malayan tapir endangered species report jamie thrush v2

BIOD1102 Endangered Species Report Jamie Thrush (2149873)

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Endangered Species Report

Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus)

By Jamie Thrush


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INTRODUCTION

The Southeast Asian country of Malaysia is home to much of the world’s biodiversity. Included

on the Myers et al (2000) list of 17 biodiversity “hotspots”, it is home to thousands of unique

and fascinating organisms. One of its most unique and intergral, yet relatively under-

researched, inhabitants is the Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus). A large herbivore native to

Southeast Asia, it is one of five extant members of the Tapiridae family, and as well as being

the largest species in the family, it is the only species found outside of the Americas. All species

of the Tapiridae family are perrissodactyls (odd-toed ungulates), closely related to equids and

rhinceroses.

The Malayan tapir, also known as the Asian tapir, Asiatic tapir, and Indian tapir, is locally

known as tenuk, cipan, or badak tampung. So little-known is this elusive species, that when

Holden et al (2003) showed photgraphs produced by camera traps to several park rangers who

monitor tapir habitat, they claimed they were not familiar with the animal. In zoos outside of

Asia visitors often speculate what they are looking at when they first set eyes on a tapir. Pigs,

miniature elephants, and giant aardvarks are just a few animals that tapir are mistaken for.

Currently there are an estimated 1,500-2,000 Malayan tapir left in their natural habitat (Lynam

et al, 2008). The population density within their habitat ranges from 0.03-0.8 individuals per

square kilometre (Novarino, 2005). Although fossil records indicate the species was once

present as far east as Borneo (Medway, 1964), currently the species only occurs on the

Indonesian island of Sumatra and the Malay peninsular.

Gestation lasts approximately 400 days, with one calf usually born, twins are extremely rare.

Calves reach sexual maturity at 3 years and can live up to 30 years in the wild, slightly more

in captivty. The oldest tapir in captivity is 36 year old Manis who currently resides at Singapore

Zoo & Night Safari, where 3 generations of her descendants also live.

ABOUT THE MALAYAN TAPIR

DESCRIPTION

A full grown tapir of either sex will generally weigh in at 250-400kg. They stand approximately

90-110cm tall at the shoulder and can grow up to 2.5 metres from trunk to tail (Novarino,

2005). Their short-furred coat is predominantly black, with a white ‘saddle’ stretching from

the posterior of the forelegs to the anterior of the hind legs. This saddle is thought to confuse

potential predators at night when the moonlight hits the tapirs back among the darkness of the

forest floor. There have been anecdotal reports of entirely black Malayan tapirs, possibly a

melanistic genetic variation.

The quadrepedal herbivore has stocky legs to support its large body, featuring 4 toes on each

front leg and 3 toes on each hind leg. Their speed and build make them well-adapted at

manouvering through the thick undergrowth of their tropical rainforest home. All tapir have a


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short trunk which can be used as a snorkel when the animal is submergerd in water, and is an

excellent tool for stripping foilage from branches. They have an excellent sense of smell, and

hearing, which makes up for their limited eyesight.

Like all tapir species, Malayan tapir calves have a brown and yellow watermelon-like coat

which is perfect camouflage on the rainforest floor. Gradually their watermelon coat will fade

and transform into their black and white coat, which usually happens after about 100 days.

DISTRIBUTION

The current distribution of the species, which inhabits a variety of habitats such as swamps,

lowland forest, hill forest, and dense scrub, is divided into two isolated geographical regions

(Novarino, 2005; Lynam et al, 2008). The most populated encompasses penisular Malaysia,

southern Myanmar, and southern Thailand. The other less populated range is in the Southern

half of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The species is considered to be the second most

abundant large mammal in Malaysia. It is a notoriously difficult species to study in the wild

due to its shy temperament. Most population surveys have been performed by setting up camera

traps, and also analysing the data from camera traps set up for other species such as tigers and

sun bears (Holden et al, 2003). Data collected by Novarino (2005) did not record any tapir in

October, the start of the rainy season, which suggests T. indicus may move seasonally.

BEHAVIOUR

The Malayan Tapir was originally thought to be a solitary creature, apart from cows and calves,

but recent research suggests that they may be more social than previously thought (Diz, 2006).

Williams and Petrides (1980) have observed wild tapir in pairs, and even in trios. This may be

due to their overlapping home ranges (Williams, 1979). Their large home ranges can occupy

2km² (Eisenberg, 1997) to over 25km² (Traeholt, 2004), and will always be near a source of

water. They use water as a source of protection and have been known to eat aquatic vegetation.

Though rarely found, observations of tapir sleeping areas indicate that they sleep alone, with

Current distribution of T. indicus (Source: IUCN)


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the exception of females and calves (Holden et al, 2003). A group of tapir is called a colony or

a candle.

Though occasionally classified as crepuscular, the Malayan tapir seems to live a more nocturnal

lifestyle (Novarino, 2005). Camera traps set up along tapir trails and near salt licks indicate

that tapir are more active at night. Novarino (2005) analysed camera trap data which recorded

23 different tapir, none of which were photographed during daylight. A Foerster and Vaughan

(2002) study on Baird’s tapir (T. Bairdii) suggests that tapir are nocturnally active in order to

avoid the hottest parts of the day.

Though tapir are myopic (short-sighted), they make up for their limited vision with a

remarkable sense of smell. They use the Flehmen response by pointing their trunk upwards to

expose their olfactory receptors. They use this mechanism to detect predators and other tapir,

especially during mating season, which occurs between April and June.

Wild Malayan tapir have been observed defecating in the same spot over periods of days,

suggesting that the species may be at least partially teritorial (Holden et al, 2003).

Like their evolutionary cousins, the rhinoceroses, tapir enjoy rolling around in mud wallows,

which keeps their skin hydrated and wards off any unwanted insects.

DIET

Wild tapir diets are made up of tropical fruits, berries, leaf matter and shoots. Some popular

tropical fruits consumed by Malayan tapir include mangoes, mangosteens, durian, and

jackfruit. Approximately 115 Malaysian plant species are known to be consumed by T. Indicus

(Khan, 1997). The species selectively browses the plants it consumes, favouring young leaves

and twigs (Williams and Petrides, 1980). In captivity they are fed alfalfa hay, ungulate pellets,

browse, local and tropical fruits, and vegetables.

Their consumption of fruits and berries are imperative for the regeneration of rainforests. After

a tapir consumes the local plants and fruits of its habitat, it will continue walking through the

rainforest, occasionally defecating, and in the process, dispersing the seeds of the plants it eats,

with the feces acting as the new plants first fertiliser (Campos-Arceiz et al, 2012). Old piles of

tapir dung have been observed to have durian seedlings growing out of them (Holden et al,

2003). Although tapirs do not posess the seed dispersing qualities of larger herbivores such as

Asian elephants (elephus maximus) or the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis),

due to the dwindling populations of these seed dispersing heavyweights, the Malayan tapir is

effectively responsible for picking up the slack (Campos-Arceiz et al, 2012).

PHYLOGENY

The tapirus genus contains 5 formally recognised extant species; Malayan tapir (T. indicus),

the only species native to Asia, Baird’s tapir (T. bairdii), native to Central America, Brazilian

tapir (T. terrestris) and kabomani tapir (T. kabomani), native to South America, and Mountain

tapir (T. pinchaque), also native to South America, and also the only tapir species to occur

naturally outside of the tropics.


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The ancestoral taxa of the extant tapirus genus occurred in the Northern hemisphere during the

miocene epoch (Khan, 1997). Fossil records indicate that up to 30 million years ago the Asian

and American tapirs diverged, with the American tapirs migrating from North to South

America approximately 3 million years ago (Ashley et al, 1996).

Tapirs are currently divided into 3 distinct mitochondrial lineages (Ashley et al, 1996). One

comprising the South American species (T. terrestris, T. pinchaque, and it has been estimated

that T. kabomani belongs to this lineage too), another lineage represented by T. bairdii, and the

third represented by T. indicus.

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Animalia

Chordata

Mammalia

Perissodactyla

Tapiridae

Tapirus

Tapirus indicus

CURRENT STATUS IN THE WILD

Currently Malayan tapir are classifed as Endangered on the International Union for the

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Endangered Species and their population is

declining (Lynam et al, 2008). In Thailand, under the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection

Act 1992, T. indicus is one of only 15 species under the highest category of protection

(Boonboothara, 1996).

It is estimated that in the past 36 years (3 tapir generations), the global population of T. indicus

has decreased by 50% (Lynam et al, 2008), mainly due to large-scale habitat destruction for

the use of palm oil plantations and other instances of human development. The species is listed

on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(CITES) Appendix I, with further research into the impact that habitat reduction and

destruction has on the species needed (Lynam et al, 2008).

COMPARED TO OTHER TAPIR SPECIES

Three of the four assessed tapir species are calssified as endangered on the IUCN List of

endangered species; of those three species there are less than 5,500 Baird’s tapir (Castellanos

et al, 2008), 2,500 Mountain tapir (Diaz et al, 2008), and 2,000 Malayan tapir left in the wild

(Lynam et al, 2008), making T. indicus the most endangered species of tapir. Compared to the

other species, T. indicus is relatively under-studied (Fragaoso, 1991; Downer, 1996; Salas,

1996; Medici and Padua, 1999), with the exception of T. kabomani, only identified as a new

species in 2013.

The South American species of tapirs were once hunted regularly, but conservation efforts and

increased education have helped decrease instances of hunting. The main threats to the species

are habitat destruction for human development, illegal logging, and armed conflicts. For the

Mountain tapir (T. pinchaque) hunting is still a problem, as their skin and feet are used in


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traditional medical practices. Herds of cattle have been known to make Mountain tapirs

abandon their home range (Diaz et al, 2008).

DIFFICULTIES ASSOSCIATED WITH STUDYING TAPIRS IN THE WILD

Tapirs are difficult to study in the wild and calculating an accurate population estimate can

prove challenging. Most research is done using GPS tracking collars and camera traps, with

individual animals distinguished by the shape of their white “saddle” and any scars (Rayan et

al, 2012). Malayan tapir are relatively under-studied compared to their South American cousins

(Holden et al, 2003). They are primarily nocturnal, and possibly due to their myopic vision,

spook easily, which means that it is not easy for scientists to observe their behaviour in the

wild.

Due to the tapir’s haphazard browsing behaviour, attemping to identify or count individuals

based on footprints is not recommended (Lekagul & McNeely, 1973). Even when two distinct

tracks of footprints are observed, it is still difficult to determine if the tracks were made by an

adolescent and an adult, or two adults.

THREATS TO THE PERSISTENCE OF THE SPECIES

DEFORESTATION AND ILLEGAL LOGGING

Deforestation is a problem threatening thousands of species in dozens of countries around the

world. From the frosty hardwood forests of Southern Tasmania to the Amazon in South

America. Thousands of years of rainforest growth and accumulated biodiversity can be

devestated by the stroke of a chainsaw. Unfortunately the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia

are not immune to the destructive force that is deforestation. Throughout Southeast Asia,

species of large mammal are threatened due to destruction and fragmentation of habitat, 10%

of which has been lost since 2000, and as a result, has made rainforests more accessible for

hunters of wildlife (Miet-Tinen et al, 2013). As of 2008, 57% of Malaysia’s forests have been

logged, with only half of the remaining 43% considered to be suitable tapir habitat (Lynam et

al, 2008).

Habitat loss and fragmentation is widely considered the greatest threat to the persistence of T.

indicus (Santiapillai and Ramono, 1990; Khan, 1997; Jasmi, 2000; Holden et al, 2003; Meijard

and Strien, 2003; Novarino et al, 2004; Corlett, 2007), far above hunting or the illegal animal

trade. The full extent of the consequences of deforestation, and the effect it has on T. indicus

is not entirely understood, and further research is essential.


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PALM OIL INDUSTRTY

Palm oil is made from the fruit of several species of palm trees. It is an easy plant to grow and

the oil making process is quite cheap. The oil is used to make a number of products such as

confectionary, food, cooking oils (often labelled as vegetable oil), cosmetics, hygiene products,

and laundry products. The trees grow best

in tropical climates, and people living in

countries with low wealth equality have

taken advantage of this valuable industry.

However the current rate of deforestation

for the use of palm oil plantations is

causing great concern among

conservationists (Buckland, 2005).

Nellemann et al (2007) suggested that at

the current rate of deforestation 98% of

Malaysia’s rainforest will be destroyed by

2022, and that deforestation was not the

only consequence of the palm oil industry. The palm oil industry is also responsible for forest

fires, high carbon dioxide emissions and soil erosion as well as dramatically reduced rainforest

habitat. With fragmented patches of forest and more roads being made to accommodate more

vehicles, tapir are being exposed to a higher possibility of being hit by a vehicle.

HUNTING

Historically, tapir were killed by colonial hunters in Burma as trophies (Meijaard and van

Strien, 2003). Currently hunting is not considered a major threat to the existence of T. indicus,

but any tapirs killed unnecissarily have a negative effect on the wild population. In countries

with a large Muslim population, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, it is considered taboo to eat

tapir meat due to their apparent resemblence to pigs, the consumption of which is forbidden

under Islamic law (Linkie et al, 2013). Even in non-Muslim majority countries tapir meat is

not particularily popular, though it is occasionally eaten and sold in local markets (Lynam et

al, 2005).

In the 21st century tapir are rarely trophy hunted, but are sometimes shot accidentally by hunters

in search of tigers and other wildlife, and die after being caught in snares and traps set for other

large mammals (Linkie et al, 2013), and tigers (Holden et al, 2003). In some villages it is

considered bad luck to kill a tapir, however, in some parts of Sumatra, tapir are considered

pests as they occasionally venture onto pastural land and feed on crops such as watermelon and

gambir (Novarino, 2005).

ILLEGAL ANIMAL TRADE

Tapir are rarely taken from the wild for the pet trade, probably due to their size, and as a result,

the costly amount of food required to sustain them. Most tapir illegally taken from the wild are

sold to zoos in South East Asia, particularily Indonesia, with young tapir earning Thai wildlife

export companies up to $5500USD each (Rabinowitz, 1991). There are suggestions that tapirs

are occasionally traded through Indonesian zoos, and sometimes to private collections, with

(Source: Wikipedia. Image by Aranas)


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suspicions being raised as to whether the animals were captured in protected areas (Lynam et

al, 2008).

Due to the conservation-consciousness of modern Western zoos, tapir are not taken from the

wild for zoo collections as much as they were in the 19th and 20th centuries. Majority of tapirs

in current zoological collections were born in captivity.

CURRENT CONSERVATION EFFORTS

PROTECTED AREAS AND LEGISLATION

The largest protected area in which T. indicus occurs is Kerinci Seblat National Park, a

13,300km2 reserve spanning 4 provinces of Sumatra, Jambi, Benkulu, West Sumatra, and South

Sumatra (Holden et al, 2003). The highest estimates of tapir in Malaysia were recorded in

forests where logging impact protocols are followed, and where public access is restricted

(Linkie et al, 2013).

Commercial logging has been banned in Thailand since 1989 (Usher, 2009), and approximately

18% of the country’s land is protected as either national parks, non-hunting areas, or wildlife

sanctuaries.

In Malaysia, T. indicus is protected under the 1955 Wild Animals and Birds Ordinance No.2.

The law is effectively enforced, and very few of the 5,000 or so annual violations relate to

tapirs. If a person is found setting, or being in the possession of less than 25 wire snares, they

can be issued a fine of RM5000, up to 5 years in prison, or both. Being caught in possession of

more than 25 wire snares comes with a mandatory prison sentence of up to 10 years (Khan,

1997).

In Indonesia, T. indicus has had legal protection since 1931 (Khan, 1997).

WORLD TAPIR DAY

World Tapir Day is celebrated annually on April 27th at zoos around the world, and is a national

holiday in the Central American country of Belize. The organisation aims to raise awareness

of the plight of all tapir species, and through their World Tapir Day events, raise funds to

purchase tapir habitat and save it from human encroachment. The website’s blog and social

media pages also post regular updates regarding tapir research, births in zoos, and information

about World Tapir Day events.

IUCN TAPIR SPECIALIST GROUP

The IUCN Tapir Specialist Group (TSG) is made up of biologists, zoo keepers and staff,

conservationists, researchers, and advocates, who aim to conserve the world’s tapir species and


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their habitat, through sharing research, strategic action-planning within countries where tapirs

exist, and through education, to demonstrate the importance of tapir in their habitats.

The group hosts the International Tapir Symposium every 2-3 years, each time in a different

country where tapirs exist, and brings together tapir conservationists, researchers, educators,

veternarians, politicians, and governmental organisations from around the world. The

conference aims to discuss challenges facing the 5 species of tapir, exchange field data

regarding population trends, and create or amend conservation strategies. The group uploads

the conference minutes and any new tapir-related scientific articles to their website.

MALAY TAPIR CONSERVATION PROJECT

The Malay Tapir Conservation Project is an initiative administered jointly by the Malaysian

Department of Wildlife and National Parks, and Copenhagen Zoo, Denmark. The project runs

and maintains breeding facilities and treatment facilities for injured tapir. The project also cares

for orphaned tapir. The centre is located within Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve, in the Malay

state of Selangor, and was formerly a Sumatran rhinoceros breeding facility. Currently there

are 12 resident tapir at the facility, which makes up half of the total captive Malayan tapir

population in Malaysia.

The centre features a central set of stables, each with their own large outdoor enclosure.

Additionally there is a 5ha enclosure, and a 50ha enclosure comprised of natural tapir habitat,

with an observation deck used to study tapirs in a semi-natural environment. For visiting

researchers and biology students there are 2 guest bungalows, and a campsite that can

accommodate up to 40 people.

Copenhagen Zoo is currently working with the centre to analyse blood and serum samples for

use in DNA fingerprinting of the species’ genetic makeup. Blood tests are also used to monitor

the hormone levels in female tapir, so as to determine the most appropriate time to pair them

with a male in order to mate and produce a calf.

The centre also works with Melaka Zoo, Malaysia, to study sperm morphology and

progesterone levels in female tapir. A collaboration with the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

(National University of Malaysia) allows post-graduate students to use the facilities for

behavioural observations, and DNA research.

(Central stable and surrounding pens at the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre n.d.)


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CAPTIVE BREEDING

Similar to other large mammals, the gestation period of Malayan tapir is long (approximately

390 days) which means that captive breeding is not a fast process. They usually give birth to a

single calf, weighing about 5-7kg, twins are extremely rare.

In 1984 an international studbook was created by the World Association of Zoos and Aquaria

(WAZA) to manage the captive breeding of the endangered Malayan tapir, and as of 2007 there

were 127 tapir in WAZA member zoos globally. Current estimates of total Malayan tapir in

captivity range from 130-200 animals, in about 70 institutions.

Malayan tapir reside in zoos in Australia,

Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America.

The Autralian population is made up of one

male from the Hunter Valley Zoo in New

South Wales, and a mother and adult

daughter pair that reside in Adelaide Zoo,

South Australia. While Australia was once

part of a regional breeding program, there are

no plans to breed the current stock due to an

unknown optical medical condition causing

blindness in Australian tapirs. There is

speculation that this condition is caused by

the high ultraviolet light from the Australian

sun, which the tapirs in their natural

habitat would be protected from

underneath the thick rainforest canopy.

Inadequately shaded enclosures could have contributed to this problem. Given the lack of

knowledge about the cause of blindness, and the possibility of it being a genetic disorder, it

was decided to cease breeding the current Malayan tapir residents of Australian zoos. In other

parts of the world, however, Malayan tapir are successful breeders. In 2015 there have been

several Malayan tapir births in zoos in Europe and America, such as Edinburgh Zoo, the

Minnesota Zoo, Prague Zoo, Antwerp Zoo, and Tampa’s Lowry Park Zoo.

T. terrestris is the most prevelant tapir species in zoos around the world, followed by T. indicus,

T. bairdii, and T. pinchaque – only 5 of which are exhibited globally. There are no known T.

kabomani in any zoo or private collection.

Tapir calf and mother at Edinburgh Zoo.

(Source: Flickr. Image by Hagdorn)


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PROPOSED CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

CAPTIVE BREEDING

The captive breeding of endangered species and the maintenance of insurance populations has

long been used to prevent extinction. From the dodo to Przewalski’s wild horse, hunting

pressures, habitat destruction, and disease can diminish, and eventually wipe out entire wild

populations. As of 2014, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species contains 39 animal species

and subspecies that are extinct in the wild, only existing in zoos and other captive or semi-

captive environments.

A renewed regional breeding program involving Australia and Southeast Asia could see the

development of a sustainable and genetically diverse insurance population, and the

reintroduction of some animals into areas where the population has decreased, such as Sumatra.

Taking into account the lack of complex social structures among tapir, reintroduction into wild

or semi-wild areas should not pose any ramifications in that regard. The first obstacle that

would need to be addressed is the blindness of Australian tapirs. If it is a genetic problem, then

those animals affected would not be used. But if it is caused by an environmental factor, such

a high exposure to sunlight, then modifications to current enclosures would need to be made,

as well as consideration in the construction of new enclosures. Investigation into this problem

is vital for any future breeding proposals.

ANTI-HUNTING STRATEGIES

While hunting is not considered a major threat to the existence of the Malayan tapir (Lynam et

al, 2012), it still does occur, particularly in Myanmar (Linkie et al, 2013). Legislation banning

the hunting of tapir, and effective enforcement of the legislation, have proven to be an effective

conservation tool (Kawanishi et al, 2002). Continued enforcement of current laws, and more

legal protection in Myanmar, will optimistically lead to the further elimination of tapir hunting.

Habitat restoration in fragmented ecosystems, joining up areas of separated rainforest, would

hinder the mobility of potential poachers, and therefore lead to less incidents of hunting.

Working with farmers to resolve conflicts they have with tapirs on their land will hopefully

have a positive impact on the attitudes of people who share the land with tapirs, and ultimately

lead to no more tapir “pest” killings.

LOCAL COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT

Local community engagement in conservation has been proven to be a successful, and cost-

effective method of saving species globally, particularily through conflict resolution. Redpath

et al (2013) found that scientists working with communities in and around endangered species

habitat could resolve conflicts more effectively. If conservationists collaborated with Southeast


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Asian farmers, a resolution strategy for their issue with tapir eating and trampling their crops

could be created and implemented. This might involve better fencing coupled with wildlife

corridors between farms, the transrelocation of a particular animal to a suitable habitat away

from prime agricultural land, or maybe habitat restoration in areas no longer used for

agriculture.

GENETIC RESEARCH

It has been proposed that the Sumatran population of T. indicus is a subspecies of the mainland

Southeast Asian population. This proposition is based on the knowledge that the Sumatran

elephant (Elephus maximus sumatrensis) and Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) are

both subspecies of their mainland cousins. If so, the subspecies would be one of the most

endangered large mammal subspecies in Asia, and the world, since the population is estimated

to contain only 50 individuals (Lynam et al, 2008).

At the Malay Tapir Conservation Centre, DNA analysis is being done to shed light on the

phylogenetic relationship between Malayan tapir populations. This research, in conjunction

with captive breeding at the centre, will hopefully lead to the reintroduction of some animals

into areas with small populations, or low genetic diversity, thus boosting the genetic variation

of the wild Malayan tapir population.

CONCLUSION

The Malayan tapir is truly a unique creature; the only species of its kind to naturally occur

outside of the Americas. The role it plays in maintaining biodiversity in its habitat through

small-seed distribution is invaluable to multiple other species reliant on those plants. It is

clear that without intervention, without actions that negate the effects of deforestation and

fragmenation, this species will face extinction. With 2,000 animals distributed among various

scattered habitats, more needs to be done to protect these areas to avoid losing them

altogether. Increasing the enforcement of anti-illegal logging laws and clamping down on the

palm oil industry is an essential step towards conserving the species. Inter-regional breeding

has proven successful, but more work can be done to establish a genetically diverse insurance

population, particularily in Australia given its level of zoological infrastructure, and

proximity to Southeast Asia. The humble tapir has roamed the earth for millions years, and

with greater conservation efforts, it can roam for millions more.


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malayan tapir endangered species report jamie thrush v2

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