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World Data on Education. 6th edition, 2006/07

Malaysia Updated version, September 2006.

Principles and general objectives of education The National Education Philosophy (NEP), formulated in 1988, states that “education in Malaysia is an on-going effort to further develop the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens of high moral standards, knowledgeable and competent, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, the society and the nation at large.”

The underlying principles and goals of the NEP are translated into the school curriculum, which encourages the development of balanced, well-rounded, trained and skilled individuals who cherish the national aspiration for unity. More specifically, educational programmes and activities intend to achieve the following objectives:

• provide pupils with the essential intellectual, affective and psychomotor skills in a holistic and integrated manner to produce individuals who are intellectually, physically, emotionally and spiritually balanced and functionally literate;

• inculcate and nurture national consciousness through fostering common ideas, values, aspirations and loyalties in order to mould national unity and national identity in a multi-ethnic society;

• produce manpower with the requisite skills for economic and national development;

• inculcate in pupils desired moral values and to promote personality and aesthetic development as well as the sense of being responsible and disciplined, and progressively enabling them to contribute effectively towards nation-building.

There is no discrimination against any citizen in terms of access to education and financial support for the maintenance of pupils or students in any educational institution. Equality and rights in education are fundamental liberties enshrined in the Federal Constitution.

Current educational priorities and concerns Since Malaysia’s independence in 1957, education has always figured prominently as an integral part of the government’s developmental policy. The education sector has

Compiled by UNESCO-IBE (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/)


undergone tremendous changes and developments over the years. The past thirty years were spent on nation-building and on enhancing national unity through the development of a unified education system, a national curriculum, and the use of Bahasa Melayu, the national language, as the medium of instruction and communication. There has been a considerable increase in enrolment and universal access to education at the primary and lower secondary levels has been achieved.

Curriculum reforms in 1983, 1995, and 1999 and the increasing use of educational technology have enhanced the quality of education. The most recent curricular revision has combined the use of the content-based and outcomes-based approaches to curriculum design. More specifically it has focused on the introduction of new subjects, outcomes-based learning, student-centred pedagogical changes, and the introduction of new elements into the existing set of subjects. It also promotes the use of ICTs at the primary and secondary levels. The underlying principle in the Malaysian National Curriculum is that of a general education using an integrated approach in curriculum planning for knowledge, skills and positive attitudes.

To further ensure the quality and the delivery of education, more teachers have been recruited and new schools and better facilities have been built; efforts have also been initiated to improve the quality of teacher training and to increase the efficiency of the management of the education system. Since the 1990s, the Ministry of Education has focused on human resource development to meet the challenges of the information millennium and the move towards capital-intensive and technologically sophisticated industries. The private sector is expected to play a more dynamic role in the provision of education and training facilities to meet the growing demand for qualified and skilled manpower. The education and training systems will be expanded and strengthened to achieve the objective of ensuring that quality education and training are accessible to all Malaysians, and to equip them with the knowledge and skills necessary to make Malaysia a developed nation by the year 2020.

Malaysia’s national ideology Rukunegara (1969) has provided the direction for all political, economic, social and cultural policies including those concerning education. The aspirations and principles of Rukunegara are national unity, democracy, justice, equity, liberty, diversity and progress. The guiding principles to achieve these ends are belief in God, loyalty to king and country, upholding the constitution, rule of law, and morality. The major instruments towards achieving national unity are the National Economic Policy and the New Development Policy (NDP) of 1991. The NDP seeks “to attain a balanced development in order to create a more united and just society. The NDP, which emphasizes growth with equity, will enable Malaysians to participate in the mainstream of economic activities, thereby ensuring political stability and national unity.” All aspects of national development strategies contribute towards the achievement of this goal, of which the educational programme is the leading factor.

The Sixth Malaysia Plan (1990-95) focused on expanding educational opportunities and increasing access to all levels of education, and on strengthening and improving the quality of education. The Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996-2000) attempted to improve upon the previous initiatives to meet the manpower needs of the nation, particularly in the fields of science and technology. Under the Seventh Malaysia plan, the objectives of education and training were to produce an adequate



number of skilled and quality workers as well as to produce citizens who are disciplined, possess high moral values and good work ethics. The Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005) continues with the objectives of the previous plans and also gives high priority to reorienting the education and training system so that workers can acquire the knowledge, skills and expertise necessary to support a knowledge-based economy. In line with these goals, a number of measures have been identified, such as:

• Giving priority to the teaching of science, mathematics and languages in primary and secondary schooling; encouraging the development of creative and critical thinking skills and independent learning in pupils.

• Emphasizing positive values such as a sense of belonging, the drive for excellence, loyalty and love for the country as well as discipline, integrity, dedication and other positive attributes.

• Developing the school curriculum and co-curricular activities to encourage excellence in the arts.

• Providing equal opportunity to every child (increasing accessibility to quality education) through: an increase in the provision of qualified and experienced teachers; a greater utilization of modern technologies and computers; the construction of more schools, well equipped with ICT facilities and science laboratories; the construction of the necessary facilities in rural areas to increase the rural population's access to quality education; and the provision of special incentive packages to retain teachers and school staff in remote areas. Furthermore, more schools, and special classes in mainstream schools are being established to enable children with special needs to have better access to education.

• Setting up a mechanism that links schools with industries to ensure that the curriculum remains relevant to the industry; restructuring the National Occupational Skills Standards towards work processes that are in line with the changing needs of employers; encouraging training institutions to collaborate with the industry to enhance the effectiveness of their training programmes.

• Providing appropriate incentives to increase enrolment in the science stream.

• Expanding private and public tertiary education facilities to produce more professional manpower.

• Strengthening research and development within existing institutions of higher learning in order to develop the future workforce and to create new knowledge and intellectual capital; undertaking research activities that have commercial viability, with an emphasis on science and technology; collaborating with research and development institutions locally and abroad.

• Promoting and implementing programmes for lifelong learning through the provision of training courses and education programmes through the Internet



or other ICT-related media, and through the establishment of community colleges, open universities and distance education.

Recent educational reforms are driven by the need for Malaysia to have an education system on par with the best in the world. This is pointed out as the mission statement of the Ministry: “to develop a world class quality education system which will realize the full potential of the individual and fulfil the aspiration of the Malaysian nation.”

To this end, the reforms cover the following broad areas: educational legislation; towards a technological society; enriching and diversifying the curriculum; higher education reforms; teacher education; and organizational changes. (See tables below).

Legislative reforms on education

Towards a technological society Enriching and diversifying the curriculum

1. Education Act 1996. 1. Promoting computer literacy at all levels.

1. Introduction of science in primary schools.

2. Private Higher Educational Institutions Act, 1996.

2. Upgrading of vocational schools to technical schools.

2. Teaching values across curriculum.

3. National Council on Higher Education Institution Act, 1996.

3. Initiating the development of electronic resource centres.

3. Integrating creative and critical thinking skills.

4. National Accreditation Board Act, 1996.

4. Access to Internet and multimedia capabilities.

4. Promoting multilingualism.

5. Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1996.

5. Development of smart schools.

5. Revamping the school curriculum to incorporate the smart school concept.

6. Introducing computer-aided learning in the Malay language.

6. Reviewing the technical education curriculum.

7. Fostering lifelong learning.

8. Adopting flexible time table.

9. Reinforcing school-based assessment.

6. National Higher Education Fun Board Act, 1997. Education Amendment Act, 2002.

7. Emphasis on science and technology courses.

10. Assessing practical elements of Islamic education.

Higher education reforms Teacher education Organizational changes

1. Establishment of private universities.

1. Upgrading teacher qualification.

1. Restructuring educational administration.

2. Promoting branch campuses of foreign universities.

2. Opportunities for professional development

2. Introducing pre-school as part of the national education



through in-service courses locally or abroad.

system.

3. Promoting twinning program. 3. Introduction of computer literacy.

3. Universal education from nine to eleven years.

4. Increasing capacity of universities.

4. Setting up a Teachers’ University – Sultan Idris Teachers University.

4. Introducing ISO 9000 in schools (Total Quality Management).

5. Introducing new science and technology courses.

5. Completion of primary schooling between 5-7 years.

6. Corporatization of universities. 6. Develop an Educational Management Information System (EMIS).

7. Establishing Centres of Educational Excellence.

7. Establishing the Ministry of Education’s Intranet (KPMNET).

8. Promoting distance education.

9. Increasing private sector participation

Having achieved universal primary education in the 1990s with no significant gender gap, the challenge to the Ministry of Education (MOE) is to increase participation rates and to provide access to quality education at the lower, upper secondary, post-secondary, college and higher education levels. Accordingly, all programmes, projects and activities of the MOE are geared to fulfill this mission with a focus on: expanding access and equity to low income groups and the underserved regions; raising the quality of education; and Improving efficiency and effectiveness of the delivery system. The MOE has identified poverty as one of the factors contributing to dropouts among primary and secondary school students. Steps are taken to improve the support system by providing financial aids to excellent students and pupils from poor families and remote areas. A number of trust funds and financial assistance schemes have been set up to ensure that every child gets the opportunity to quality education, for example the Poor Students’ Trust Fund (PSTF), the Financial Assistance scheme (introduced in 2003) and the Tuition Voucher scheme (implemented in 2004 at the primary school level and targeting grades 4-6 pupils from low income families). (MOE, 2004).

Laws and other basic regulations concerning education The basis of the education system is formulated in several policy documents. In particular, the recommendations contained in two Reports (the Razak Report of 1956 and the Rahman Talib Report of 1960) became the integral component of the Education Act of 1961 and then of the Education Act of 1996. The Education Act (1996), which repealed the Education Act (1961), covers all educational levels although the focus is on pre-primary, primary, secondary and post-secondary education. The Act has included pre-school education as part of the national school



system. The 1984 Child Care Act (308 Act) refers to all Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) programmes for children under age 4.

The Universities and University Colleges Act (1971) provides for the establishment and regulation of public universities. This Act was amended in 1996 to provide for the corporatization of the governance and management of universities.

The Private Higher Education Institutions Act (1996) for the first time makes provisions for the establishment of private universities and university colleges, branch campuses of foreign universities as well as the upgrading of existing private colleges to universities.

The establishment of a National Council on Higher Education is provided for in the National Council on Higher Education Act (1996). This Council is responsible for determining the policy in the field of higher education and coordinating its development.

The National Accreditation Board Act (1996) provides for the setting up a National Accreditation Board to ensure that high academic standards and quality are maintained in both public and private higher education institutions.

The National Higher Education Fund Board Act (1997) provides for the establishment of a fund board for the purpose of providing financial assistance (educational loans) for students studying in higher education institutions in the country.

According to Section 29A(1) of the recent Education Amendment Act 2002 (Act A1152), effective January 1 2003, the government has made primary education compulsory for all children aged 6. Parents who fail to enrol their children would be liable to a maximum jail term of six months or a 5,000 ringgit fine or both. Secondary education is not yet compulsory. Education is provided free to all children.

Administration and management of the education system The Ministry of Education is organized into four distinct levels: federal, state, district and school. The education districts do not correspond to the administrative districts because they are based on educational rather than administrative needs.

At the federal level, the Ministry of Education translates the National Education Policy into educational plans, programmes and projects in accordance with national aspirations and objectives. It also sets guidelines for the implementation and management of the educational programmes.

The decision-making process at the national level is performed through a system of committees. The Educational Planning Committee (EPC) is the highest decision-making body in the Ministry of Education and is concerned with the formulation, co-ordination and implementation of general policy guidelines. There are also six Steering Committees with specific terms of reference, including the Central



Curriculum Committee, the Development Committee, the Finance Committee, and the Staff Development and Training Committee.

The EPC is chaired by the Minister of Education and the secretariat to this Committee is the Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD). As the main planning agency of the Ministry of Education, the EPRD is responsible for educational planning, research, evaluation, policy analysis and co-ordination in matters relating to educational policy and its implementation.

The Ministry of Higher Education has been established on 27 March 2004 with the following core thrusts: to set up a strategic and systematic plan for higher education; to reinforce the management of higher education in the country; to increase the capacity, access, and participation levels in higher education; to raise the quality of higher education in the country comparable to international standards; and to internationalize higher education in the country.

There is a State Education Department in each of the fourteen states. The State Education Department is headed by a Director who is responsible for the implementation of educational programmes, projects and activities in the state. The main administrative functions of the Departments are as follows: (a) to organize and co-ordinate the administration of schools in the state with respect to staff and personnel establishment, finance and physical development; (b) to supervise educational programmes; (c) to formulate and implement state educational development plans; (d) to provide regular feedback information to the Ministry, where necessary, on the implementation of the National Education Policy.

In all states except Perlis, Malacca and the Federal Territories, there are additional administrative units at the district level. The District Education Office is an extension of the State Education Department and forms the linkage between the school and the Department. It helps the Department in supervising the implementation of educational programmes, projects and activities in the schools of the district. The states of Sabah and Sarawak have additional administrative units, known as Residency Education Offices in Sabah and Division Education Offices in Sarawak.

Every primary school is headed by a headmaster while each secondary school is headed by a principal. The headmasters and the principals are responsible for providing professional as well administrative leadership in schools. There is a Board of Managers for every government-aided primary and secondary school and in some government-owned primary and secondary schools. In addition, there is a Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) in every school. The School Boards and PTAs provide assistance in the management of schools and help to foster co-operation between the school and the community.

There are other agencies with parallel programmes that help to supplement the Ministry’s efforts in providing education and training to meet the national development and manpower needs. Pre-school education is provided by government agencies such as the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Rural Development, the Ministry of National Unity and Community Development as well as the private sector and non-governmental organizations. All pre-school centres are registered with the Ministry of Education. Various ministries and government agencies also provide



formal and non-formal training to both youth and adults to acquire specific skills and vocational trades: the Ministry of Labour (industrial training on a sponsorship basis), the Ministry of Youth and Sports (technical and business training programmes and on-the-job youth training), the Ministry of Agriculture (training and extension programmes), the National Electricity Board (electrical and mechanical engineering training), and the Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA), established to give motivation, guidance and vocational training opportunities to bumiputeras (indigenous people).

Structure and organization of the education system Malaysia: structure of the education system

Pre-school education

Pre-school education (kindergarten) is provided by several government agencies, private bodies and voluntary organizations for children aged 4-6. All pre-school centres are registered with the Ministry of Education. Generally, kindergartens charge fees.

Primary education

Primary education covers a period of six years (but it can be completed in five to seven years) and the admission age is 6. It is divided into two three-year phases. At the end of primary school, pupils sit the Primary School Achievement Test. Education at primary level is free and, according to the recent Education Amendment Act of 2002, is also compulsory.



Secondary education

Secondary education consists of two cycles. Lower secondary lasts three years (four years for Chinese and Tamil pupils, the additional year in order to help them to acquire sufficient proficiency in Bahasa Melayu, the main medium of instruction in secondary schools). On completing the three-year lower secondary programme, students sit the Lower Secondary Assessment Examination. Upper secondary education lasts two years and is offered in academic, technical-vocational and religious (Islamic studies) schools. On completing two years at this level, students in academic and technical tracks sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education Examination, while those in vocational tracks sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education (Vocational) Examination.

Post-secondary education prepares students for the Malaysian Higher School Certificate (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahn Malaysia) Examination conducted by the Malaysian Examinations Council, as well as matriculation examinations conducted by some local universities. Sixth Form and matriculation courses are offered for a duration of two years. Matriculation courses prepare students to meet specific entry requirements of certain universities, while the Sixth Form is designed to meet the entry requirements of all universities.

Institutes of higher education include universities, colleges and polytechnics. A wide range of programmes are offered at the certificate, diploma and degree levels. At the undergraduate level, the duration of studies is three to four years. Polytechnics offer two-year certificate and three-year diploma programmes

The official school year is from the beginning of January to the third week of November (1998). The minimum number of school days in a year is 190.

The financing of education T

Education is a federal matter and is the responsibility of the Federal Government. It has been a major item of public expenditure and its provision has been increasing steadily as a trained and educated workforce is essential to economic growth.

Equal educational opportunities are provided for all, both in terms of access and achievement. Children who are disadvantaged in terms of economic status, location, and disability are the focus of intervention measures to provide educational opportunities and thereby improve their chances of educational achievement. Several programmes are introduced, including scholarships to needy students in schools and institutions of higher learning. Selected students are given scholarships to enable them to pursue higher education overseas, especially in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, New Zealand, Egypt, Australia, Indonesia, Japan, India, Pakistan and South Korea. Students are awarded scholarships based on merits. State governments through their respective Education Foundations also provide loans and scholarships to students of their state at the tertiary level.

Malaysia receives external aid for education and training in the form of technical assistance and investment programmes. The United Nations Development



Programme (UNDP) constitutes the major source of multilateral technical assistance while UNICEF and UNESCO also provide support in smaller amounts. The other principal sources of bilateral assistance are Australia, Canada, Japan and the United Kingdom. Their focus is on industrial and vocational training, human resources planning and research, and higher education. The on-going education and training projects which concentrate on skills training, higher education and teacher training are financed by the Asia Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank, which remains the major source of external assistance. The financial assistance from these agencies is mainly used for accelerating the implementation of policy reforms and institutional changes aimed at improving the quality of education. For instance, the World Bank has agreed to loan the amount of US$141 million to develop and improve primary and secondary education over a ten-year programme. This includes funding of studies directed towards upgrading the efficiency and effectiveness of education programmes, as well as identifying educational problems and issues which will provide the basis to structure effective intervention measures for further development.

The educational finance system is based on a modified Programme Performance Budgeting where the budget allocation by objects of expenditure is translated into various programmes, activities and sub-activities. The Programme and Activity structure is arranged by levels of education and specific activities which facilitate the periodic measurement of performance and final outcomes. Programme Agreements are signed to monitor achievement targets through quarterly reports on physical and financial status.

Through the National Education Policy, the government plays a dominant role in financing education. Annual allocation warrants are distributed based on the Programme and Activity structure to all levels of educational institution and the financial monitoring cascades to state and regional education authorities. Generally, schools and educational institutions up to the second level are almost entirely dependent on government financing. All schools are financed through per capita grants to meet the annual personnel compensation and operational requirements. Individual schools maintain complete financial records on expenditure and are audited by government auditors.

The private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local authorities do not play a major role in providing education finance at the lower levels and their contributions are felt more at the tertiary and university levels of education. Over the years the government has gradually increased its role in providing for the infrastructural and recurrent expenditure on education, always seen as a priority item in its Social Services commitment.

The trend maintained in education financing amounts to about 5% of the GNP and 15-18% of the total annual government’s expenditure. There are indications aimed at encouraging greater participation of the private and corporate sectors in education financing thus reducing the burden on the government, especially in providing for some of the infrastructural requirements and technological advancement in tertiary education.



The educational process T

The National Curriculum is developed centrally and within the Ministry of Education. Three main departments are responsible for the design and development of the school curriculum: the Curriculum Development Centre, responsible for the design of the school curriculum from preschool to upper secondary; the Department of Technical and Vocational Education; and the Department of Religious and Moral Education.

All matters regarding policies need to have the approval of the Central Curriculum Committee, which consists of the directors of the main agencies at the Ministry level. For example, a new subject syllabus needs to be discussed and approved by this Committee before it can be implemented. Curricular programmes that have been approved are then discussed by the Curriculum Implementation Committee, comprising the Directors of Education of the fourteen states of Malaysia and representatives of the agencies of the Ministry.

The current process of curriculum development is based on a cyclical model beginning with a needs analysis, followed by planning, development, piloting, dissemination and implementation, evaluation and then back to the identification of needs. The time taken between planning and implementation is usually about thirty months to allow sufficient time for textbooks to be ready and distributed and examinations to be prepared.

For the 1999 curriculum revision, the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum were identified, as were the issues associated with the content, skills, values and attitudes, teaching and learning processes, as well evaluation and assessment. Through the mapping of these aspects, adjustments to the curriculum were made whether the matter in question should be retained, removed, reduced, added on or re-allotted. The mapping exercise involved both vertical and lateral consolidation. An example of a vertical consolidation is looking at a topic and examining it across all levels of secondary schooling. A lateral consolidation would entail looking at a topic and ensuring the topic is infused in other subjects where relevant.

The curricular revisions have resulted in a content- and outcome-based school curriculum. The content-based approach lists the topics or themes of the subject area that students are expected to acquire, while the outcome-based approach lists abilities and skills they are expected to master.

Coherence and integration between and across subject areas are emphasized as basic features of the curriculum. Indeed, specific aspects of education such as moral values, patriotism, science and technology, language, environmental education, and study skills are infused across the subject disciplines, with the purpose of consolidating these aspects which need further emphasis. Furthermore, the use of activity-based and student-centered pedagogical approaches is encouraged to reinforce and facilitate the development of critical and creative thinking skills. These include problem solving, analytical decision-making, high level questions, inquiry and discovery, and self-paced and self-directed learning.



Difficulties in curriculum development have involved deciding on the scope of the curriculum, finding people who have sufficiently specialized skills and experience in curriculum development, and overcoming the gap between planning and implementation. Furthermore, differing school environments can present a challenge to fulfilling the aspirations of a centralized curriculum, teachers tend to resist change, and very often the style and format of the examination papers and tasks, rather than curricular objectives, drive the classroom. Finally, the cascade model of dissemination has weaknesses, resulting in the dilution of the message, and thus in misconceptions and confusion.

Several factors have facilitated the implementation of curricular reform initiatives, including research findings, public opinions, world trends, social and economic needs and political pressures. Curricular reform initiatives were further facilitated with factors such as the government's continued efforts to expand and improve education and training by increasing the budget for education, the availability of basic infrastructure and training, and public awareness and support to carry out educational reforms to fulfil the needs of cultural, social, and economic development.

It is known that curriculum implementation cannot be ideally executed as a number of constraints operate in between. These constraints may include teachers' qualifications, motivation, attitudes, skills, content, and clarity in communication; they might also include pupils' attitudes and motivation to learn; other obstacles can be school-related such as class size, management, facilities, and the school complex. The language of instruction, and insufficient learning materials and teaching aids can also present impediments to curriculum implementation.

Pre-primary education

Pre-school education (kindergarten) is provided by several government agencies and statutory bodies, private bodies, and voluntary organizations. Generally, kindergartens charge fees.

Kindergartens caters to children aged 4-6. Pre-school education is provided by government agencies such as the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of National Unity as well as the private sector. The Education Act (1996) has included pre-school education as part of the national school system. All kindergartens have to follow curriculum guidelines provided by the Ministry of Education.

The pre-school programme is based on a curriculum which is appropriate for 4-6-year-olds and compatible with their development, interests and unique needs. The curriculum is dynamic, child-centered and responsive to the diversity of populations that are represented in each classroom. Basically, the principles of the pre-school curriculum are: (a) the understanding of children’s characteristics (they are active, curious and they need love, attention and security); (b) the aim is to expose children to a rich and stimulating environment; and (c) the programme provides a variety of support materials, such as concrete, printed, multi-sensory, interactive and user-friendly materials.



The general objectives of pre-school education are to enable the children to:

• develop love for their country;

• be well mannered and practice moral values;

• master basic communication skills;

• respect the national language;

• master the basics of the English language;

• appreciate physical activities as a basis for good health;

• develop physically and practice good health and safety measures;

• develop critical thinking skills through enquiry and the use of all the senses.

The above-stated objectives are materialized through respective learning areas. They are: Language and communication; Cognitive development; Socio-emotional development; Spiritual and moral development; Physical development; Aesthetic and creative development.

The recommended amount of instructional time is three and a half hours per day, five days a week. The suggested timetable is as follows:

• Class activities: ninety minutes (inside and outside classroom);

• Group activities: sixty minutes;

• Free activities: thirty minutes; and

• Break/snacks/rest: thirty minutes.

Evaluation of children performance is part of the pre-school programme. It is informal and permanent. Evaluation is carried out through various means which include observation, children’s work projects and folio. Individual’s progress and development is kept in the pupil’s personal record.

The participation rate improved from 22.8% in 1990 to 52.7% in 2000. The increased participation of the private sector and government agencies in the provision of preschool education availed more and better quality facilities. Training for child minders is provided by Ministry of Rural and Regional Development and the Department of Social Welfare. According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, in 2002 (provisional data) total enrolment in one-year pre-school education programmes (age group 5 years) was 565,981 children and the gross enrolment ratio was estimated at 99%. There were 25,116 teachers (99% women) and the teacher/children ratio was 1:23.



Primary education

Primary education aims at ensuring the overall, balanced and integrated development of a child’s potential–which includes intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical aspects–in order to produce balanced and harmonious individuals with high moral standards. Primary education must enable pupils to:

• master the Malay language as the national language as well as the official language of the country;

• master the basic language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in the medium of instruction;

• master arithmetical skills and use them in their daily lives;

• master study skills;

• speak, read, write and understand the English language as a second language;

• seek and acquire knowledge;

• develop leadership qualities and self-confidence;

• be sensitive towards man and his environment;

• master scientific and technical skills;

• be interested in, appreciate and participate in charitable works, and cultural and recreational activities in line with the national culture;

• look after one’s health and physical fitness;

• acquire the skills of reading, reciting and understanding the meaning of chosen verses from the Quran (Muslim pupils);

• strengthen the basic of Aqidah (belief in God), perform religiously the rites of devotion to Allah, and constantly practice noble values;

• be patriotic;

• develop talents and creativity; and

• be well mannered and practice noble values.

There are two types of primary schools: national and national-type. The medium of instruction in national schools is the Malay language. National-type schools use Chinese and Tamil as the medium of instruction; however, Malay language is a compulsory subject. English is taught as a second language in all schools. There is automatic promotion from Grade I to VI, and also continuous



school-based assessment. The feedback from this assessment is used to monitor pupils progress in the mastery of the basic skills, and plan strategies for school improvement. The duration of primary education is six years, but it may be completed in five to seven years. At the end of six years of primary education, pupils sit a common public examination, the Primary School Achievement Test (PSAT). The drop-out rate is negligible.

Universal primary education has been achieved (a participation rate of 98.4% in the public sector in 2003). The teacher/pupil ratio was 1:20.4 in 1990 and an average of 1:18.9 in recent years. According to national estimates, in 2003 there were 7,504 primary schools in the country and the average teacher/pupil ratio was 1:17. (MOE, 2004).

The primary school curriculum, which gives emphasis to basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic, was implemented in stages starting in 1983. By 1988, the curriculum was fully implemented in all classes at the primary school level. Taking the National Development Plan as a term of reference, the curriculum was formulated in line with the national education objectives and the national education philosophy.

The Integrated Curriculum for Primary School (ICPS) emphasizes the mastery, reinforcement and application of the 3Rs, the acquistion of complex skills and knowledge, pre-vocational skills, and the development of personality, attitudes and values. The ICPS consists of three areas: communication, man and his environment, and self-development. These areas are divided into six components: basic skills; humanities; art and recreation; spirituality, values and attitudes; living skills; and communication.

The first area, communication, comprises the basic skills components with emphasis on language skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) and basic mathematical operations. The subjects identified in this area are the languages (Bahasa Melayu, English, Chinese and Tamil) and mathematics.

The second area, man and his environment, consists of two components: humanities and spirituality, values and attitudes. The humanities component comprises science and local studies introduced in Grade IV, while the spirituality, values and attitudes component consists of two subjects: Islamic religious education (for Muslims) and moral education (for non-Muslims).

The third area is individual self-development. It comprises: arts and recreation, with emphasis on the physical and aesthetic development of the individual; living skills and co-curricular activities. The subjects identified for arts and recreation are music, art, and health and physical education. The elements of health are incorporated in physical education. Living skills is offered as subject discipline. It comprises the elements of manual skills, commerce and entrepreneurship, and family living. This subject is introduced starting in Grade IV. Co-curricular activities, as an extension of the formal teaching and learning process, are categorized into uniformed bodies, societies, clubs and sports.



The ICPS is divided into two phases of three years each. Phase I comprises Grades I-III, with emphasis on the basics of reading, writing and mathematics. Phase II (Grades IV-VI) focuses on the reinforcement and utilization of the basic skills and the acquisition of knowledge.

The distribution of time in each Phase according to the subjects taught in national and national-type (Chinese and Tamil) schools is shown in the tables below:



There are two types of formal evaluation. The first one is known as Primary School Assessment Test or Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR). The evaluation is carried out mainly on cognitive aspects focusing on basic skills of reading, writing and mathematics. The subjects that are assessed in UPSR are Bahasa Melayu, English, science and mathematics. However, in addition to these subjects Malay pupils have to undergo an assessment known as Penilaian Asas Fardu Ain (PAPA) for religious education, which is carried out during the teaching process. Pupils achievement in PAPA is recorded in the UPSR slips.

The second type of assessment is known as Penilaian Tahap Satu (PTS) or Level One Assessment (LOA). PTS was first introduced in 1996. This assessment is an aptitude test that will enable the Ministry of Education to select those Grade III pupils who master the basic knowledge and skills and with high learning potential to proceed directly to Grade V. This is in line with the new education policy which stipulates that primary education can be completed in five/seven years. Pupils are tested on their abilities and potential in verbal, quantitative and thinking skills.

In addition to these two assessments, there is the School-based Assessment or Penilaian Kemajuan Berasaskan Sekolah (PKBS). It is implemented throughout the year during the teaching and learning process in order to evaluate pupils progress in the cognitive, effective and psychomotor aspects. The assessment is done through observation, verbal and writing. The information from PKBS is used by teachers to plan further reinforcement concerning pupils achievement and the teaching process.



Secondary education

Secondary education is basically an extension of the primary level. Education at this level is general in nature and is divided into two cycles: lower (Forms I-III) and upper secondary (Forms IV and V). Pupils from the national primary schools proceed to Form I, while pupils from the Chinese and Tamil schools study one additional year in the transition class before entering Form I. As mentioned, the transition class aims at enabling pupils to acquire sufficient proficiency in Bahasa Melayu, which is the medium of instruction in secondary schools. However, pupils who have performed well in the Primary Assessment Test are allowed to proceed directly to Form I.

Secondary education aims at “[...] further develop the potential of the individual in holistic, balanced and integrated manners, encompassing the intellectual, spiritual, emotional, and physical aspects in order to create a balanced and harmonious human being with high moral standards.” In order to achieve this aim, education at the secondary level must enable students to:

• increase their language proficiency in order to communicate effectively;

• upgrade their competence in and use of Bahasa Melayu as the official and national language for the acquisition of knowledge and the achievement of national unity;

• develop and enhance their intellectual capacity with respect to rational, critical and creative thinking;

• acquire knowledge and develop mastery skills, and to use them in daily living;

• be able to develop skills to cope with new areas of knowledge and development in technology;

• develop their abilities and faculties for the betterment of themselves and society;

• develop the confidence and the resilience to face challenges in life; develop good manners and practice moral values; strengthen the basic Aqidah (belief in God);

• understand, be aware of and appreciate the history as well as the socio-cultural milieu of their country;

• be aware of the importance of one’s health and to maintain it;

• be sensitive, concerned about and appreciate the environment and its aesthetic value;

• acquire, appreciate and practice accepted moral values; and



• appreciate knowledge and constantly strive towards increasing and developing it.

Students follow a common curriculum which does not neglect the cultural values of the major ethnic groups in the country. This is done through the implementation of the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (ISSC, popularly known as the KBSM). The ISSC adheres to the following basic principles:

• Continuity of education from primary to secondary schools: the acquisition of basic skills (reading, writing and arithmetic), the provision of basic knowledge and the inculcation of values that will ensure the holistic development of the individual are further developed and reinforced at the secondary school.

• General education for all students: at both the lower and upper secondary levels, students follow a common basic education programme. This programme comprises core subjects that are compulsory for all.

• Subject disciplines: subjects of the former secondary school curriculum are retained but reorganized in line with the emphasis of the ISCC.

• Integration of the intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical aspects: the curriculum in its entirety will fulfill the intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical needs of the students. All subject areas must ensure that these aspects are developed and incorporated.

• Emphasis on values: the inculcation of accepted moral values is made possible by incorporating them in all ISCC subjects through the concept values across the Islamic religious education for Muslims and moral education for non-Muslims.

• Upgraded use of Bahasa Melayu: the use of Bahasa Melayu is to be reinforced in all curricular subjects (except English).

• Lifelong education: the curriculum has to nurture the love for knowledge and to provide opportunities for the acquisition of study skills and for the inculcation of positive attitudes that will motivate students to constantly seek knowledge.

The special one-year programme for pupils from the Chinese and Tamil national-type schools has four main aims: (a) to enable students to master Bahasa Melayu, so that they will be adequately equipped to follow secondary school education; (b) to enable students to communicate effectively in Bahasa Melayu; (c) to nurture the spirit of citizenship among the students; and (d) to inculcate the values of the Malaysian society. In order to achieve these aims, in the transition class the following subjects are taught: Bahasa Melayu; English language; Chinese language; Tamil language; Practical use of Bahasa Melayu; Physical and health education; Art education.



On completing the three-year lower secondary programme, students sit the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR) examination. The lesson timetables are shown in the tables below:

Education at the upper secondary level is offered in academic and technical schools. Technical schools offer technical, vocational and skills-based education. Based on their performance in the lower secondary examination, students are streamed into one of these schools. Education at this level covers a period of two years. Although education at this level comprises academic, technical and vocational tracks, it is considered general education by virtue of the common core subjects taught in all of these schools. On completing two years at this level, pupils in academic and technical



tracks sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education (MCE) Examination, while those in vocational tracks sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education (Vocational) Examination. The teacher/pupil ratio at the secondary level was 1:18.9 in 1990 and 1:18.2 in 2000. In 2003, the participation rate (public sector only) was estimated at 84.4% for lower secondary and 73.5% for upper secondary.

The general education curriculum at the upper secondary level allows the students to choose subjects based on their own interests and potential. Elective subjects are classified under four groups: humanities, vocational and technical, science, and Islamic studies. Core subjects taught at the lower secondary level are continued to be taught at the upper secondary level with the exception of geography, art education, and living skills. Chinese and Tamil languages are regarded as additional elective subjects at this level. Geography and art education are taught as electives under the humanities, and the components of living skills are further developed to form a number of elective subjects. However, the choice of electives is subject to certain conditions to ensure that a balance is maintained among the four elective groups. Additionally, choosing one of the subjects under the vocational and technical group is mandatory. With this requirement, students from a purely art-based education are encouraged to take vocational and technological subjects, giving them exposure to technology-based education. On average, the total teaching time per week at the upper secondary level is 25.5 hours (1,600 minutes) consisting of forty teaching periods of forty minutes each. The lists of subjects for the upper secondary level are shown below:

Upper secondary education: lists of teaching subjects and weekly time allocation

Compulsory subjects Weekly time allocation (in minutes)

Malay language 240

English language 200

Islamic education (*) 160

Moral education (**) 120

Mathematics 200

Science 160

History 120

Physical education 40

Health education 40 (*) For Muslim students. (**) For non-Muslim students. Additional subjects Weekly time allocation

(in minutes)

Chinese language 120

Tamil language 120

Arabic language (Advanced) 240



Elective subjects Weekly time allocation (in minutes)

Science

Biology 160

Physics 160

Chemistry 160

Additional science 160

Islamic Studies

Al-Quran & As-Sunnah studies 160

Syariah Islamiah studies 160

Applied Arts

Home economics 120

Principle of accounting 160

Commerce

Home science 160

Information Technology

Information Technology 160

Languages

Arabic language (Communication) 240

Higher Arabic language 160

Chinese language 120

Tamil language 120

Technology

Additional mathematics 160

Agricultural science 160

Engineering drawing 160

Mechanical engineering studies 160

Civil engineering studies 160

Electrical & electronics engineering studies 160

Invention 160

Engineering technology 160

Humanities

Malay literature 120

Literature in English 120



Geography 120

Art education 120

Music 120

Tasawwur Islam 160

Students sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination (SPM), equivalent to GCE O-level at the end of Grade X and the Malaysian Higher School Certificate Examination (STPM), equivalent to GCE A-level at the end of Grade XIII.

Technical education is offered in secondary technical schools. The technical stream provides students with a general academic education although with a strong foundation in technical and science subjects, to enable them to pursue higher education in the technical field or to seek employment. Technical schools aim at:

• providing basic technical education to enable students to further their education in polytechnics and universities;

• providing scientific and technical education to students who have the aptitude for such subjects and to foster and maintain that interest;

• raising the level and standard of skilled manpower to meet the industrial needs of the country.

Like other academic schools during the implementation of the ISSC at the upper secondary level in 1992, all the students in technical secondary schools are required to follow the same core subjects. On average, the total teaching time per week is twenty-eight hours (1,680 minutes) consisting of forty-two teaching periods of forty minutes each.

Vocational education in secondary technical schools provides students with basic skills for employment. The approach towards vocational education is general in nature, with the intention of providing basic knowledge and skills so that the students are adaptable, flexible, and trainable for the work world. The objectives of vocational education are to:

• provide technical manpower for the industrial and commercial sectors;

• provide a flexible and broad-based curriculum to meet not only immediate but also future needs and changes in industries;

• provide the foundation for skill and knowledge on which to build subsequent education and training.

The vocational education stream focuses on academic and technical subjects leading to the Malaysian Certificate of Education-Vocational (MCEV), whereby students may seek to study in the polytechnics and other higher education institutions. They may also opt for the job market. Skills training education offered in secondary technical



schools also emphasizes practical work to develop competency in trade skills required by related industries. Students are prepared for the National Vocational Training Certificate.

Besides providing vocational education and training to students in the formal education system–in the context of continuing education–technical schools also offer special part-time courses for Malaysian Certificate of Education holders wishing to pursue skills in these areas. In 2000, the total student enrolment in secondary technical schools was about 59,000––of whom 50% were in vocational and 10% in the skills training stream.

In 2004, there were 89 secondary technical schools (STSs) offering three streams (technical education, vocational education, and skills training). As of March 2004, enrolments in technical and vocational education streams were 39,663 and 25,910 students respectively. There were 1,719 students enrolled in the skills training stream.

To enhance quality vocational education and training relevant to the job market demand, the private sector is encouraged to participate in vocational education programmes. Several firms have assisted the Ministry of Education in organizing training programmes to bring the vocational knowledge and skills closer to the world of work. The private sector enterprises are encouraged to provide greater on-the-job training with market-oriented industrial training programmes and to strengthen the labour market information system. This in turn would allow for greater mobility of labour.

Assessing learning achievement nationwide

Learning achievement at the national level is measured through the Primary School Achievement Test (PSAT) administered at the end of primary education. The PSAT assesses pupils academic achievement in four main subjects: Bahasa Melayu, English language, mathematics and science. The objective of the PSAT is to evaluate the achievement of primary students in reading, writing, scientific and numeracy skills in Malay and in the pupils own language (Chinese or Tamil).

The PSAT is a norm reference achievement test. Therefore, data concerning reading and writing should not be equated with the level of literacy, as candidates who did not meet the level of achievement set for a particular year may still be literate.

Within the framework of the Education for All (EFA) 2000 Assessment, results of the PSAT were used to measure learning achievement in three basic areas (reading, mathematics and writing) from 1994 through 1997. Data made available covered only those in the public sector.

For the year 1994, about 95% of Grade VI pupils exceeded the minimum level of achievement in reading (comprehension); the percentage was about 93% in 1995, 96% in 1996 and about 96% in 1997. In the writing domain, the percentage of Grade VI pupils who mastered the minimum level of achievement was 78.3% in 1994, 78.7% in 1995, 80.4% in 1996, and 81.4% in 1997.



Grade VI pupils’ performance in mathematics (numeracy skills) shows an upward trend. In 1994, 68.9% of the pupils managed to perform impressively exceeding the minimum achievement level. This performance improved further to 71.9% in 1995, 77.5% in 1996, and 77.9% in 1997.

Grade VI pupils’ performance in science was first assessed in 1997, after its introduction in the national curriculum. Data show that 76.3% of the pupils exceeded the minimum level in 1997, and 76.5% in 1998. (Ministry of Education, 1999).

The Malaysian school system adheres to a common, national curriculum and as such national norms are implicitly stated as curricular objectives in the related documents. The assessment system is based on the national curriculum, thus all assessments carried out within the system reflects the needs and realization of the curricular objectives.

In recent years the Ministry of Education has introduced several changes to improve assessment within the education system and to make it more accessible to all. Among these initiatives are: (i) School-Based Assessment of Oral Skills; (ii) Bilingual Assessment; (iii) Certification of Vocational Subjects in Academic Schools (VSAS); (iv) Grade XI Open Certification Examination; and (v) On-line Registration for the Grade XI examination.

Higher education As mentioned, post-secondary education prepares students for the Malaysian Higher School Certificate (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahn Malaysia–STPM) Examination conducted by the Malaysian Examinations Council, as well as matriculation examinations conducted by some local universities. Sixth Form and matriculation courses are offered for a duration of two years. Matriculation courses prepare students to meet specific entry requirements of certain universities while the Sixth Form is designed to meet the entry requirements of all universities.

Higher education provides opportunities for academic pursuit and the advancement of knowledge. It aims at producing professionals to meet national manpower needs and requirements besides providing facilities for research and consultancy services. Institutes of higher education include universities, colleges and polytechnics. Until recent years, university and college education was coordinated and monitored by the Higher Education Division, while the administration of polytechnics was under the purview of the Technical and Vocational Division, Ministry of Education. Since March 2004, public higher education institutions are under the newly established Ministry of Higher Education.

In 2002, there were ten public universities, four public university colleges and one international university funded by the Government. Of the fifteen universities, the International Islamic University is international in nature with international co-sponsorship; it is not limited to Islamic theological studies but is a comprehensive professional institution of higher learning where the teaching is infused with Islamic values and the Islamic philosophy of knowledge.



The Department of Student Admission manages the admission of students into the 14 public universities for first bachelor degree and diploma courses. Generally, admission requirements and selection criteria are the prerogative of the individual universities. However, they need to conform to the minimum entry requirements prescribed by the Ministry.

Polytechnics provide broad-based education and training to upper-secondary school leavers to enable them to acquire the necessary skills as technical assistants and technicians in the various engineering fields or junior and middle-level executives in the commercial and service sectors. Polytechnics offer two-year certificate and three-year diploma programmes, both of which require SPM (Malaysia Open School Certificate) certificate as entry requirements. In 2004 there were 19 polytechnics throughout the country. The government plans to establish a total of 36 polytechnics by 2010.

In 2000, the Government approved the establishment of community colleges in all parliamentary constituencies throughout the country. One of the main aims of setting up these colleges is to provide alternative pathways to students who do not have the opportunity to further their studies in institutions of higher learning or to enhance their technical and vocational skills for employment purposes, particularly in areas related to ICT and knowledge economy. Hence, community colleges are also excellent avenues for dynamic and quality education and training for youths and at the same time providing opportunities for lifelong learning to the community. The minimal entry qualification for a full-time certificate course is a pass in the National Language at the SPM level. In 2004, there were 34 community colleges in operation offering a wide range of courses in areas such as technical, services and hospitality. The government plans to establish 99 community colleges by the year 2010 with target enrolment of 118,300 students.

At the higher education level, the most important new development is the provision for the setting up of private universities. A number of public corporations have been invited to establish institutes of higher education offering courses in information technology and engineering. They are: Universiti Multimedia (formerly known as Universiti Telekom); Universiti Tenaga Nasional; Universiti Teknologi Petronas; Asian Institute of Medecine, Science and Technology; International Medical University; Universiti Tun Abdul Razak; Universiti Terbuka Malaysia; Universiti Industri Selangor; Univerisiti Tunku Abdul Rahman; and Malaysia Institute of Science and Technology. In addition, three foreign universities have established campuses in the country. They are: Monash University (MUSM), Curtin University, and Nottingham University-Malaysian Campus.

The Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF or Kerangka Kelayakan Malaysia–KKM) is designed to be a unified system of qualifications offered on a national basis by all educational and training institutions which include colleges, universities, vocational institutions, professional organizations and other higher educational institutions in both the public and private sector as well as workplace training and lifelong learning experiences. The MQF secures the standards of qualifications and reinforce policies on quality assurance; ensures accuracy and consistency of nomenclature of qualifications; supports flexible education by providing typical learning pathways and recognizing prior learning; encourages



partnerships between public and private sector, links non degree with undergraduate and postgraduate levels; encourages parity of esteem among academic, professional and vocational qualifications; establishes a common currency for credit accumulation and transfer; provides clear and accessible public information; facilitates, where applicable, the presentation of the intended outcomes of qualifications in forms that enable professional bodies to gauge their contribution to professional formation and articulates links with qualifications from other countries. The MQF is sufficiently flexible to accommodate new kinds of qualification that may arise from time to time.

In developing the single interconnected structure, nationally endorsed criteria for naming, positioning and linking all qualifications are necessary. The foundation of the MQF is principally expressed as competency standards or learning outcomes, the academic volume expressed as credits in terms of total student effort to achieve the learning outcomes, the purpose and character of the qualifications and consistency of nomenclature. Based on these criteria the MQF is composed of the Certificate (vocational and higher education), Diploma and Advanced Diploma, Bachelor (Hons.), Masters, PhD and earned higher doctorates and “conversion” awards named Graduate Certificate and Diploma and Postgraduate Certificate and Diploma.

Special education Special education caters to the educational needs of disabled children. These children fall into three categories: visual impairment; hearing impairment; and children with learning difficulties.

In 2001, there were thirty-one special education schools to cater to the educational needs of disadvantaged children. Under the inclusive education policy, children deemed able to follow the regular curriculum are integrated into several classes together with mainstream pupils. In addition, these children–and especially those with learning difficulties–are enrolled in special education classes in regular schools. In 2001, 2,383 children with disabilities were enrolled in regular schools with 671 specially trained teachers providing for their educational needs.

Most of the ministries and government departments provide services for people with special needs and those who are physically handicapped. However, there are four main ministries, namely the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, and the Ministry of Education that provide learning and training facilities and services for children and youths with special needs.

The Ministry of Health identifies and screens children at risk at an early age. The Ministry’s medical and paramedical personnel are responsible for the curative and preventive measures of early intervention of children with impairments. The Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development through its Welfare Department, provides learning and skills training services for children and youths with severe physical handicaps, severe and profound mental retardation, and multiple handicaps.



The Ministry of Education provides education facilities and services for children and youths who are ‘educable’. The term ‘educable’ refers to “children who are able to manage themselves without help” as defined in the 1997 Education (Special Education) Regulations. The Special Education Department of the MOE is responsible for coordinating all special education programmes and the administration of all special education schools available only to students with hearing and visual impairments. Children who are diagnosed with Down’s syndrome, mild autistic tendency, attention deficit and hyperactive disorder, minimal mental retardation, and specific learning difficulties, are channeled into mainstream government pre-school, primary or secondary schools.

In 1999 the MOE introduced special education classes in technical/vocational schools. Students with special education needs could pursue vocational training at upper secondary education (secondary 4-5) in technical/vocational secondary schools upon completing their lower secondary education (secondary 1-3). These educational services are available for students with hearing impairments but a small number of students with visual impairment or learning disabilities have also been admitted to the classes. Students with hearing impairments who are qualified to pursue their studies at tertiary levels, have the opportunity (under the Ministry of Higher Education) to enroll into three polytechnics. The courses currently offered are mechanical engineering, civil engineering, fashion and design, graphic designing, and hotel and catering.

Private education The demand for education has resulted in the proliferation of private institutions offering pre-school to tertiary level education. The expansion of private sector education will usefully supplement public sector efforts. The government therefore encourages and facilitates the setting up of education and training institutions by the private sector.

However, a more effective monitoring of tertiary institutions will be undertaken in order to ensure acceptable standards and quality. Institutions of higher learning will continue to establish and maintain co-operation and linkages with the private sector in various academic programmes, such as research and development activities, the sponsorship of academic and research positions in universities, and on-the-job training for university students. These linkages will ensure that graduates of higher learning institutions will meet the requirements of industry. Closer collaboration with the private sector will also be effected through the establishment of training institutions for specific industries such as wood products, textiles, and construction. Training programmes in these institutions as well as in other public institutions will be oriented to the requirements of industries.

At the same time, skills training will have to be consistent and compatible with changing technological needs. The government will establish the necessary joint public-private sector machinery at the various levels to bring about greater co-ordination and integration of training with the needs of the economy. The government will also seek greater bilateral assistance from industrialized countries to establish institutions in the country in advanced skills areas, such as production engineering and industrial electronics. As a measure to ensure the active participation of the private sector in training skilled manpower, the Human Resource Development Fund was



expanded to include firms in the energy, education and training industries. Employers contributing to this fund will be reimbursed for all training undertaken for their employees. The Fund is a form of the levy-grant scheme which will serve as an incentive for the industries to intensify their training programmes as well as upgrade the skills of their workers. The private sector has also been involved in a consultative manner with the Government in the planning and implementation of strategies and programmes in producing skilled manpower.

In 2001, there were eleven private universities, more than 300 private colleges, forty-five privately-owned primary schools, and eighty-five privately-owned secondary schools.

Means of instruction, equipment and infrastructure The main objective of the Educational Technology Division (ETD) is to improve the quality of education in the country through media and technology programmes and services. The ETD provides an integrated education media service for elementary and secondary schools as well as the teacher training colleges. Under the ETD, State Resource Centres have been set up in four states. These function mainly as Teachers Centres and are meant to be places where teachers can meet and exchange views and ideas on the preparation, development and effective use of audio-visual aids, thereby enhancing the quality of education. These services have been further decentralized with the setting up of District Resource Centres and School Resource Centres. These centres will be more accessible to all teachers, especially in the rural areas. Another area of teacher support services aimed at improving the quality of education is Computer Aided Instruction (CAI). Projects are in the pipeline to supply schools with computers and to train teachers and pupils to use this facility.

The Textbook Loan Scheme (TBLS) was launched in 1975 with the aim of providing free textbooks on loan to needy children, especially those from rural and poor areas in order to equalize educational opportunities in line with the National Education policy. The scheme also aims to reduce the financial burden of poor parents who have children in school. In 1993, more than 90% of all school-going children in national as well as national-type primary schools (Chinese and Tamil) and secondary schools benefited from this scheme, for a total cost of approximately 63 million ringgit (RM). Through the implementation of the TBLS, the government ensures that sufficient textbooks are supplied to schools and in time for use by the children at the beginning of the school year. More importantly, the scheme ensures that children from rural areas are not deprived of a basic education because they cannot afford to purchase textbooks.

The Nutrition and Health Programme aims to improve the standard of health of pupils through proper nutrition education and good health practices. There are two main projects under this programme, the Supplementary Feeding Scheme (SFS) and the School Health Services. The aims of the SFS are to provide supplementary food to needy primary school children so as to improve their general health and achieve normal physical growth, to put into practice health education and nutrition, and to support the applied food and nutrition programmes as well as activities and projects through active participation. Another intervention measure undertaken to improve the quality of basic education is to provide hostel facilities to both primary and secondary



school pupils from low income families, especially those from disadvantaged rural areas. These hostels provide a better living environment and more conducive surroundings for learning. While some hostels base selection on academic performance, the majority have been established with the aim of providing better educational opportunities to disadvantaged children.

The School Health Programme is implemented through Health Promoting Schools and aims to improve the general health and nutritional status of pupils through good health practices and health promotion activities. Six core areas, namely school health policies, the school physical environment, the school social environment, community relationships, personal health skills and health services are the building blocks of the Health Promoting Schools. Various supportive activities carried out at the national, state and school levels help to develop knowledge, skills and positive health experiences amongst the pupils. Two major health activities are the School Health Services (SHS) and the Supplementary Feeding Scheme (SFS). The SHS, which includes both health and dental care, is provided for by the school health teams of the Ministry of Health and covers pupils in primary and secondary schools. Besides general health appraisal and treatment follow-up, referral care is also provided for by the SHS. The SFS, which was first started in 1976, provides supplementary food to needy primary school pupils. It provides free meals (300 Kcal per child per day) to 528,000 children from more than 5,000 primary schools throughout the country. A total of RM51.5 million was budgeted for this activity in 1998.

Adult and non-formal education The development of human resources will have to be complemented by education and training from the non-formal sector. This is especially so when the coverage of the formal system is limited. Although Malaysia has a high literacy rate and students have the opportunity to receive at least nine years of basic education, those who drop out from the system have to be given due consideration. Thus, lifelong or continuing education through non-formal means is becoming increasingly important in mobilizing human resources, especially the youth.

The delivery of non-formal education and training by various agencies has been reviewed and improved to render them more effective in achieving their objectives. Programmes by the various agencies have been co-ordinated so that there will be an integrated approach. Similarly, the role of the mass media (especially radio, ICT and television) have been strengthened to render them more effective in delivering non-formal education and training programmes to the people. The Government has provided more education and training facilities to meet the demand for lifelong education. While the Government continues to do this as part of its development efforts, the private sector has also been encouraged to contribute to non-formal education and training. Continuing education through distance learning programmes has been accelerated.

As mentioned, non-formal education is provided by ministries and agencies of the federal government other than the Ministry of Education (Ministry of National and Rural Development, Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Agriculture, etc.). The Community Development Division of the Ministry of National and Rural



Development carries out a comprehensive programme to eradicate adult illiteracy. It includes basic literacy classes that emphasize the upgrading of education and skills through a combined programme of literacy education and enhancement of skills, rural libraries, co-operative movements and religious education. This Division also offers pre-school education programmes for children in rural areas and home economics classes for rural women.

Ministries and agencies have varying objectives and approaches in providing non-formal education programmes. Some provide skills and training for unemployed youths while others conduct courses for new settlers in order to promote participation in land development schemes. Non-formal education does not lead to further education at a higher level, as the main goal is to provide skills for effective participation in national development.

In 2002, a total of 34,100 youths completed skills and semi-skills training programmes at various public training institutions. The establishment of new training institutes and expansion of existing facilities offered more opportunities and training places for youths to acquire skills. The completion of eight new national youth skills training institutes, which started their operations in 2003, offered an additional 7,240 training places. Non-formal training courses and workshops in areas such as motor mechanics and fashion designing have also been conducted during week-ends and for short durations to enable youths to acquire these skills. In 2002, a total of 7,150 youths benefited from various non-formal training courses organized at the state and district levels. The training offered by the private sector ranged from basic to advanced skills including production technology as well as information technology. In 2002, 26,100 youths were trained in private skills training institutes.

Teaching staff T

The Philosophy of Teacher Education, formulated in 1982, has determined the direction of teacher education. The philosophy emphasizes the desire to educate and produce teachers who are noble and caring, knowledgeable and skillful, creative and innovative, resilient and competent, scientific in outlook, committed to uphold the aspirations of the nation, proud of their heritage and dedicated to the development of the individual and the preservation of a united, progressive, and disciplined society.

The main concern of the Ministry of Education is to provide basic pre-service as well as in-service teacher training to meet the requirements of all schools. Both the teacher-training colleges and the universities undertake the task of teacher education and training.

The Ministry through the Teacher Education Division (TED) is directly involved in the planning and coordinating teacher training programmes conducted in teacher-training colleges and universities. It plans and draws up curriculum and assessment guidelines for all training programmes, both pre-service and in-service, at the diploma and certificate levels to meet current requirements of the schools. In addition, it plans and coordinates on-going staff developments programs, both at the ministry and college levels, locally and overseas in order to enhance the quality of training. It co-ordinates and monitors all teacher education initiative both at the



Ministry and college levels to ensure effective implementation. Finally, it co-ordinates and collaborates with all divisions of the Ministry of Education and other relevant educational institutions to ensure a coherent system of training and education.

The main objectives of the TED are:

• to train teachers of high calibre to fulfil the requirements of all pre-school, primary, secondary, vocational and technical education within the national education system;

• to constantly upgrade and update the knowledge, competency and efficiency of trained teachers and lecturers in both academic and professional areas;

• to develop teacher training colleges (TTCs) as centres of excellence.

Both teacher-training colleges and universities offer pre-service training programmes. The universities offer two types of pre-service teacher training programmes: a one-year post-graduate diploma in education, and a four-year integrated bachelor’s degree course. Similarly, teacher-training colleges offer a six-semester (three years) diploma in teaching programme, and a one-year (two semesters) post-graduate diploma in teaching for university graduates who wish to enter the field of education.

The three-year teaching Diploma Programme attempts to provide quality education to student teachers. Emphasis is on upgrading with quality of training, which includes professionalism in teaching, being student centred, literacy in Information Technology and globalization to fulfil the aspiration of the National Philosophy of Education and the Philosophy of Teacher Education. The training programme emphasizes school-based training, focusing on the integrated concept, usage of various media and reflective thinking to bridge the theoretical and practical aspects of teaching and learning in the classroom.

The one-year, pre-service post-graduate diploma in teaching (PGDT) was first introduced in 1983 to meet the demand of graduate teachers in areas such as mathematics, science, Malay language, English language, Islamic studies and technical subjects. Since then, the number of areas of specialization has increased. In 1996, a total of twenty-two subject specializations and twenty-one elective subjects were offered in line with the newly integrated school curriculum. The teacher education curriculum offered by the universities is similar in scope to that of the curriculum in teacher-training colleges. One of the innovations made to the delivery system is the introduction of integration of pedagogical and content knowledge with a focus on cooperative and collaborative learning environment in the PGDT courses. Another new component in the curriculum of the PGDT for primary school is the School-based Experience (SBE). The SBE involves assigning trainees with tasks that would enable them to apply theoretical knowledge to actual school setting. This enables them to construct new knowledge and understanding of classroom practices that would contribute to a meaningful learning.

The Ministry of Education has systematically planned over the years to upgrade the professional competence of teachers through in-service training. The



ultimate objective of in-service training is that every teacher would undergo retraining after a period of five years, in order to meet new demands and be up-to-date in terms of current knowledge and teaching techniques. Various seminars, workshops, and in-house training programmes on the new curriculum are conducted for schoolteachers.

The one-year, in-service Special Diploma in Teaching is provided to teachers who are required to teach subjects for which they are not adequately trained. Twenty subject majors are offered, namely: mathematics, science, Malay language, Malay literature, Islamic studies, Arabic language, living skills, special education, physical and health education, management of resource centres, engineering technology, commerce and accounting, home economics, guidance and counselling, information technology, music, art education, educational technology, English as a second language, and Chinese studies. The programme is accredited by the local universities and participants who excel may be given credit transfer to the second year of a degree programme at local universities in the same subject area.

The fourteen-week professional development courses are customized courses to upgrade and update the professional skills and knowledge of both the primary and secondary school teachers. Currently, the programme offers twenty specialized courses that teachers can choose from.

Teacher-training programmes were aimed at producing teachers who excelled in curricular and co-curricular activities. Toward this end, teacher-training programmes were continuously improved, while new courses in areas such as counselling and interpersonal skills as well as environmental education were introduced. The curriculum was also revised to incorporate the use of computers and multimedia, especially in subjects such as mathematics, science, Malay and the English languages. To further improve the quality as well as the creativity and innovativeness of teachers, new electives on teaching innovation were introduced. A total of six courses were introduced in areas such as evaluation, pedagogy and management. Teacher training also focused on inculcating good values and positive attitudes.

The following strategies have been used to improve the status of teachers:

• Extending the career path for teachers. The one-year Special Diploma in Teaching Programme was planned for non-graduate teachers to upgrade their academic qualification in their respective area of specialization, with a corresponding increase in pay.

• The TED also aims to develop and upgrade the professional qualifications of teacher educators in teacher-training colleges. Short in-service courses, master degree courses and courses at doctorate level are offered through the Ministry’s Staff Development Scheme. On-going programmes and projects also help develop a cohort of key trainers who in turn conduct staff development programmes in their respective colleges and zones.

• Teacher educators and teachers who perform excellently are rewarded through a graded system of remuneration, inclusive of bonuses. In addition, there is also the master teacher scheme which gives professional and service



recognition to teachers. It is a promotional scheme which takes account of teaching excellence. Excellent teachers are identified by their heads of departments for observation and assessment by the Federal Inspectorate of Schools, which attests to the teaching performance of these teachers.

• Upgrading entry requirements. The upgrading of the training certificate to diploma is a recognition given to teachers for the responsibilities they have. The minimum requirements for entry to the pre-service teaching diploma programme are a credit pass in the area of specialization and at least four other credits inclusive of a credit pass in Malay language at Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (Malaysian Certificate of Education), equivalent to Cambridge GCE O-level. The student teacher is expected to have at least a comprehensive education at the upper secondary school level before becoming a teacher.

The current emphasis on quality education requires that the teaching force be competent in the delivery of the curriculum. The transference of learning requires a set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, from technical know-how to the creative art of teaching. To enhance the quality of training at the teacher training level, the TED has employed the main following strategies:

• Upgrading teacher educators’ entry qualifications. Existing staff who have basic degrees and who qualify within the age criteria are encouraged to apply for scholarships for master’s degree and doctorate programmes either locally or overseas. The TED is working collaboratively with both local and foreign universities to identify programmes to upgrade the quality of teacher trainers.

• Research and development. Educational research has been instituted as part of the college culture. However, it received a mixed response because of the heavy workload and the lack of a working knowledge of research. Colleges and teacher educators are encouraged to take an active part in investigating their own teaching in the field of pedagogy, management, and evaluation.

• Curriculum support programmes. Curriculum support programmes are necessary for the effective implementation of the curriculum. Teacher educators need to have teaching-learning resources and a mastery of a variety of strategies for the delivery of the curriculum. Some of the programmes implemented include those for English, science and mathematics to improve the delivery system and teaching-learning strategies based on the reflective and process-based approach. In view of the emphasis given to science and mathematics, a similar curriculum support project was also set up to produce teaching and learning materials based on the science and mathematics teacher-training syllabi. A cohort of key teacher educators wrote these materials focusing on the concept of constructivism in order to improve the teaching and learning of science and mathematics.

• Management courses for administrators and school heads. The Ministry of Education conducts courses for administrators and school heads to upgrade their leadership and management skills so that they can effectively lead their institutions or schools. The institutionalization of Excellent Schools and



Excellent Heads has provided the incentives necessary to stimulate creativity and excellence.

• Inspection of educational institutions. The Federal Inspectorate of Schools currently covers all educational institutions comprising all government-supported schools, colleges and universities. The main role of the inspectorate is to ensure that there is quality in curriculum planning and implementation.

• Publicizing the achievements of teachers. All the national newspapers in the country have a weekly column which focuses on school or educational institutions’ achievement and initiatives. This helps to promote excellence in education and constitutes an essential element to support teachers and to upgrade their professional esteem and self-worth.

Number of primary and secondary school teachers by gender

Number and percentage of teachers Male Female

Level of Education 1993 1998 2003 1993 1998 2003 55,106 57,035 58,138 78,869 96,798 116,563 Primary 41.1 37.1 33.3 58.9 62.9 66.7

37,880 40,547 46,128 46,072 62,439 81,645 Secondary 45.1 39.4 36.1 54.9 60.6 63.9

Source: MOE, 2004.

Beginning 2004, the MOE has embarked on a program aimed at upgrading the quality of primary education through the placement of graduate teachers in primary schools. At the same time, primary school teachers are encouraged to upgrade their teaching qualifications through distance education and in-service courses in local and foreign universities under the MOE’s continuous professional development programme.

In addition, the MOE has also proposed the concept of teaching schools. Under this concept, a school will be built within the premise of a teacher training college where student teachers can carry out their practical teaching. One teacher training college has already embarked on this concept. Where space is a constraint, colleges may opt to take over a class within an adjacent school. The aim is to ensure that teacher education is in touch with classroom realities, and to share good practices with schools. The teacher training curriculum also includes ICT as one of the core components. The focus is on the use of ICT in teaching and learning. Teacher training colleges has made it a requirement that student teachers produce and evaluate multimedia teaching materials as part of the course work.

Consistent with the need to give due recognition to good teachers, the MOE has set up awards such as the Excellent Teacher Award for teachers and teacher educators and a similar award for Excellent Head Teachers/Principals in schools and teacher training colleges. Critical subject allowance is also given to teachers teaching English, Science, Mathematics and technical subjects. Teachers teaching in remote areas are given a hardship allowance. Teacher Activity Centres and Resource Centres have been built in various districts. These centres are well-equipped with books and



equipment to enable teachers to develop materials that are context-based. They also form a venue for teacher professional development activities such as courses and seminars. As of 2004, all teacher training colleges have set up programmes with disadvantaged schools to improve teaching and learning.

Educational research and information The Educational Research Co-ordinating Committee (ERCC) was established on April 1992 as an extension of the Educational Research Advisory Committee. The former was set up to include more participating members from various divisional heads and extending roles (not only advisory capacity but also providing funding and co-ordinating the area of studies). The latter was confined to a more advisory role (especially the viability of the intended research) and the members were limited to research professionals from universities and divisions.

ERCC was given special funding from the Sixth Malaysian Plan under the category 03800–Research and Development. As such, ERCC had an added responsibility to select and approve funding for research proposed by various divisions of the Ministry of Education. Membership was upgraded and extended to all divisional heads with the Director-General of Education as the chairman. Research were no longer confined to academic and theoretical perspectives but rather for having impact on educational policies.

Membership to ERCC was again extended to all new divisions created under the restructuring scheme in the Ministry of Education and State Education Departments in the ERCC meeting in July 1996. This decision was in line with the call of Director-General in the Second Malaysian Educational Research Council meeting in NPC to make research as part of the culture of the teaching profession.

The Seventh Malaysian Plan did not include funding for any educational research activity, thus ERCC no longer has the capacity to allocate financial assistance to its members with regard to research activity. However, this is a positive phenomenon as research activities can be funded under every educational agency’s management budget. Thus, there is an acknowledgment that research is an essential element in continuous improvement of professional practices at all levels in the Ministry of Education.

ERCC plays its role in accordance to the following objectives:

• determine, in terms of priority, topic and areas of studies to be in line and relevant to current educational needs and issues;

• distribute financial assistance for educational research activities from local and international funding;

• review and inspect from time to time the development of educational research in the country and disseminate educational research findings to educational policy-makers and practitioners;



• receive final research reports and determine the suitable platform for presentation of findings to the relevant bodies such as the Central Curriculum Committee or any high level educational decision-making bodies;

• disseminate findings and recommendations to relevant educational agencies such as State Education Departments, District Education Departments and schools through seminars, workshops and proceedings.

The Policy Research Unit of Educational Planning And Research Division (EPRD) has the responsibility of handling matters relating to the management of ERCC. During the period 1992-97, ERCC received funding from the Sixth Malaysian Plan to finance research activities carried out by agencies in the Ministry of Education according to the following breakdown:

Year Number of research approved Amount of funding (RM)

1992 26 599,476

1993 32 775,750

1994 34 1,427,777

1995 33 1,000,000

1996 52 1,200,000

1997 Action Research: 250 439,000

ERCC has successfully hosted National Educational Research Seminars to disseminate research findings to participants from all levels in the Ministry of Education and acting as platform for intellectual debate with regard to issues in educational research.

The number of researchers involved in research activities funded by ERCC has increased tremendously. This phenomenon has led to the establishment of the Malaysian Educational Research Council (MERC) on 12 December 1998 with its membership extended to all Malaysian educational researchers from ministerial divisions, teacher training colleges, polytechnics, universities, State Education Departments (SED), State Resource Centres, District Education Offices (DEO) and schools.

The Programme for Innovation, Excellence and Research (1993-96), funded by the World Bank, included research as a component. Under this programme, a certain amount was made accessible to two groups of implementers–teachers in government schools and academic personnel from education departments of institutes of higher learning.

Classroom-based research pertaining to teaching and learning or action research was specially programmed to inculcate research habit among teachers regarding their own teaching practices. The aim was to improve the delivery system in the form of individual teaching practices in the classroom. The underlying principle of the programme was the democratization of education by providing opportunity to



every pupil in getting equality, accessibility and equity in education. Action research used as a teaching approach demands a teacher to work out ways to improve teaching practices to the needs of pupils, thus providing opportunity for each pupil to achieve excellence in education. The following table indicates the total number of research and amount of funding for the years 1995-96:

Year No. of research approved for funding (according to school and subject)

Amount of funding (RM)

1995 101 186,214

1996 591 709,086

Interest among teachers to apply action research in teaching and learning increased considerably in 1996 as indicated in the table above. Likewise, areas of study which initially focused on three aspects (language, mathematics and science) became more varied in 1996. Action research was applied in all subjects taught in school as well as school administration. Sharing of experiences among teachers implementing action research for both years were made possible through national seminars organized by the Ministry and at state level by SED.

Research conducted by institutes of higher learning and other agencies of the Ministry looked into educational programme implementation and needs which provided important inputs in the implementation of the national education programme. The range of studies included implementation of curriculum (related to science, mathematics, English, values, educational television, teaching materials), teacher education, developing and enhancing potential learning strategies, and special education programme. Details on participation and funding are indicated in the table below:

Year No. of research approved for funding (according to school and subject)

Amount of funding (RM)

1995 9 245,102

1996 11 828,662

Findings of the above research were disseminated through seminars with audience comprising education personnel of the professional division of the Ministry, SED, DEO, schools as well as institutes of higher learning. Dissemination through publication was limited to those involved in decision-making related to the implementation of programmes at the Ministry and State Education Departments.



References Aziz, A.A.; Maimunah, S. Malaysia. In: T.N. Postlethwaite, ed. International encyclopaedia of national systems of education, p. 601-608. Second edition, Oxford/New York/Tokyo, Elsevier Science, 1995.

Ministry of Education of Malaysia. The development of education: national report of Malaysia. International Conference on Education, 44th session, Geneva, 1994.

Ministry of Education of Malaysia. Strengthening the role of teachers in a changing world. International Conference on Education, 45th session, Geneva, 1996.

Ministry of Education of Malaysia. Education For All 2000 Assessment: report of Malaysia. (Under the co-ordination of Sahara Ahmad). Kuala Lumpur, 1999.



Ministry of Education of Malaysia. Educational Planning and Research Division. Education in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, 1990.

Ministry of Education of Malaysia. External Affairs Division. Development of education 1989-1990. Malaysian country paper. International Conference on Education, 42nd session, Geneva, 1990.

Ministry of Education of Malaysia. External Affairs Division. Development of education 1991-1992. Malaysian country paper. International Conference on Education, 43rd session, Geneva, 1992.

Web resources Ministry of Education: http://www.moe.gov.my/ [In Malay and English. Last checked: October 2007.]

Curriculum Development Centre: http://www.ppk.kpm.my/ [In Malay and English. Last checked: October 2007.]

Ministry of Higher Education: http://www.mohe.gov.my/ [In Malay and English. Last checked: October 2007.]

National Accreditation Board: http://www.lan.gov.my/ [In Malay and English. Last checked: October 2007.]

For updated links, consult the Web page of the International Bureau of Education of UNESCO: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/links.htm


http://www.moe.gov.my/

http://www.ppk.kpm.my/

http://www.mohe.gov.my/

http://www.lan.gov.my/

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/links.htm

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