and
his legacy as well. It was focused on the crucial moments in his life, which led him to be such
a great spokesman for the black people. It also pointed out his main goals and suggestions for
obtaining the justice, equality and freedom for the black people. Moreover, it analysed his
importance for the black people and his legacy for all of us.
Even though his actions and suggestions were radical, his main legacy lies in the fact that it is
really important to believe in yourself and do not give up. As the proof of importance of
Malcolm and his ideas is also the fact, that many people are still interested in his theory and
himself.
As the result of this research, it can be concluded that the importance and greatness of
Malcolm X consist in his power to lead people to know themselves, to teach them how
important is to accept themselves as they are and to show them there is more than one
possible way in solving problems. Moreover, Malcolm X brought self-confidence among the
43
black people and provided them support when they needed it most. He also helped the black
people to form their own attitudes toward themselves, which became an inseparable part of
their self-concept. It is obvious that Malcolm had his part in creating the history and the
African-Americans would be completely different without his contribution in history.
44
Bibliography
Print Sources
Cleaver Eldridge. Soul on Ice. New York: Dell Publishing Group, Inc., 1992. Print.
Cook, Terrence E. and Patrick M. Morgan. Participatory Democracy. San Francisco: Canfield
Press, 1971. Print.
Cone, James H. Black Theology & Black Power. New York: The Seabury Press, 1969. Print.
Foner, Eric. Give me Liberty! An American History. Vol. 1. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company, Inc., 2008. Print.
Parks, Gordon. Born Black. New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1971. Print.
Silberman, Charles. Crisis in Black and White. New York: Random House, 1964. Print.
Sitkoff, Harvard. The Struggle for Black Equality 1952 – 1992. New York: Hill and Wang,
1993. Print.
Ture, Kwame and Charles V. Hamilton. Black Power. New York: Vintage Books, a Division
of Random House, Inc., 1992. Print.
West, Cornel. Race Matters. Boston: Beacon Press, 1993. Print.
X, Malcolm and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books,
1992. Print.
Electronic Sources
―Barack Obama on Principles & Values‖. OnTheIssues.org, 2012. Web. 20 Sep 2012
<http://www.ontheissues.org/2012/Barack_Obama_Principles_+_Values.htm>.
Carson, Clayborne. ―African – American Leadership and Mass Mobilization‖. Stanford
University. 1994. Web. 30 Sep. 2012
<http://www.stanford.edu/~ccarson/articles/black_scholar.htm 30.9.2012>.
45
Clark Isaac and Alexis Carrasquel. ―Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Biographical Sketch‖.
Louisiana State University. 2012. Web. 17 Aug 2012
<http://www.lib.lsu.edu/hum/mlk/srs218.html>.
―Civil Rights Groups‖. The University of Southern Mississippi. 2012. Web. 25 Aug 2012
<http://www.usm.edu/crdp/html/cd/groups.htm>.
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. ―The Legacy of Malcolm X‖. The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly
Group, May 2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2011
<http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2011/05/the-legacy-of-malcolm-
x/8438/1/>.
―Disenfranchisement of African-American Voters in the Reconstructed South‖. Just the
Beginning Foundation. 2012. Web. 20 Sep 2012
<http://www.jtbf.org/index.php?submenu=Slavery&src=gendocs&ref=Disenfranchise
mentofAfricanAmericanVotersintheReco&category=Exhibit>.
Friedman, Michael J. Free at last. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International
Information Programs. 2008. 10 Sep. 2012
<http://www.america.gov>.
Hare, Ken. ―The Story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott‖. Montgomeryadvertiser.com. 2012.
Web. 30 Aug. 2012
<http://www.montgomeryboycott.com/article_overview.htm>.
Hasan, Jehanzeb. ―Confronting the Monolith: The Struggle against Islamophobia and
Osamaism‖. Islam Daily. IslamDaily.org, 14 Aug 2006. Web. 18 June 2012
<http://www.islamdaily.org/en/islam/4711.confronting-the-monolith-the-struggle-
against-isla.htm>.
King, Martin L. The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. The Martin Luther King, Jr.
Research and Education Institute. 2012. Web. 18 Aug. 2012
46
<http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/home/pages?page=http://mlk-
kpp01.stanford.edu/kingweb/publications/autobiography/chp_25.htm>.
―Malcolm‖. Twenty-First Century Books. 2012. Web. 17 Aug. 2012
<http://brothermalcolm.net/>.
―Malcolm X - Biography‖. A+E Networks. 2012. Web. 20 Aug. 2012
<http://www.biography.com/people/malcolm-x-9396195?page=2>.
―Malcolm X Official Website‖. Estate of Malcolm X. Malcolm X. Web. 12 Aug 2012
<http://www.malcolmx.com/about/bio.html>.
―Malcolm X‘s Speech at the Founding Rally of the Organization of Afro-American Unity‖.
An Online Reference Guide to African American History. 2011. Web. 27 June 2012
<http://www.blackpast.org/?q=1964-malcolm-x-s-speech-founding-rally-organization-
afro-american-unity>.
―Malcolm X - Quotes‖. BrainyQuote. 2012. Web. 25 Aug. 2012
<http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/m/malcolm_x.html>.
Maloney, Thomas. ―African Americans in the Twentieth Century‖. Ed. Robert Whaples.
EH.Net Encyclopedia. 14 Jan, 2002. Web. 8 Sep. 2012
<http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/maloney.african.american>.
Marable, Manning Dr. Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. Institute for Research in African-
American Studies at Columbia University. Web. 15 Sep. 2012
<http://www.malcolmxbio.com>.
―Martin Luther King Jr. – Biography‖. Nobelprize.org. 2012. Web. 6 Sep. 2012
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king.html>.
―Martin Luther King Jr. Biography‖. A+E Networks. 2012. Web. 20 Aug. 2012
<http://www.biography.com/people/martin-luther-king-jr-9365086>.
―Martin Luther King Jr. - quotes‖. Goodreads, Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Aug. 2012
47
<http://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/23924.Martin_Luther_King_Jr_>.
―Martin Luther King Jr. Quotes: Famous Sayings For MLK Day 2010‖.
TheHuffingtonPost.com, Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Aug. 2012
<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/01/18/martin-luther-king-jr-
quo_n_426902.html>.
Randall, Vernellia R. Ed. ―Examples of the Jim Crow Laws‖. The University of Dayton.
2001. Web. 20 Aug. 2012
<http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/jcrow02.htm>.
―Race cases‖. Blackboard Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Aug 2012
<https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/jnelsen/www/apgov/unit3/race_cases.pdf>.
―The Murder of Emmett Till‖. Public Broadcasting Service. 2009. Web. 06 Aug 2012
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/till/timeline/timeline2.html>.
―Timeline of Events for African Americans for U.S. Army‖. The Official Homepage of the
United States Army. 2012. Web. 15 Sep. 2012
<http://www.army.mil/africanamericans/timeline.html>.
X, Malcolm. ―Who Taught You to Hate Yourself?‖. Youtube, org., 2012. Web. 20 Aug 2012
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRSgUTWffMQ>.