HINARI Access to Research Initiative gateway (HINARI)

Authoring Skills ‘How to Write a Scientific Paper’– Structured Abstract, Keyword Exercises and Bibliographic Citations

Complete Assignment 1 & 2 using Appendix 1 (the text of five ‘Open Access Articles’ that are complete except for the abstracts, tables - space limitation - and references). Complete Assignments 3 using Appendix 2 (Bibliographic Data for Exercises).

Assignment 1. For two of the five articles in Appendix 1, write a >200 word ABSTRACT using the applicable components of a Structured Abstract:

OBJECTIVE: Envisioning the Research or Discussion QuestionConsider the overall purpose of the research or discussion. What is author(s) trying to learn or to demonstrate or discuss?

METHODS: Documenting the Research StepWhat does the author(s) wants to research or discuss, how the researcher has proceeded? The METHODS section should accurately, although concisely, summarize how the author will proceed in learning the answer the question(s) in the objective.

RESULTS: Reporting the ResearchWhat has the author(s) discovered. It will probably report that he or she only made a modest discovery or perhaps some unexpected results. The RESULTS should be as accurate as possible for the sake of those trying to understand your research method and results.

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS:The CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS should not introduce any information or ideas not already described elsewhere in your structured abstracts. Ideally, it should be limited in length, and can include an evaluation of your research and areas for further research.

For more information on Structured Abstracts, go to http://research.mlanet.org/structured_abstract.htmlNote: some Abstracts also include an introductory section titled BACKGROUND. It would contain a brief statement about previous studies and how this research fits into the body of literature.

Assignment 2. For two of the three articles not used for assignment #1, write 4-6 KEYWORDS.

Keywords are defined as:

significant words in the title, abstract or text of a work; some periodical indexes identify keywords in a separate data field, so that they can be searched without searching the full text of the document. Some indexes use such keywords in place of assigning standard subject headings to items. (http://www.amberton.edu/VL_terms.htm)

An important word in the abstract, title, subject heading, or text of an entry in an electronic database which can be used as a search term. (www.csuchico.edu/lins/chicorio/glossary.html)

Assignment 3: From the data in Appendix 2, use the Vancouver style to complete two bibliographic entries for:

I. Book citationsII. E-booksIII. Journal articlesIV. E-journalsV. Internet documents

Note: The source for the formats and sample citations is:

Murdoch University. How to Cite References/Vancouver Style [Document on the Internet]. Perth, Australia, The University; [updated 2008 February; cited 2008 Feb 26 ]. Available from: http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/find/citation/vancouver.html

For additional information, go to the website. Overview: A Reference List : What It Should Look LikeThe reference list should appear at the end of your paper. Begin the list on a new page. The title References should be either left justified or centered on the page. The entries should appear as one numerical sequence in the order that the material is cited in the text of your assignment. The hanging indent for each reference makes the numerical sequence more obvious.

1. Hoppert M. Microscopic techniques in biotechnology. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2003.2. Drummond PD. Triggers of motion sickness in migraine sufferers. Headache. 2005;45(6):653-6.3. Meltzer PS, Kallioniemi A, Trent JM. Chromosome alterations in human solid tumors. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, editors. The genetic basis of human cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 93-113.4. ..

I. Books: Standard format

#. Author/editor AA. Title: subtitle. Edition(if not the first). Vol.(if a multivolume work). Place of publication: Publisher; Year. p. page number(s) (if appropriate).

Books: Single author or editor 1. Hoppert M. Microscopic techniques in biotechnology. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2003.2. Storey KB, editor. Functional metabolism: regulation and adaptation. Hoboken (NJ): J. Wiley & Sons; 2004.

Two or more authors or editors 3. Lawhead JB, Baker MC. Introduction to veterinary science. Clifton Park (NY): Thomson Delmar Learning; 2005. 4. Gilstrap LC, Cunningham FG, Van Dorsten JP, editors. Operative obstetrics. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002.

No author 5. The Oxford concise medical dictionary. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2003. p. 26.

II. E-Books: Standard format

#. Author A, Author B. Title of e-book [format]. Place: Publisher; Date of original publication [cited year abbreviated month day]. Available from : Source. URL.

1. van Belle G, Fisher LD, Heagerty PJ, Lumley TS. Biostatistics: a methodology for the health sciences [e-book]. 2nd ed. Somerset (NJ): Wiley InterScience; 2003 [cited 2005 Jun 30]. Available from: Wiley InterScience electronic collection.2. Sommers-Flanagan J, Sommers-Flanagan R. Clinical interviewing [e-book]. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2003 [cited 2005 Jun 30]. Available from: NetLibrary.

III. Journal Articles: Standard format

#. Author of article AA, Author of article BB, Author of article CC. Title of article. Abbreviated Title of Journal. year; vol(issue):page number(s).

Journal article 1. Drummond PD. Triggers of motion sickness in migraine sufferers. Headache. 2005;45(6):653-6. 2. Halpern SD, Ubel PA, Caplan AL. Solid-organ transplantation in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(7):284-7.3. Geck MJ, Yoo S, Wang JC. Assessment of cervical ligamentous injury in trauma patients using MRI. J Spinal Disord. 2001;14(5):371-7.

More than six authors 4. Gillespie NC, Lewis RJ, Pearn JH, Bourke ATC, Holmes MJ, Bourke JB, et al. Ciguatera in Australia: occurrence, clinical features, pathophysiology and management. Med J Aust. 1986;145:584-90.

Organization as author 5. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Hypertension, insulin, and proinsulin in participants with impaired glucose tolerance. Hypertension. 2002;40(5):679-86.

No author given 6. 21st century heart solution may have a sting in the tail. BMJ. 2002;325(7537):184. Volume with supplement 7. Geraud G, Spierings EL, Keywood C. Tolerability and safety of frovatriptan with short- and long-term use for treatment of migraine and in comparison with sumatriptan. Headache. 2002;42 Suppl 2:S93-9.

IV. E-Journals: Standard format

#. Author A, Author B. Title of article. Abbreviated Title of Journal [format]. year [cited year abbreviated month day];vol(no):page numbers[estimated if necessary]. Available from: Database Name (if appropriate). URL.

Journal article from online full-text database1. Palsson G, Hardardottir KE. For whom the cell tolls: debates about biomedicine (1). Curr Anthropol [serial online]. 2002 [cited 2005 Jun 30]; 43(2):271+[about 31 pages]. Available from: Academic OneFile. http://find.galegroup.com.2. Allen C, Crake D, Wilson H, Buchholz A. Polycystic ovary syndrome and a low

glycemic index diet. Can J Diet Pract Res [serial online]. 2005 [cited 2005 Jun 30];Summer:3. Available from: ProQuest. http://il.proquest.com.

Journal article in a scholarly journal (published free of charge on the internet) 3. Eisen SA, Kang HK, Murphy FM , Blanchard MS, Reda DJ, Henderson WG, et al. Gulf War veterans' health: medical evaluation of a U.S. cohort? Ann Intern Med [serial on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2005 June 30];142(11):881+[about 12 pages]. Available from: http://www.annals.org/.

Journal article in electronic journal subscription 4. Barton CA, McKenzie DP, Walters EH, et al. Interactions between psychosocial problems and management of asthma: who is at risk of dying? J Asthma [serial on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2005 Jun 30];42(4):249-56. Available from: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/. V. Internet Documents: Standard format

#. Author A, Author B. Document title. Webpage name [format]. Source/production information; Date of internet publication [cited year month day]. Available from: URL.

Professional Internet site 1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Chronic diseases and associated risk factors [document on the Internet]. Canberra: The Institute; 2004 [updated 2005 June 23; cited 2005 Jun 30]. Available from: http://www.aihw.gov.au/cdarf/index.cfm.

Personal Internet site 2. Stanley F. Information page - Professor Fiona Stanley. Telethon Institute for Child Health Research [homepage on the Internet]. Perth: The Institute; 2005 [cited 2005 Jun 30]. Available from: http://www.ichr.uwa.edu.au/about/schools.

General Internet site 3. Lavelle P. Mental state of the nation. Health matters [document on the Internet]. ABC online; 2005 May 19 [cited 2005 Jul 1]. Available from: http://abc.net.au/health/features/mentalstate/.

Appendix 1: Open Access Articles

1. Progress Toward Introduction of Haemophilus influenzae type b Vaccine in Low-Income Countries --- Worldwide, 2004—2007 MMWR February 15, 2008 57(06): 148-51

Progress in Hib Vaccine Introduction Countries apply to GAVI to request support for introduction of a vaccine. The application includes a financial plan, a vaccine introduction plan, and a 5-year national vaccine strategy. Applications are reviewed approximately four times per year by an independent committee, whose recommendations are later endorsed by the GAVI board. In 2004, 13 of 75 countries eligible for GAVI support for Hib vaccine were using the vaccine. By the end of 2007, 24 of 72 eligible countries were using Hib vaccine. During 2007, 23 additional countries were approved for GAVI support to introduce the vaccine (Table). The pace of vaccine introduction has varied by region. As of December 31, 2007, approximately 80% of GAVI-eligible countries in the WHO regions of Africa (30 of 36 countries) and the Americas (five of six) had introduced or been approved to introduce Hib vaccine. In addition, four of six countries in the Eastern Mediterranean region, four of seven countries in the Western Pacific region, and one of nine countries in the South-East Asia region had introduced or had been approved to introduce Hib vaccine. Among the eight countries of the European region, one country had introduced and two had applied to introduce Hib vaccine.

Recent Worldwide Increase in Hib Vaccine Access

The estimated total number of children worldwide who received the third dose of Hib vaccine increased from 8% of the world's birth cohort in 1999 to 22% in 2006.¶ In 2007, 17% (14 million) of the GAVI-eligible countries' birth cohort of approximately 79 million children was in countries that were using Hib vaccine, compared with 8.5% (6.8 million) of the birth cohort in 2004 (Figure).** Among the GAVI-eligible countries that had not yet applied for Hib vaccine, three (India, Nigeria, and Indonesia) constituted 34%, 8%, and 6%, respectively, of the birth cohort in GAVI-eligible countries. Indonesia has indicated intent to introduce Hib vaccine in 2009; Nigeria and India have not made a decision (Table). Reported by: GAVI Secretariat, Geneva; Dept of Immunization, Vaccines, and Biologicals, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. The Hib Initiative, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland. UNICEF, New York. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, England. Global Immunization Div; Div of Bacterial Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, CDC.

Editorial Note:This report indicates that the number of GAVI-eligible countries that have introduced Hib vaccine has accelerated during the past 2 years. Two primary factors have contributed to this increase. First, in November 2006, WHO revised its position statement on Hib vaccine to make a stronger and clearer recommendation that Hib vaccine be included in routine vaccination programs in all countries (1). Second, the worldwide Hib vaccine supply increased with introduction of a second Hib pentavalent vaccine in 2006, alleviating certain concerns about vaccine shortages. Because GAVI must negotiate prices with vaccine manufacturers and determine the cost at which to provide vaccines to countries, vaccine price is a major barrier to vaccine introduction. The price likely will decrease with upcoming Hib vaccine products, creating a competitive vaccine market. In certain countries, certain vaccines are available on the private market, and persons can pay for the vaccine themselves or using private insurance. However, government-funded vaccine programs help ensure availability for those who cannot pay. The WHO-UNICEF Global Immunization Vision and Strategy focuses on helping countries develop the capacity to make informed, sustainable decisions regarding vaccine introduction (2). Using this approach, the Hib Initiative conducts country visits and regional forums to assess barriers to decision making regarding Hib vaccine and to increase awareness of existing data on Hib disease and the potential impact of Hib vaccination. In addition, because limited Hib disease data have been a barrier to vaccine introduction in certain countries, the Hib Initiative developed a targeted research and surveillance agenda focused on collecting data needed to inform vaccine policy (e.g., data regarding Hib disease burden, the effect of Hib vaccine on disease in specific regions and populations [e.g., among HIV-positive children], booster doses, and cost-effectiveness). In 2008, more countries are expected to begin using Hib vaccine. Countries have historically introduced vaccines 6--18 months after GAVI approval; of the 23 countries that are approved by GAVI to introduce Hib vaccine (20 in 2007 and three in 2005--2006), all are expected to introduce the vaccine during 2008. Vaccine introduction in these countries would increase the number of children with access to the vaccine to 35 million (44% of the GAVI-eligible countries' birth cohort). In addition, six countries that applied in 2007 must resubmit their application in 2008, and at least eight additional applications are expected. Several steps are required for additional progress in Hib vaccine introduction and to sustain the gains achieved. First, coordination, education, and financial support to make evidence-informed decisions are required to help countries that have not yet decided to introduce Hib vaccine, particularly for GAVI-eligible countries with large birth cohorts such as India and Nigeria. GAVI's Hib Initiative is investing in a comprehensive strategy in India to raise awareness of Hib vaccine and assist with data interpretation. Second, strong disease surveillance systems are needed to continue to document vaccine effects on disease epidemiology. Several countries with active surveillance have demonstrated high vaccine effectiveness and reduced disease burden after vaccine introduction (3--5). Third, to achieve additional reductions in morbidity and mortality from Hib disease, routine infant vaccination coverage must be high, particularly among vulnerable populations. One study estimated that the use of Hib vaccine reduced mortality for children aged <5 years by 4% in the 42 countries where 90% of pediatric deaths occurred worldwide in 2000 (6). However, increasing routine infant vaccination coverage requires strengthening of health systems and substantial commitment from countries and donors. Fourth, the current disparity in the use of Hib vaccine between lower income and higher income countries in the world should be addressed. Twenty-one of 41 (51%) lower middle-income (but not GAVI-eligible) countries, 32 of 37 (86%) upper middle-income countries, and 36 of 39 (92%) high-income countries are using Hib vaccine.†† This disparity can be addressed through development of new financing strategies or other strategies. The success with Hib vaccine introduction suggests that strategies used to accelerate introduction of underused vaccines in developing countries have been effective. With the availability of new vaccines such as rotavirus and pneumococcal vaccines, the approach used for Hib vaccine introduction provides a useful model to increase use of other vaccines.

2. Rudatsikira E, Siziya S, Dondog J, Muula AS. Prevalence and correlates of environmental tobacco smoke exposure among adolescents in Mongolia. Indian J Pediatr 2007;74:1089-93

BACKGROUND

Tobacco is the single most common cause of preventable cancers, hypertension and chronic obstructive airways diseases[1]. Environmental tobacco smoke is associated with similar adverse effects experienced by active smokers. Adolescents suffer from the consequences of ETS such as asthma, dermatitis, limited exercise capacity, absence from school due to illness and chronic cough.[2],[3],[4] Gonzalez Barcala et al have reported that young children and adolescents exposed to ETS had reduced forced expiratory capacity compared to children not exposed to ETS [5]. Eisner et al have reported that lifetime exposure to ETS is associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults.[6] There is therefore, interest in the estimation of the prevalence and predictors of ETS exposure among adolescents. The Global Youth Tobacco Collaborative project has conducted most of the studies aimed to assess the prevalence of tobacco use among school-going adolescents globally.[7],[8],[9] Prevalence estimates of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in several countries among the GYTS study participants have been reported before by the Global Tobacco Surveillance Collaborative Group (GTSS).[10] However, we are unaware of any studies that have assessed predictors of ETS among adolescents in Mongolia.

In the present study we report the prevalence of ETS exposure and predictors of exposure among school going adolescents in Mongolia. We used the 2003 Global Youth Tobacco Survey data.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThis was a cross sectional study conducted among 13-15 yr old school-going adolescents in Mongolia in 2003. All students in the eligible classes were invited to participate regardless of their actual ages. A two-stage clustered sampling approach was used in which the primary sampling units were schools. In the second stage, eligible classes within the school were randomly selected. All students within the selected schools were eligible to participate in the study.

Study participants self-completed a modified GYTS questionnaire according to the procedures of the GYTS.[11] The GYTS questionnaire comprises some standardized core questions. Country teams may also include a limited number of questions to collect information that may be specific to their area. Completion of the questionnaire is estimated to take about 40 minutes. The following questions were asked to collect information on parental smoking and exposure to ETS: Do your parents smoke? Do any of your closest friends smoke cigarettes? During the past 7 days, on how many days have people smoked in your home, in your presence? During the past 7 days on how many days have people smoked in your presence, in places other than in your home?

Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Ministry of Education. Eligible students were informed that they were free not to participate. Questionnaires were filled in anonymously.

Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants Of the 4105 adolescents who participated in the Mongolian GYTS in 2003, 3507 were nonsmokers. [Table - 1] presents selected demographic characteristics of the 3507 nonsmoker Mongolian adolescents. Most of the sample (median age: 14 yr) was either female (58.2%), 14 yr old (30.3%), with a smoking father (48.0%), and with nonsmoking friends (52.5%).

Prevalence and predictors of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke[Table - 2] indicates that the prevalence of ETS exposure was similar at home for both males and females (62.3% and 62.0% respectively), but males had a higher prevalence of exposure to ETS outside of the home than females (50.7% and 42.4% respectively (p <0.001). The prevalence of ETS exposure increased with age (p-trend < 0.05).

[Table - 3] indicates that exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) among nonsmokers was strongly associated with having a parent smoker. For subjects whose both the parents smoked, we found more than nine times the odds of ETS exposure among females (OR=9.64; 95% CI [5.12, 18.25]), and more 3 times the odds of ETS exposure among males (OR=3.20; 95% CI [1.79, 5.72]. Having some smoking friends was associated with more than two times the odds of ETS exposure. The odds of ETS exposure increased with age (p-trend <0.001). Females aged 15 yr of age had a 61% increase in the odds of ETS exposure compared to those who were 11-12 yr old. Among males, those who were 16 year of age or older had 91% increase in the odds of ETS exposure compared to 11-12 year old boys. There was a positive correlation between the prevalence of active and passive smoking (r=0.9; p<0.05).DiscussionThe present study found 73.9% prevalence of ETS among males and 71.7% among adolescent females in Mongolia. The small non-statistically different prevalence between males and females was largely contributed by difference in out-of-home exposures where males had significantly higher exposure than females. This could be explained by socio-cultural situations where males may be more likely to spend time than females outside of the home in places where smoking is likely to occur.

Li and Wang have reported that among adolescents in Taiwan, females were more likely to purposively avoid exposure to

ETS than males.[12] Negative attitudes towards smoking by females were thought to have contributed toward such behavior. We do not know to what extent and in what situations adolescents may purposively avoid being exposed to ETS.

Preston et al have reported that exposure to ETS by an adolescent depends on the identity of smoker and the relationship to the adolescent, age of the adolescent and parental smoking.[13] For instance young children are likely to be exposed to ETS at home and maternal smoking is an important risk factor. Older children may be exposed to ETS at home as well as smoking occurring at school, including among teachers, and elsewhere.[14],[15],[16]

We also found that increasing age was associated with higher likelihood of being exposed to environmental tobacco smoke in both males and females. This situation could occur as a result of older children having greater opportunity to be outside home but in places where smoking is likely to occur.

The present study had several limitations. Firstly we did not assess biomarkers of tobacco smoke exposure such as cotinine levels in study participants who reported exposure to ETS. As the study participants were asked to report exposure in the past 7 day exposure this would have been possible to detect in urine.[17],[18] Other samples such as hair, toe and finger nails could be used to validate reports of long term exposure.[19],[20],[21],[22] However, the present study used a standardized questionnaire that enables within country and cross-country comparisons of ETS exposure. Secondly, the sample was recruited from school-going adolescents and therefore may not be representative of all adolescents in the study area. Also data were collected from students who were available in school on the day of the survey. No attempt was made to have questionnaire completed by students who were absent. Finally, this was a self-completed questionnaire. There is therefore a potential for mis-reporting by study participants.

CONCLUSIONSThe adverse effects of environmental tobacco smoking among adolescents have been described earlier.[23],[24],[25],[26] Public health interventions aimed to limit ETS exposure among adolescents should consider both the home and the out of home environment. Knowledge about who the smoker is, the relationship with the adolescents, where and when smoking occurs, are likely to facilitate planning and delivery of effective ETS prevention programs.

Acknowledgements The GYTS is a collaborative project of WHO/CDC/participating countries. Analyses of GYTS data are not necessarily endorsed by the WHO/CDC/participating countries. We are thankful to the study participants and research assistants.

3. A cross-sectional study of intestinal parasitic infections in a rural district of west ChinaNing Tang, BSc MPH and Nian Ji Luo, HCCan J Infect Dis 2003 May-Jun; 14(3) 159-162© 2003, Pulsus Group Inc. All rights reserved

BACKGROUNDThe mortality and health problems parasitic diseases cause retard social and economic development in low-income countries (1). Parasitic diseases are also of concern in developed countries because of travel, immigration and an increasing population of immunocompromised people (2,3). Previous studies have reported a high prevalence of intestinal parasites in rural China (4,5), reaching 62.6% (95% CI 17.5% to 94.7%) in some areas (4). Trends observed have included a decrease in Entamoeba histolytica, Fasciolopsis buski and soil-transmitted helminths, and an increase in food-transmitted parasitic diseases including trichinosis, Clonorchiasis, oriental lung fluke, cysticercosis, and hydatidosis (4). The present study describes the prevalence and characteristics of parasitic infestation in a rural district of western China, including our experience with a simple stool collection tool.

METHODSStudy populationBeibei district has a population of 400,000 people, with one large urban area. For the present study, four rural quadrants were designated by East, West, South, and North coordinates, each including residents of different economic levels (high, intermediate and low). In each of the five areas (four rural and one urban), 500 to 550 people were randomly sampled. The total population that was approached to participate included 2644 people.Ethics approval was obtained from town governments and the Beibei health bureau before the survey. All participants in the sample were assured of confidentiality, and advised that their participation was voluntary and that specimens would not be linked to individual identifiers. Each participant completed a short questionnaire that collected information including their residential area, sex, age, occupation and educational level. This information was linked by study number to the stool specimen and used only for analysis in the present study.

Laboratory methodsEach participant was provided with a standard fecal collection bag labelled with the participant's code and containing a dry plastic bag and a bamboo spike. Approximately 10 g of each participant's stool were collected and delivered to the laboratory within one day of collection. About 100 mg were filtered for the parasitological evaluation and 5 to 10 mg were smeared for direct microscopic detection. All samples were processed using five standard stool examination methods: iodine-stained smear for protozoal intestinal cysts, modified Kato-Katz thick smear (a semi-quantitative stool examination technique for detection of helminthic ova) (6,7), simple saline smear for intestinal protozoa trophozoites, a test tube filter paper culture method for detection of hookworm larvae (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus), and adhesive cellophane tape anal swab method for Enterobius vermicularis in children aged less than 12 years old. Stool specimens were initially read by two separate examiners, and reviewed by a third examiner if there was disagreement.Statistical analysisStandard statistical methods for categorical data were used. The significance level was P<0.05, and the calculation of 95% CIs followed standard methods.

RESULTSFecal specimens were provided by 2558 of the 2648 participants (96.6%). Parasites were identified in 1323 of these 2558 samples (51.7%, 95% CI 35.02% to 68.42%). There were 934 subjects with only one parasite (36.5%), 311 with two (12.2%), 76 with three (3.0%) and two with four (0.08%) (Tables 1A and 1B). The most common parasites were Ascaris lumbricoides, followed by hookworm (A duodenale or N Americanus) and Trichurias trichuria (Tables 1A and 1B). The prevalence of parasites was higher in residents of the four rural communities (421 of 506 subjects [83.2%], 280 of 510 subjects [54.9%], 194 of 515 subjects [37.7%] and 288 of 514 subjects [56%]) than in the urban residents (140 of 513 subjects [27.3%]) (P<0.01). Parasites were also significantly more frequent in women (976 of 1349 [72.4%]) than in men (813 of 1209 [67.3%]) (P<0.05). When stratified by type of parasite, this sex variation was consistent only for Ascaris species. The highest rates were observed in persons aged 15 to 19 years, and more than 80 years (P<0.01). Prevalence rates in preschool and primary school groups were higher than in other educational groups, although T trichuria was less common in preschool children than in primary school students (4.41% versus 8.9%) (P<0.01). There were also significant differences in the prevalence rates among geographic and income groups (P<0.01). Ancylostoma species and whipworm were identified significantly less often in labourers, officers, students and children than in farmers (P<0.01) (Table 2). Ancylostoma species and T trichuria were more common in people, usually farmers who lived in hilly terrains (371 of 1535 [24.2%] and 177 of 1535 [11.5%] respectively) than in people from mountainous areas (79 of 510 subjects [15.5%] and 21 of 510 subjects [4.1%] respectively) or urban plains (three of 513 [0.6%] and 13 of 513 [2.5%], respectively) (P<0.01).DISCUSSIONEnteric parasites are common in this rural district of China. About one-half of the population had positive stool specimens, although the majority had only a single parasite identified. Ascaris species, Ancylostoma species and whipworm were the most common organisms. This is consistent with previous reports from rural China (4,5) and other developing countries (8-10). Most infections are asymptomatic, but roundworm infection may cause intestinal and respiratory symptoms, and is a cause of protein-energy malnutrition in undernourished children. Hookworm infection can cause anemia and hypoproteinemia (8). Multiple parasite infestations may not be independent because physiological, immunological or ecological factors that favour parasite infection may be specific to an individual (11).The prevalence rate in females was significantly higher than in males. Sex-specific differences have been suggested to be due to differences in parasite susceptibility between the sexes (12), perhaps due to the influence of sex hormones (13). Some parasitologists suggest that susceptibility to parasitic infections is greater in males and may contribute to male-biased mortality (14). The present study, however, found a higher prevalence of parasitic infestation in women. The infection rate of female foreign workers in northern Taiwan was also reported to be 3-fold higher than that of males (15). A major contributor to parasitic diseases in the developing world is inadequate water and sanitation. Obtaining water for houshold use in most rural areas is done by women, and women spend more time actually working in the water, washing clothes and cooking. This increases exposure to waterborne diseases and may explain the increased prevalence observed in women (16).Two species, roundworm and hookworm, were detected in all age groups. However, the infection rates did not correlate with increased age - rates were highest in the groups aged 15 to 19 years and over 80 years, and lowest in the groups aged 30 to 39 years and 70 to 79 years. Children may have higher rates of infection because of greater exposure, while the elderly may have greater rates of infection because of an age-associated decline in their immune systems (17). The prevalence of infection is higher and occurs at a younger age when the transmission rate is high. When the transmission rate is low, the peak prevalence is lower and occurs at an older age - a 'peak shift' (18). Our observations would be consistent with a lower rate of transmission. The prevalence of infestations in farmers was 8.3-fold higher than in all other occupational groups. Traditional life and farm labour practices, including irrigation and inappropriate fecal disposal, increase parasitic infectious risk in rural areas (19). The infection rate for farmers living in hilly terrains was higher than in mountainous areas. Disposal of human excreta is inadequate in some rural areas. In hilly land, sewage flows or leaks more easily to wells. Water drains more rapidly in

mountainous areas, perhaps reducing infection rates. A recent World Health Organization report estimates that over 700 million Chinese people drink water contaminated with levels of animal and human waste exceeding government standards for safe water (28). The rates we observed were lower with increased education levels, similar to observations from Shanghai, China (21), although not all reports have confirmed this (10). The infectious rates were not, however, significantly associated with income.Direct microscopy is widely used for the diagnosis of parasitic infections. Serial simple stool examinations may be a suitable method to detect pathogenic intestinal parasites. Only single samples were obtained for the present study, which may have underestimated the infection rates. Other, more sensitive and rapid techniques, such as polymerase chain reation (22), latex agglutination tests (23), serologic and intradermal tests (24), antigen detection tests and parasitic test kits (25,26) were not used. Though the direct microscopy approach needs experienced microscopists and is labour intensive and time consuming for accurate diagnosis, the procedure is relatively cheap and applicable for the diagnosis of parasitic infections in developing countries.In 1990, major parasitic diseases were estimated to account for 11.7% of the disease burden from communicable diseases. In many nations, parasitic infections are the most frequent causes of disease attributed to contaminated drinking water. Parasitic cysts are resistant to chlorination and require water filtration for removal, and the number of cysts required for infection may be very small (27). Thus, preventing drinking water contamination at the source is important in limiting transmission of these parasites (28). Improving private wells, based on national or provincial drinking water standards, and establishing safe public drinking water systems in rural areas may decrease parasitic density. Appropriate health education and management, and the improvement of toilets and stool disposal or personal hygiene, are also important to control parasitic infestations.

CONCLUSIONSThe present study reports a high prevalence of enteric parasites in one area of West China. The study demonstrates the usefulness of fecal examinations in developing countries, particularly in rural areas, because these examinations are easily performed at a low cost. Monitoring the prevalence of enteric parasites may be useful in assessing the effectiveness of public health interventions, particularly improvement in drinking water quality.Mr Nian Ji Luo was responsible for the detection of parasites and for administration of the study.  AcknowledgmentsThe cross-sectional study was kindly supported by grants from Beibei Health and Anti-epidemic Station (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beibei, Chongqing, China) and made possible through the cooperation of doctors and nurses in the town hospitals.

4. How can developing countries harness biotechnology to improve health?Abdallah, S Daar, Kathryn Berndtson, Deepa L. Persad, Peter A SingerBMC Public Health 2007; 7:346 Published online 2007 December 3. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-7-346.© 2007 Daar et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

BACKGROUNDGenomics and biotechnology hold great potential to fight diseases that disproportionately affect the world's poorest people. However, the benefits of biotechnology, driven by market incentives of the industrialized world, have accrued primarily to rich countries, with billions in the developing world largely excluded from these advances. Developing nations are now taking steps to build long-term plans to benefit from biotechnology innovation [1]. In Africa, the African Union Commission President developed a High-Level Panel on Modern Biotechnology to "generate a critical mass of technological expertise in targeted areas that offer high growth potential" from biotechnology and "harness biotechnology in order to develop Africa's rich biodiversity...improv [e] agricultural productivity and [develop] pharmaceutical products [2]." In January 2007, the African Ministerial Council on Science and Technology received the Panel report and committed themselves to a "20 year African Biotechnology Strategy" to promote that vision. The Federation of Asian Biotech Associations offers another Southern-based example of "collaboration between industry and academia" that seeks to "boost investment in biotechnology, international trade in biotechnology products, and outsourcing of services [3]." The need for developing countries to develop and benefit from biotechnology is clear – as a discussion paper from the World Bank's recent Global Forum on Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) states, there is no longer a question of whether countries should build science and technology capacity that promotes biotechnology innovation, "but what type of capacity to build, given their economic constraints, and how best to implement these capacity building action plans [4]."

Driven by a mission to harness the advances of innovative technology for global health equity, the McLaughlin-Rotman Centre for Global Health (MRC), formerly the Canadian Program on Genomics and Global Health, sought to ask how developing countries can best harness health biotechnology to improve health in their regions. We define'genomics' as the powerful new wave of health-related life sciences (biotechnologies) energized by the Human Genome Project and the knowledge and tools it is spawning (including proteomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, etc). Our operational definition encompasses the ethical, legal, social and cultural dimensions of developing the science and technologies and taking them to where they were needed: from the lab to the village, as it were. In this paper we use the terms 'biotechnology' and 'genomics' interchangeably. We first explored ways to harness biotechnology to improve the health in the developing world in 2001, followed by a study that identified the top ten biotechnologies for improving health in developing countries in 2002 [5,6]. Between 2002 and 2004, the MRCGH planned, developed, and executed five Executive Courses on Genomics and Public Health Policy in five regions in the developing world. In this endeavor we collaborated with local experts and institutions to bring together 232 developing world experts and key stakeholders from multiple sectors to determine the best way to harness genomics and health biotechnology to improve the health of people in the developing world. Previous recommendations on how to bring the benefits of biotechnology to the poor have not focused on generating broadly applicable guidelines for improving health, but rather on enhancing particular technologies, such as agricultural biotech [7,8] and nanotechnology [9], or providing action steps for particular nations [10] or stakeholders (e.g. civil society or research institutes) involved in promoting biotechnology [11]. Moreover, rather than employing wide-spread consultation with developing world experts to generate recommendations, existing proposals have come from small-scale workshops without a developing world focus [12,13], forums emphasizing development as opposed to health, or publications by lone developing world voices [9]. To our knowledge, never before has such a large, multi-sectoral, Southern-based group of experts been consulted on these issues. This paper offers a cross-comparison of their recommendations. The similitude of these independently generated recommendations supports their robustness as answers to the five courses' overarching question: how can the developing world best harness genomics and biotechnology to improve health?

DISCUSSIONExecutive Courses on Genomics and Public PolicyThe Executive Courses on Genomics and Public Health Policy took place between 2002 and 2004 for experts in five regions of the developing world: Nairobi, Kenya with the African Centre for Technology Studies for the African continent; Kerala, India with Indian Council of Medical Research for the Indian subcontinent; Muscat, Oman with the World Health Organization's Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean region (EMRO); Caracas, Venezuela with the United Nations University's Biotechnology for Latin America and the Caribbean (BIOLAC) and the Pan American Health Organization for Latin America and the Caribbean; and Hong Kong SAR China with the University of Hong Kong for the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia region.The 232 participants from 58 countries (see Figure 1) were chosen based on contacts identified through our previous work related to this area including recommendations from field experts leading to a subsequent snowball effect. Thorough in-depth literature review and internet-based searches were also conducted to select and validate our participant choices. The participants were carefully selected to represent a wide range of interests relevant to biotechnology, with special consideration given to appropriately balancing geographical, gender and discipline/specialty distribution. The sectors represented included:government representatives, health ministry officials,- regulatory officials, legal experts,- scientists from academic institutions and industry, including the director of a national institute of genomics in the developing world, and a member of the research team that in 1997 cloned Dolly the sheep, the first animal ever cloned from an adult mammalian cell,- industry executives, biotechnology company representatives,- members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and media.The executive courses had three goals:1. To familiarize the participants with the current status and implications of health genomics and biotechnology, and to provide information relevant to public policy-making in these fields.2. To provide frameworks for analyzing and debating the policy issues and related ethical questions in health genomics and biotechnology, and to help people to understand, anticipate and influence the legal and regulatory frameworks under which health biotechnology industries will operate, both nationally and internationally.3. To begin developing a leaders' network reaching across different sectors (including industry, academic, government and NGOs) by sharing perspectives and building relationships.The courses, each lasting four, intensive, interactive days, consisted of a series of presentations, primarily delivered by local experts, and discussions led by stakeholders from different countries and sectors, allowing for the opportunity to express different viewpoints They provided opportunities to share information about the research, ethics, social context, infrastructure, media relations, business development, and regulations affecting the development of biotechnology, and gave the participants background information. However, the main question, 'how best to harness biotechnology to improve

global health,' and the regional recommendations were developed in small and large group discussions of the participants. Topics included scientific advances in biotechnology, innovations in business models, public sector perspectives, ethics, legal issues, and national innovation systems. This information is critical for developing countries if they are to absorb and control research information and public policy issues affecting major technological breakthroughs in the life sciences and public health.Participants drove the process of identifying and collecting these recommendations. Participants constructed the recommendations by:1. pre-drafting recommendations based on presentations;2. deleting any recommendations which the group did not support;3. adding missing recommendations;4. sharpening recommendation language; and5. attaining general or widespread agreement among participants.Participants received evaluation forms at the end of each course. The general consensus reflected success in terms of achieving the goals and objectives of the Courses, with satisfaction ratings by the participants ranging from 86%-96%. The first three courses have been published individually without a synthesis of the recommendations as a whole [14-16]. This paper, however, compares and analyzes recommendations from all five courses.Recommendations from the Course ParticipantsIn each course, working groups were asked for advice on developing genomics/biotechnology in the region to improve public health as outlined above. One of the products from each course was a set of recommendations on how best to harness biotechnology to address local health needs within their region. The recommendations are intended for use by policy-makers, industry leaders, scientists, health care providers, NGOs, and funding agencies. We applied these categories retrospectively to the Courses after developing them in consultation with developing world key informants in 2006. We compared and analyzed the Courses' recommendations and synthesized them into four categories as presented below: 1) science, 2) finance, 3) ethics, society, and culture, and 4) politics. These categories, while not completely mutually exclusive, help to present the recommendations of the 5 groups.ScienceWithin the recommendations related to science, participants focused on the potential of inter-sectoral, regional, and international collaboration to build capacity, the need for surveys of current capacity, and the importance of looking to successful models elsewhere. Participants specifically called for collaboration and capacity-building as methods to improve science education and establish regional and international networks – these networks possess the much needed capacity to increase dialogue between biotechnology developers and end-users. India's lack of emphasis on regional collaboration is likely linked to the fact that it was the only Course whose participants all came from one nation. Africa and Latin America, whose biotechnology capacities are comparatively less developed, both encouraged their regions to look to successful models of biotechnology innovation elsewhere ([17] see Table 1).

FinanceKey issues that arose regarding finance included regulatory systems, intellectual property rights, and private sector collaboration. Participants stressed the need to harness the power of biotechnology not only for health, but also for economic development. Several regions stressed the need to identify appropriate entry points for biotechnology products and exploit domestic and regional markets [6]. India's lack of emphasis on product entry may be due to the fact that its private sector's affordable pharmaceuticals have already emerged competitively in domestic and global markets ([18] see Table 2).

Ethics, Society and CultureCourses commenting on ESC issues called for public engagement programs that would inform and educate their populations on biotechnology developments. Another common theme included the need for capacity to address ethical issues including legal, social, and environmental concerns. Participants also underscored themes of accessibility and equity in terms of disseminating biotechnology innovations (see Table 3).

Political recommendations from participants highlighted political leadership as a core factor in promoting biotechnology research and development in their regions. Many participants stressed the need for national strategy and public policy on genomics and biotechnology. African participants recommended using the established New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) as an entry point onto the continent's political agenda. Several regions also stressed the need for government support in funding and developing biotechnology (see Table 4).

SummaryAlthough the recommendations from the five courses display nuances linked to regional differences in biotechnology capacity and development, financial conditions, political frameworks, and population needs, fundamental lessons emerge from their insights. These lessons reinforce the results of another study rooted in developing world expert insights that

highlighted the same four key forces: science; finance; ethics, society, and culture; and politics. The similitude of the Courses' recommendations, despite their independent generation in five different regions by over 200 participants, affirms the robustness of our answer to how genomics and biotechnology can best serve the health of the world's poorest people. Below is a summary of their recommendations based on those groupings (see Table 5).

Already, the courses have spurred development of biotechnology capacity in the developing world. Beyond the generation of recommendations, the Courses produced a network for future collaboration. For example, an Indian participant invited to speak at the EMRO Course explained that although the Course occurred amidst Indian-Pakistani tensions, his presentation received a "warm response" from Pakistani delegates that led not only to the bulk transfer of the hepatitis B vaccines from India to Pakistan, but also the technology transfer that facilitated their manufacture in Pakistan [19]. "Every small cooperation matters," he said. "Science does not have borders." Beyond this example of collaboration, the EMRO Ministers of Health adopted the recommendations from that meeting and in the Latin America and Caribbean region, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) followed up with discussions of the recommendations from that event. The Courses have also stimulated international academic exchange – both bringing participants to Canadian institutions as well as funding graduate study abroad. Following the courses, both participants and the MRCGH staff have played advisory roles for one another in subsequent research projects.We recognize that the structure of the Courses limits the rigor of the processes which generated these recommendations – although participants reached consensus through discussion, there was no formal consensus process. The Courses are rooted in opinions rather than economic or scientific analysis. Theoretically, had the Courses involved a different set of participants, the results might have differed. However, compared to the alternative of conducting surveys with 232 respondents from 58 countries, we feel the courses generated a more sustained engagement with participants.This study serves to offer a taxonomy of potential actions for harnessing biotechnology to improve health; however, some countries are already attempting to deal with the challenges listed above. Ongoing studies at our Centre indicate that the Brazilian government has been trying to stimulate interactions between the public and private sector, specifically through the creation of an innovation law meant to facilitate interactions between academia and industry – due to this intervention, more and more private companies are tapping into services within universities for research and product development. With regard to the challenge of intellectual property management, a recent report from Médecins sans Frontières calls for developing countries to look to the success of Brazil and Thailand in issuing compulsory licenses [20].These recommendations will be useful to all those interested in supporting science, technology, and innovation to improve health in the developing world – both for industrialized nations interested in supporting knowledge-based approaches to science and developing nations looking to foster biotechnology innovation. Across the sectors of academia, government, industry, and civil society, scientists, policymakers, regulators, venture capital firms, industry representatives, and donor communities will benefit from the applications of these insights.Biotechnology can act both as a catalyst to foster overall development of science and technology as well as the development of practical solutions to local health needs. These recommendations align holistically and act as forces that will affect the development and adoption of health biotechnology in the developing world [21]. Applying these recommendations broadly across sectors and regions will empower developing countries themselves to harness the benefits of biotechnology and genomics for billions who have long been excluded.Authors' contributionsASD and PAS designed and participated in all of the courses in addition to participating in the writing of this paper. DLP led in the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia Course and did the initial analysis of the recommendations. KB analyzed the recommendations and drafted the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to acknowledge our colleagues who led the individual Courses: Tara Acharya, Nandini Kumar, Mohammed Abdur Rab, Fabio Salamanca-Buentello, Deepa L. Persad, Alyna Smith, and John Mugabe. Funding for the Executive Courses came from Genome Canada, through the Ontario Genomics Institute, Canada's International Development Research Centre, and the Ontario Research Fund. In the case of the Eastern Mediterranean Region, partial funding came from the WHO EMRO office. The Norwegian government provided some funding for the African Course

5. Developing countries and neglected diseases: challenges and perspectivesAbdesslam Boutayeb1

Int J Equity Health. 2007; 6: 20. Published online 2007 November 26. doi: 10.1186/1475-9276-6-20.© 2007 Boutayeb; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.1UFR Modelling and Data Analysis, Faculty of Sciences-University Mohamed Ier, Oujda, MoroccoThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

IntroductionAt the dawn of the third millennium, while human rights and health equity are on all international agendas, millions of forgotten people are suffering from a dozen of neglected diseases (NDs). According to The World Health Organization (WHO), NDs are hidden diseases as they affect almost exclusively extremely poor populations living in remote areas beyond the reach of health services [1]. The European Parliament recognised that "to our shame, Neglected Diseases have not received the attention they deserve from EU actions" [2]. Focusing on the "big killers" like HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and other initiatives have generally given very little attention to the most neglected diseases, often mentioned just as "other disease" (Table 1)[3]. Criticizing the "inertia" and the delay taken in the response to the infectious diseases, the humanitarian organization Médecins sans Frontière (MSF) has been continuously attracting the international attention to stimulate more interest in the development and provision of treatments for the most neglected diseases [4]. Meanwhile, beyond mortality figures, NDs continue to cause severe and permanent disabilities and deformities affecting more than a billion people in the world and breeding millions of disability adjusted life years (DALYs) and important economic losses. Indeed, lymphatic filariasis(LF), leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, Buruli ulcer, cholera, cysticercosis, dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease), foodborne trematode infections, hydatidosis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis (ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm diseases), trachoma, trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), onchocerciasis, Chagas disease, dengue and others [Additional file 1] are responsible for impaired childhood growth, mental retardation, blindness, amputation and diverse disability conditions and hence they are impeding human development of many countries of Africa and Latin America (Tables 2 and 3)[1,5-8]. The situation being commonly admitted, it remains that urgent and efficient strategies are needed at local, national and international levels in order to reduce the growing burden of these diseases of the poor.

Neglected diseases afflicting marginalised populations: Challenges and perspectivesNeglected Diseases are given low priority because they have low mortality, they occur almost exclusively in poor developing countries and essentially, because they offer negligible marketable and profitable issues. As stressed by the European Parliament Report in 2005, "No research is currently being carried out into the most neglected diseases which mainly affect developing countries...there is a chronic shortage of investment in research and development in poverty-related diseases and in the developing countries themselves to obtain medicines which meet the needs of those countries" [2].For the pharmaceutical industry, which carries out the main research and development for new drugs, it is too costly and risky to invest in drugs for neglected diseases occurring essentially in low-income countries where public spending on drugs is less than US$6 (sub-Saharan Africa) compared to around US$ 240 spent in countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) [9]. It is estimated that, less than 10% of the world's biomedical research funds are dedicated to problems dealing with 90% of the world's burden of disease and, of all drugs in development for all neglected diseases in 1999–2000, 18 R&D projects were clinical development, compared to 2100 compounds for all other diseases [1,2]. Between 1975 and 2004, among the 1556 new molecules of drugs marketed in the world, only 21 were intended for the neglected diseases (8 for malaria, 3 for tuberculosis and only 10 for the whole set of most neglected diseases)[4]. Another study found that, of the 1393 new chemical entities marketed between 1975 and 1999, only 16 were for tropical diseases and tuberculosis, yielding a 13-fold greater chance for a drug to be marketed for central-nervous-system disorders or cancer than for a neglected disease (Table 4) [9].Despite the dilemma created by the pharmaceutical industry (treatment-profit), the responsibility is shared by other decision makers. At the global level, international solidarity and public-private partnerships are needed to tackle the problems of shortage and lack of treatments, resistance and the need for new drugs and vaccines. More initiatives are needed to support the projects already launched such as Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI), The Human Hookworm Vaccine initiative (HHVI), the Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), the Drug for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi), The USAID funded program on integrated control of seven of the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases (trachoma, hookworm, ascariasis, trichuriasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis and lymphatic filariasis) and others [1,2,10-12].However, this international strategy is insufficient without the national and local implication. National health decision makers, non governmental organizations (NGOs), research institutions, community groups and individuals must adhere to these global initiatives. Many countries, being heavily indebted, affect less than 1% of the national global budget to health, and few governments are putting science, technology, and innovation at the centre of their strategies and, in the meantime, war and conflicts are financed at the expense of health services. For instance, in 1999, the governments of sub-Saharan Africa dedicated US$7 billion to military spending, whereas, diverting just 15% of this would have raised more than one US$ billion, enough to treat millions of patients affected by neglected diseases[13,14]. It is also worth stressing that, in the absence of reporting and surveillance, the available statistics on the burden of NDs are sometimes very different as indicated in Tables 2 and 3.To overcome this odd situation and in order to reduce the burden of neglected diseases afflicting mainly poor populations of developing countries, pragmatic and efficient strategies are urgently needed. Beside large campaigns for education and sensitisation, measures may include advance purchase commitments, tax credits, fee waivers, partial transfer of patent

rights, innovation prizes, technology transfer, health innovation and various incentives for investment. These would promote development of drugs and vaccines for neglected diseases by enhancing collaboration with the pharmaceutical industry of developed countries and encouraging research and development for drugs in developing countries [1-5,10-15].

ConclusionIn many developing countries, millions of people live with less than one dollar a day and on fragile and often remote rural ecosystems, most of them lack access to basic health services and safe drinking water and sanitation (vectors that transmit NDs thrive on these ideal conditions). Trapped in the vicious circle of underdevelopment-poverty-health inequity, these populations constitute exhausted "preys" for "predators" such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and a multitude of the so-called neglected diseases. The growing attention given to the "Big Three Killers" should not shadow the suffering that neglected diseases are causing to millions of people who can afford, at best, archaic drugs, some of which are toxic, ineffective or difficult to administer.In the era of science and high technology, while regular meetings are held worldwide to discuss human rights and various forms, causes and consequences of health inequities, it is a shame that poor populations living in developing countries are denied access to adequate and affordable treatment against NDs. Urgent actions are needed to develop new drugs and vaccines that are efficient and accessible. A big challenge is addressed to national and international decision makers but it is worth trying.An Overview of Neglected Diseases Impact. Neglected diseases such as lymphatic filariasis, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, Buruli ulcer, dengue and others are responsible for impaired childhood growth, mental retardation, blindness, amputation and diverse disability conditions. A brief overview of these diseases and their impact is given in this file.

Acknowledgements:The author is very grateful to the Editor-in-Chief and the Editorial board of IJEqH for granting a waiver of the article-processing charge for this paper. The author wishes also to thank Mrs Saidi Fatima Zohra for the English checking of the last version. Dedication:This paper is dedicated to the African children who are suffering from neglected diseases and deprived of adequate treatment.

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