Int. Libr. Rev. (1973) 5, 483495

Malay Folk Literature with Special Reference to Children

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At the UNESCO-sponsored Conference on Malay Culture in early 1972 there was general agreement that Malay literature, particularly in its oral and folk traditions, was a much neglected study. 1 Though many Malay stories have been collected they remain scattered and partially published. Some classical narratives and folk tales have been published as English-language translations by a group of British colonial adminis- trators in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Others have been re-written into story collections for children. Enough representa- tion of Malay stories has come out in English to provide a small corpus of material for inclusion in international children's literature. These stories are more accessible in Great Britain, but there as in the rest of the world they have not been widely incorporated in juvenile publishing lists. Certainly this is not because they have pallid plots or because they do not have literary quality. It is probably because the stories are not widely enough known and have not come to the attention of writers of juvenile books.

In the United States almost the only approach to Malay literature for children has been through Indonesian stories. These are admittedly of a similar background, for Indonesia and Malaysia share a language and cultural heritage. But the Indonesian tales have a Javanese flavor which is distinctive from the Malay tradition. Courlander includes one Malay ta le - -The War of the P l a n t s - i n the collection called The Tiger's Whisker. 2 The 1971 Subject Guide to Books in Print lists no Malay tales.

In this article I hope to show that Malay folk literature is worthy of more exposure. I will discuss primarily Malay stories available in English

"~ 3888 Monterey Drive, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816, U.S.A. 1 International Meeting of Experts for the Launching of the Malay Culture Project,

21-28 January, 1972. SHC-72/CONF. 15/5. Paris, UNESCO. 2 Courlander, Harold (1959). The Tiger's Whisker and Other Tales and Legends from Asia and

the Pacific. New York: Harcourt Brace. This story appears under the title ""A Vegetarian Dispute" in W. W. Skeat (1901). Fables and Folk Tales from an Eastern Forest.

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but must emphasize that these are only a fraction of the total body" of Malay folk literature available to those knowing Malay. Many varia- tions of the stories discussed here exist in Malay-language editions. Countless other tales are still in manuscript or audio-tape form.

The Malayan Peninsula is destined by nature to be a half-way point for East-West trade. Its finger of land mass divides the Indian Ocean from the China Sea. Its southern tip fringes the narrow Straits of Malacca through which ships must pass for inter-Asian trade. Ships from Thai- land, Burma, and the neighboring islands of Sumatra and Java converge on the Straits. For centuries the Malay praus and Chinese junks had sailed west while traders from the Arab world and India had sailed eastward. By the fifteenth century the port of Malacca on the southern edge of the Peninsula had grown from a fishermen's village into a cosmopolitan entrep6t and the capital of a Malay empire.

The merchants and seamen brought with them not only their goods but their beliefs and legends. The Indians introduced Hindu mythology and a concept of royalty. The Arabs brought what was to become the major influence--the religion of Islam. Moslem principles instilled a sense of righteousness and moral judgment which became evident in the evolution of the folk tale.

Those people living on the Peninsula before the traders came had quite different beliefs. They believed in the world of spirits; their religion was animism.

To them all objects in nature possessed souls, or a soul-personality (semangat). Great spirits typified the sea and earth, and innumerable lesser spirits were thought to lurk in mountains, rivers, trees, or especi- ally in any natural object which had an unusual shape. The mysterious forest world was peopled with ghosts, some benign and others male- volent, which Man had to control for his survival. He sought to protect himself by devising explanations about his environment. Or, to strengthen his need he would consult a sorcerer (pawang). Through the pawang names and attributes were added to spirits from foreign sources. Genii (fin) became the intermediaries between ghosts and gods. Koranic prophets came to officiate in the natural world: Noah was in charge of all plants; Solomon, king of all animals. 1 Narratives of other cultures spread from Malacca and coastal ports into the interior until they had become part of the life of the people and been amassed into the full dimension of Malay folk lore.

The British scholar Winstedt has grouped Malay folk literature as etiological lore, animal tales, farcical tales, and legends--which he

1 Wilkinson, R. J. (1906). Malay Beliefs. The Peninsular Malays I, pp. 23-32. London: Luzac.

M A L A Y FOLK L I T E R A T U R E 435

terms folk and historical romances. 1 There is of course much more, but within these categories we can explore the nature of the Malay tale and perceive some of the influences which have come into it.

"Who Killed the Otter's Babies" is a classic Malay folk tale. It is a clock-story, the elaboration of a riddle into a narrative. A single incident triggers a chain of events which cumulate to the point of adjudication. The provocative metaphorical style is characteristic of the allusive Malay language. The theme of out-talking a situation, of sly play against the credulity of another, is reiterated in many plots in Malay stories.

The Otter Mother left the Mouse-deer to look after her babies while she went to the river to catch crayfish. She had not been gone long when the Mouse-deer heard the war-gong of the Woodpecker sounding the alarm of a killing in the forest. The Mouse-deer began to relay the alarm. But when he tapped his heels on the ground, he happened to stamp on the Otter 's babies and he killed them.

When the Ot te r returned and found her babies dead, she accused the Mouse- deer. He admit ted his guilt. The case was referred to King Solomon, who sum- moned the Mouse-deer to trial. Mouse-deer pleaded guilty, but begged for pardon according to these circumstances : The Mouse-deer had sounded the alarm because the Woodpecker had sounded the war-gong. The Woodpecker had sounded the alarm because he had seen the Great Lizard wearing his sword. The Great Lizard had worn his sword because the Tortoise had donned his coat of mail because the King-Crab had trailed his three-edged pike because the Crayfish had shouldered his lance. The Crayfish had shouldered his lance because he had seen the Ot ter coming down to the river to catch the crayfish children. (Which was indeed the case I) Whereupon King Solomon decreed that the Ot ter was the guilty party!2

The presence of Solomon in the Animal Tales is an anachronism. He appears in the Koran much as he is known to Christians through the Old Testament, but as interpretations of the Koran moved eastward he acqtfired more power. To the Malay he was not only a great historical figure but his wisdom over human affairs extended over the entire animal kingdom. He is the judge to whom the animals appeal, paying obeisance as humble slaves at a royal court. It is Solomon who speaks the Law of the Land, really adat law, in which judgment is based on

1 Winstedt, R. O. (1961). A History of Classical Malay Literature, 2d ed., pp. 3-33. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. First written in 1940. Reprinted in 1969.

2 Skeat, W. W. (1901). Fables andFolk Tales from an Eastern Forest, pp. 22-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reissued 1960. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press. The story appears in play form as The Judgment in Roy Britton (1961). Abdul and the Pirates and Other Plays for the Classroom, pp. 38-47. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.

486 ~. VAN Z~IV.L

circumstantial evidence. More surprising is Solomon's role as King of the Genii, derived from his reputation for arts of magic.

Moreover he also controlled all the genies and devils of the spirit world and not infrequently imprisoned the rebellious ones among them within the confines of flasks and bottles which he sealed with his famous signet ring. He also had control over the wind on which he used to ride in his magic carpet when travelling with his retinue from place to place on visits of inspection throughout his vast dominion. 1

Who is not reminded of the Arabian Nights ? The principal actor in the Malay Animal Tale is our superhero the

Mouse-deer. Not a mouse or a deer, but a chevrotain of the antelope family native to the forests of Indonesia and Malaya. For a timid solitary animal he has been a star personality since he first appeared in print about the sixteenth century in the Hikayat Pelandok Jinaka. 2 In the cycle of Mouse-deer stories he assumes any of three roles: the Trickster, the Arbitrator, and the King. 3

Mouse-deer is best known as the protagonist in a simple guile story in which he is a knave, trickster, practical joker, and sometimes a petty cheat. He pits his wits against strength, though sometimes he is bested by those weaker than himself, as in his race with Sir Snail. 4 He is apt to escape by cunning rather than by fighting and relishes another's dis- comfiture. This is the theme of Kantchil's Lime Pit, in which Mouse- deer captializes on the stupidity of larger animals by ingeniously persuading them to throw him out of a pit. 5 He is a master at passing the buck.

In later Mouse-deer stories he appears as the arbitrator of justice. In this maturity he uses his cleverness for less selfish ends. He may even consider himself as a servant or aide to Solomon.

Two men quarrelled about a loan which the debtor had promis6d to repay in two months. (In Malay the word for month and moon is the same.) When asked to repay the debt, the debtor replied, "But there is only one moon." And he stuck to his story, saying " W h e n there are two moons I will pay you."

T ime passed without the quarrel being resolved, so the two finally appealed to Sir Peace of the Forest. The Mouse-deer pointed to the moon in the sky and to its

t Zainal-'Abidin bin Ahmad (1951). Some Malay Legendary Tales. Journal Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society 24, 81.

2 Winstedt, A History of Classical Malay Literature, op. cit., p. 16. 3 Wilkinson, R.J . (1907). The Literature of Malay Folk-Lore. Papers on Malay Subjects, pp.

13-16. Kuala Lumpur: Government Press. Also discussed in George Maxwell (1911). In Malay Forests, pp. 171-77. Edinburgh: William Blackwood. Reprinted Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 1960.

4 Sang Kanchil Berlumba dengan Siput (1970). Bachaan Dewan, Buku Tiga, pp. 72-75. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Putaka.

5 Courlander, Harold (1950). Kantehil's Lime Pit and Other Stories. New York: Harcourt Brace.

M A L A Y F O L K L I T E R A T U R E 2f87

reflection in the water until both men had to agree that there were now two moons. The trick of the debtor had been turned against him. I

Mouse-deer's power is more extended when he becomes ruler of the jungle world. For this he takes on the ceremony of the Malay court, perched under a yellow-blossomed tree as if it were a royal golden umbrella. His cunning is altered to benevolence; his judgment has become more moralistic. Mouse-deer has been affected by Islam and presents himself in royal regalia.

There was once a terr ible Ogre who hid near the r iver T e n o m to snatch the fish caugh t by the animals. T he Rhino , Buffalo, Bull, Deer, and the Monkey took turns guard ing thei r ca tch unt i l the Rh ino said when it was his tu rn to s tand guard he would kill the Ogre.

But his courage failed him. W h e n the Ogre came toward h im the Rh ino panicked and r an away. The o ther animals were abou t ro surrender thei r fishing grounds when the Bull r emembered "Mouse-deer , the Wily, who possesses power from All 9 . . the Sheikh of the Forest . . . . "

Now on t ha t very day the Lord Sheikh of the Forest himself h a d been looking from ear th to sky while prophesying "Th i s day, the Beasts of the Forest will come and lay p la in t before me . " A n d so they did.

I n seven days t ime the Mouse-deer set for th for Tenom, moun ted on the back of a whi te bull. Fie h a d supplied himself wi th r a t t a n nooses, and while the animals fished, the Mouse-deer sat a lone on guard. W h e n the Ogre approached to ask wha t he was doing, Mouse-deer repl ied t ha t he was massaging his body wi th medicines inher i ted from his forefathers. Ogre wanted some heal ing herbs too. So tile Mouse-deer carefully and slowly twined the nooses a round the Ogre 's body unt i l the Ogre was t ight ly bound from head to toe. A nd when the animals r e tu rned from the river, they finished off the Ogre. After fishing for seven days, they all went home. 2

Throughout the cycle of stories the Mouse-deer's development of character fits Jung's definition of the archetypal trickster-hero. Kantchil, with the caprice, vanity, defiance, and self-will of the trickster, exhibits the uninhibited desires of the child. As he takes on authority and judg- ment over others, he represents the gradual socialization of man. This evolution of a personality into a social being symbolizes the evolving group consciousness within each man. 3

The Mouse-deer competes with other entertainers in the Malay farcical tales. In these droll anecdotes people are either clever or foolish, or sometimes feign the opposite to extricate themselves from absurd situations. Most of the plots have Indian or Arabic origins, but the characters and settings are Malayanized. Winstedt has grouped the

1 Maxwell, In Malay Forests, op. tit., pp. 175-76. Also appears as De Wijze Rechter (Maleis Verhaal) in J. deVries (1964). Indische Volksverhalen, p. 102. Utrecht: Prisma-Boeken.

2 Wilkinson, The Literature of Malay Folk-Lore, op. tit., pp. 17-19. a Henderson, Joseph L. (1964). Ancient myths and modern man. In Carl Jung (Ed.)

Man and His Symbols, pp. 103-7. New York: Dell.

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he roes o f M a l a y f a r c i c a l ta les in to t h r e e c o m i c t ypes w h i c h a r e e q u i v a l e n t to t h e s i m p l e t o n , t he n o o d l e , a n d t h e t r i c k s t e r - b u f f o o n .

M a t J e n i n is a fool who , in a c u m u l a t i v e m o r a l ta le , c o u n t s his ga ins be fo re his ea rn ings . H e is a b o r n loser .

When hired to climb trees to pick coconuts, Mat Jenin pauses to ponder how he will spend his earnings. First, he thinks he will buy a hen. By selling the chicks, he will buy a goat. By selling the kids, he will buy a buffalo cow. By selling the calves, he will buy an elephant . . . until he will have so much money he can marry a princess. Such a delightful prospect makes him forget where he is--and he falls down out of the tree.

F a t h e r F o l l y (Pa ' P a n d i r ) is t he M a l a y c o u n t e r p a r t o f L a z y J a c k .

Pa' Pandir, commissioned by his wife to perform various errands, follows her direc- tions literally. Sent to catch a buffalo described as a grass-eater, he buys a sickle which he ties to a tree because its "horns" are so sharp. He bathes the baby in boiling water. He stores salt in a bamboo tube which he then floats in the river. Instead of bringing a white-capped Haji and bearded mosque official to a feast, he brings a white-crested sparrow and a bearded goat . . . . 1

C l e v e r d e c e p t i o n is t he s p e c i a l i t y o f F a t h e r G r a s s h o p p e r (Pa ' B i l a l a n g ) . I n a d e l i g h t f u l r e - t e l l i n g b y Wi l l i s H a l l h e is c a l l e d F a t h e r M o l e - C r i c k e t (a spec ies o f g r a s s h o p p e r ) , b u t h e is t h e s a m e c h u b b y r o g u e .

Father Mole-Cricket was a lazy farmer who came to learn that it was easier to fake powers of divination than to work in his fields. His first prank, in which he bids his son hide some caribou, and then astounds their rightful owner by pretending to divine their whereabouts, attracts the attention of the king. Thus is launched his career as the Court Diviner. Little did he realize that he would reach such emi- nence, but he manages to improvise his way to success. He philosophizes that being lazy has resulted in a lot of hard work. 2

T h e m o s t i m p o r t e d a n d the l eas t t r a n s l a t e d f a r c i c a l c h a r a c t e r is t h e j e s t e r A b u N a w a s . H e is t h o u g h t to h a v e b e e n a c o u r t p o e t in B a g h d a d i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y w h o s e w i t a n d i n g e n u i t y e n g e n d e r e d a cyc le o f s tor ies f a r b e y o n d his o w n r eg ion . N o t a l l o f his e s c a p a d e s a r e s u i t a b l e for c h i l d r e n ' s r e a d i n g , b u t his exp lo i t s n e e d t r a n s l a t i n g i n to Eng l i sh . L i k e o t h e r r o l l i c k s o m e p lo t s o f M a l a y f a r c i c a l ta les , t h e y s h o u l d n o t be ove r - l o o k e d for p u b l i c a t i o n . 3

' M a l a y l egends h a v e a n t e c e d e n t s as co lor fu l as t h e f i f t een th c e n t u r y

1 Winstedt, A History of Classical Malay Literature, op. cir., pp. 16-20. s Hall, Willis (1960). The Royal Astrologer; adventures of Father Mole-Cricket of Malayan

legend. London: Heinemann. First published in play form (1960) The Play of the Royal Astrologers. London: Heinemann Educational Books.

s Iskandar, N. St. (1971). Abu Nawas, 14th ed. Jakarta: P. N. Balai Pustaka. There is a manuscript commentary by R. O. Winstedt, Hikayat Abu Nawas, JSBRAS no. 81, March 1920, pp. 15-21.

M A L A Y F O L K L I T E R A T U R E 4 8 9

marketplace of Malacca. Part of the tapestry of pre-recorded history are legends of the glorious origins of the Malay sultans. As the power of the sultans grew, the court became the focal point for the society. Malay royalty was thought to have descended from Alexander the Great, the majestic conqueror of East and West. One of his descendants, through marriage to an Indian princess, was Raja Soran. He, like his great ancestor, got the idea of invading China.

R a j a Soran set out wi th a large fleet, bu t on reaching the Ma lay coast he was stop- ped by a s t rategy of the Chinese. They m e t h i m wi th boats filled wi th toothless old men a n d a cargo of rusty needles and old mango trees. T h e capta in told Ra j a Soran t ha t Ch ina was so far, far away t ha t in the course of thei r jou rney the seamen h a d grown old, the i ron bars h a d rusted into needles, a n d the seedlings h a d grown into mango trees. So it came abou t t h a t l~aja Soran gave up the idea of con- quer ing China . t

Ra j a Soran then invaded the undersea k ingdom where he mar r i ed a sea-nymph. W h e n he finally depar t ed for the upper land-world, he left instruct ions t ha t his three sons be sent to claim the i r r ightful her i tage in the l and kingdom. W h e n grown, the sons followed the i r fa ther ' s order. They rode th rough the sea on a whi te bull , equ ipped wi th magic swords and spears, bear ing royal regalia a n d a seal of state. Once on l and as they t ravel led th rough rice fields, the rice stalks t u rned to gold. W h e n they came to Sumat ra , they set up headquar te r s on M o u n t S iguntang M a h a m e r u , which became the Olympus of Ma lay royal traditions.2

The three sons never did find their father, but one of them became the first king of Palembang, center of the Srivijaya Empire (7th-13th century A.D.). From Sumatra succeeding kings made their way across the Straits to found the court at Malacca. Installations of Malay sultans today still carry the ritual from this ancient legend.

In Malay legends there are lands of enchantment, use of magic powers, brave heroes, and beautiful princesses. There are giants who thwart the brave, evil spirits who confront the good. There is even a magical transformation induced by charms. From the animism of the forests has emerged the ingredients of the fairy tale.

Near Malacca is a m o u n t a i n called G u n o n g Ledang, where there lives a Fairy Princess. She may appea r as a beautiful girl or as a n old hag. She is elusive and is no t affected by time. I n her ga rden the many-colored fruits a n d flowers l augh a n d speak, welcoming the visitor in Ma lay verses. T h e birds sing in h u m a n language, and the fish in the ponds sing as they swim. T h e r e is always a breeze which m a k e s

t This trick appears in the Sejarah Melayu, op. eit., p. 10. I t will be familiar to those who know ",he story of How the Tigers Invaded Borneo, in which the Mouse-deer passes off a porcupine's quill as the raja's whisker to the invading tigers, in Adele DeLeeuw (1961). Indonesian Legends and Folk Tales. New York: Nelson.

2 Zainal- 'Abidin bin Ahmad, op. tit., The Alexander-the-Great legend, pp. 77-80. A Sumatran version is given by Taufik Abdullah (1972). Modernization in the Minangkabau World, in Claire Holt (Ed.), Culture and Politics in Indonesia, pp. 1834. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

490 E. VAN NIEL

one feel as if he were floating in air. Clouds touch the mountain top, cascading almost within reach. The wind rustles through the bamboo trees, releasing melo- dies of longing to the vaporous air.

Not all is beautiful in this garden of many colors and many sounds. The few huts there are built from human bone, and their roofs are thatched with human hair. Though the intcriors are bright and clean, they appear to have no one living in them.

Of the few persons who have entered this fairy domain one was Tun Mamat, sent as a messenger by the Sultan of Malacca. The Sultan, disconsolate at the death of his consort, wished to marry again. He wished to marry a most extra- ordinary woman befitting his rank. Such a bride would be the Princess of Gunong Ledang.

When Tun Mamat came to the enchanted garden he met in one of the huts an old lady surrounded by four young girls. One agreed to take the Sultan's message to the Princess, and finally returned with her consent on these terms:

"If the King of Malacca wants me to be his consort, he must build for me a bridge of pure gold and another bridge of pure silver, to reach from his palace at Malacca to the top of the mountain and back again. He must also give me as marriage settlement seven trays of mosquito hearts, seven trays of flea hearts, a big jar full of palm juice~ a big cupful of the Sultan's own blood--and yet another big cupful of the blood of the Sultan's youngest son."

The Sultan responded that he could meet all the demands except that of the blood of his son. For that he had neither the courage nor the hardness of heart. And since that time no one has sought the hand of the Fairy Princess of Gunong Ledang. So she is still there. I

Folk-romances are a mixture of legends with local color, improvised by the story-teller. They have refreshing touches of realism which add a Malay dimension to transplanted conventional tales. It is not surprising that from the time of the classical Hikayat Nakhoda Muda that adven- tures of ship-captains are conspicuous in Malay folk tales. Often the trader encounters a land-based character, and from this meeting the plot develops, often with a twist of magic. The Nakhoda, or ship-captain, is not a heroic figure and is apt to set sail quickly when the odds are against him. "The Tale of Ra'unah and Nakhodah Ma'win" describes a dalliance which must have occurred frequently in trading centers.

A Nakhoda from Sumatra who had been up-country trading silks stopped at the river-mouth to take on fresh water before heading back to sea. While resting in the village he saw the beautiful Ra'unah, daughter of the chief. Though she was promised to another, he determined to win her love.

He contrived to give the girl a love philtre, which had been prepared from the red tears of the sea-woman, and persuaded her "to needle the way" for him. She concealed the philtre in the girl's rice. Once she had eaten it, Ra'unah became as possessed of as wild a love for the Nakhoda as he felt for her.

1 Zainal-'Abidin bin Ahmad, op. cit. The Legend of the Princess of Gunong Ledang, pp. 85-8. This legend has reappeared with a different climax in abbreviated form in a picture book. Chia Hearn Chek (1972). The Magic Princess. Illus. by Kwan Shan Mei. Singapore: Alpha Press.

M A L A Y F O L K L I T E l Z A T U R E 491

Now w h e n the Nakhoda hea rd t ha t the villagers p lo t ted to kill h im to avenge the j i l ted lover, he sailed away. R a ' u n a h th rew herse l f in to the sea after the wake of his ship. W h e n p reven ted from drowning herself, she grieved a n d sang of a wedding ceremony wi thou t a br ide and groom.

Now the Nakhoda never did re turn . A nd R a ' u n a h was wild wi th love and m a d wi th grief for six months . T h a t was when her fa ther mar r i ed her to another . T h a t cured her. 1

Malay manuscripts have been dispersed to world libraries. The largest collections are in Jakarta, Leiden, and London. A list is given in Malay Manuscripts, which was prepared by a Peace Corps Volunteer at the University of Malaya, 2 The earliest collection of manuscript writings is the Malay Annals (Sejarah Melayu), thought to have been written in present form about the sixteenth century. As it chronicles the genealogy of the sultans of Malacca it pictorializes the life of that feudal court.a The Annals contain many adventure stories waiting to be re-written for young readers. ~

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Straits and Malayan Branches) is studded with chronicles and folk lore. A subject index, Index Malay- siana, was prepared by two Malaysian librarians and may be obtained from the National Museum in Singapore. 5 Other English-language journals in which references on Malay literature appear are the Bibliography of Asian Studies and the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Monographs by nineteenth-century British civil admini- strators which contain many colorful anecdotes are being re-issued by the Oxford University Press's Historical Reprints Series.

Most of the current English-language publishing of Malay folk tales in Malaysia and Singapore is for the assured commercial market of school textbooks. Some international publishers have regional offices in South-east Asia which publish stories of varied quality. McGraw-Hill, Heinemann Educational Books, Longmans Malaysia, and Oxford University Press, in both Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, have catalogues worth checking. The Borneo Literature Bureau, Kuching, Sarawak, lists a wide range of stories of good quality in both English and Malay, but their emphasis is on tales of East Malaysia rather than the peninsular

1 Swettenham, Frank (1967). Stories and Sketches by Sir Frank Swettenham; selected and introduced by William R. Roff, pp. 14045. London: Oxford University Press.

z Joseph H. Howard (1966). Malay Manuscripts: a bibliographic guide. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Library.

a Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals (1970). Trans. by C. C. Brown. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.

4 Ann Parkinson (1959). Malayan Fables; retold from the Malay Annals, 3rd ed. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.

5 Index Malaysiana (1970). An index to the Journal of the Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Society and the Journal of the Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society, 1878-1963, by Lim Huek Tree and D. E. K. Wijasuriya. Kuala Lumpur : Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society.

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West Malaysia. The first appearance of the truly beautiful children's book in this part of the world is a new series of picture books, Folktales from the Orient, published by the Alpha Press in Singapore. 1

Though the publishing output of South-east Asia is small by international standards, the printers are zealous. Many local printer- publishers who formerly published some English titles are now con- centrating on a Malay-language output to meet the changing language emphasis in the schools. Other than school-related materials they may print re-written stories, often crudely illustrated, in pamphlet format. These sell in the marketplace or bookstall for about 20 U.S. cents.

The National Library in Kuala Lumpur is a repository for books published in Malaysia since the Preservation of Books Act in 1966. The government agency Which generates quality Malay-language publishing is the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Institute for Language and Litera- ture) in Kuala Lumpur. Its translation and editorial staff not only selects foreign titles for translation but publishes selected works of con- temporary Malay writers. Though its primary thrust is textbooks, it has published about fifty juvenile literature titles since its inception in 1959. Private publishers of Malay-language titles are Pustaka Nasional and Pustaka Pendidikan (Singapore); Angkatan Baru and Pustaka Antara (Kuala Lumpur) ; and United Book Co. and Sinaran (Penang).

Most of the authors of English-language books for children have written a decade ago. The two titles by Ann Parkinson are excellent in selection of stories but over-simplified in style. 2 Mubin Sheppard, who lives in Kuala Lumpur, has a fine style for young readers. In addition to this superior hero legend Hang Tuah he has collected stories from the Ma'yong dance drama and has written numerous monographs on Malay customs. 3

There are more oral narrators in the villages than have ever been tallied. They are aging without younger successors. One access to story- tellers in Pahang is Zakariah bin Hitam, of Kuantan. He has taped about 300 tales, and seven of his books have been published by the Dewan. In Kuala Lumpur, Azah Aziz, Datin Fatimah, and Abdul Samad Said are writing in Malay for children; in Johore, Matlob; in Penang, Mansor Sanusi; and in Singapore, Muhammad Ariff Ahmad.

Certainly those who are co-ordinating information on juvenile literature are several teachers and librarians. Mrs Molina Nijhar

1 Chia Hearn Chek, op. tit. Other titles in series : The Bird Hunter (Indonesian) ; The White Elephant (Burmese) ; and The Talking Parrot (Pakistani).

Parkinson, Ann. Malayan Fables, op. cit.; Ann and Cyril Parkinson (1964). Heroes of Malaya. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.

8 Sheppard, Mubin (1949). The Adventures of Hang Tuah. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press; (1960). The Magic Kite and Other Ma'yong Stories. Kuala Lumpur : Federal Publications.

MALAY FOLK LITERATURE 493

teaches school librarianship at the MARA Institute of Technology in Kuala Lumpur, and Martha Retnam, at the Teachers' Training Institute, Cheras, Selangor. Booklists are published from time to time in both the Singapore and Malaysian Library Journals. The Standing Committee on School Libraries of the Malaysian Library Association is preparing reading lists in both English and Malay.

I f there is a documentation center for children's literature in this region, it is the Children's Services of the National Library in Singapore. Mrs Vilasini Perumbulavil co-ordinates an active reading program for children, and her department maintains a resource collection of over a thousand juvenile titles with Asian settings which have been published in English. A Singapore-Malaysian Booklist for Children will appear in 1973. The National Book Development Council of Singapore promotes reading and the book industry. Its journal Singapore Book World was inaugurated in April 1970.

The three academic institutions in Malaysia are concerned with aspects of oral traditions. The Department of Malay Studies, University of Malaya, under the direction of Dr Taib Osman, collects oral nar- ratives in connection with its training and research programs. Amin Sweeney is a key person at the Universiti Kebangsaan, which is starting a Malay Language, Literature, and Culture Institute in June 1973. At Penang, the Universiti Sains Malaysia, in addition to offering Malay literature in its Humanities curricula, is researching oral traditions in the performing arts.

As a result of the 1972 U N E S C O Conference priorities have been set for a national project on the Bibliography of Malay Culture and for the establishment of a National Centre for the Collection of Oral Traditions. These are directions for a renaissance of Malay literature. Hopefully this will be reflected in literature for children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (GENERAL)

Henderson, Joseph L. (1964). Ancient myths and modern man. In Man and his Symbols (CarlJung, ed.) pp. 103-107. NewYork: Dell.

Howard, Joseph H. (1966). Malay Manuscripts: A Bibliographic Guide. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Library.

Huck Tee, Lim and Wijasuriya, D. E. K. (1970). Index Malaysiana: An Index to the: Journal of the Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Society and the Journal of the Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society, 1878-1963. Kuala Lumpur: Malayan Branch Royal Asiatic Society.

Kennedy, J. (1962). A History of Malaya A.D. 1400-1959. New York: St Martin's Press.

Maxwell, George (1911). In Malay Forests 2nd ed. Edinburgh: William Blackwood. Reprinted (1960) by Eastern Universities Press, Singapore.

494 E. VAN NIEL

Maxwell, W. E. ( 1881). Folklore of the Malays. Journal of the Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Society 7, 11-29.

Brown, C. C. (1970). Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals. An annotated translation. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.

Skeat, W. W. (1900). Malay Magic, being an introduction to the folklore and popular re- ligion oft he Malay Peninsula. London: Macmillan. Reprinted (1965) by Frank Cass, London.

Leach, Maria (ed.) (1950). Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend. 2 vols. New York: Funk and Wagnall.

Swettenham, Frank (1967). Stories and Sketches by Sir Frank Swettenham: selected and introduced by William R. Roff. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Kuala Lum- pur: Oxford University Press.

Taib Osman, M. (1961). An Introduction to the Development of Modern Malay Language and Literature. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.

Taib Osman, M. (1970). Myths, legends and folk-tales in Malay culture. The Ma- laysian Digest 31 March-14 April.

Taufik Abdullah (1972). Modernization in the Minangkabau world. In Culture and Politics in Indonesia (Claire Holt, ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

Thompson, Stith (1946). The Folktale. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. UNESCO (1972). International Meeting of Experts for the Launching of the Malay

Culture Project, 21-28 January 1972, Kuala Lumpur. SHC-72/CONF. 15/5. UNESCO : Paris.

Wilkinson, R.J. (1906). Malay Beliefs. The Peninsular MaIays L London: Luzac. Wilkinson, R.J . (1907). The literature of Malay folk-lore. In Papers on Malay Subjects.

Kuala Lumpur: Government Press. Winstedt, Richard O. (1920). Hikayat Abu Nawas. Journal of the Straits Branch Royal

Asiatic Society 81, 15-21. Winstedt, Richard O. (1920). The Indian origin of Malay folk-tales. Journal of the

Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Society 82, 119-126. Winstedt, Richard O. (1953). The Malays, A Cultural History. 3rd ed. London: Rout-

ledge and Kegan Paul. Winstedt, Richard O. (1961). A History of Classical Malay Literature. Reprinted from the

2nd ed. by Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Uni- versity Press.

Zainal 'Abidin bin Ahmad (1951). Some Malay legendary tales. Journal of the Ma- layan Branch Royal Asiatic Society 24, 77-89.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (FOLK TALES)

Bachaan Dewan (1970). Buku Tiga. Kuala Lurnpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Britton, Roy (1961). Abdul and the Pirates and other Plays for the Classroom. Singapore:

Eastern Universities Press. Chia Hearn Chek (1972). The Magic Princess (Illustrated by Kwan Shan Mei).

In Folktalesfrom the Orient. Singapore: Alpha Press. Courlander, Harold (1950). Kantchil's Lime Pit and Other Stories. New York: Harcourt. Courlander, Harold (1959). The Tiger's Whisker and Other Tales and Legends Jrom Asia

and the Pacific. New York: Harcourt. de Leeuw, Adele (1961). Indonesian Legends and Folk Tales. New York: Nelson.

Also published as Indonesian Fairy Tales (1966). London: F. Muller. de Vries, J. (I 964). Indische Volksverhalen. Utrecht: Prisma-boeken.

MALAY FOLK LITERATURE 495

Hall, Willis (1960). The Royal Astrologer: Adventures of Father Mole-Cricket of the Malayan Legends. (Illustrated by George W. Adamson) London: Heinemann. New York: Coward-McCann, 1962. Also published as The Play of the Royal Astrologers. London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1960.

Iskander, N. St. (1971). Abu Nawas. 14th ed.Jakarta: P. N. Balai Pustaka. Parkinson, Ann (1956). Malayan Fables: retold from the Malay Annals. (Illustrated by

S. L. Goh). Singapore: Eastern Universities Press. Parkinson, Ann and Parkinson, Cyril (1964). Heroes of Malaya. Singapore: Eastern

Universities Press. Sheppard, Mubin (1949). The Adventures of Hang Tuah. Singapore: Eastern Uni-

versities Press. Sheppard, Mubin (1960). The Magic Kite and other Ma'yong stories. Kuala Lumpur:

Federal Publications. Skeat, W. W. (1960). Fables and Folk Tales from an Eastern Forest. Singapore: Eastern

Universities Press. First published by Cambridge University Press, 1901.

Note: Eastern Universities Press titles are now distributed by United Publishers Ser- vices, P.O. Box 1742, Singapore.