major world crop areas and climatic profiles

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employment opportunity employer..

,c , '""

rII

Major World Crop Areas and Climatic Profiles. World Agricultural Outlook Board, U.S.Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Handbook No. 664.

i Abstra(:t

This reference provides a framework for assessing the weather's impact on world cropproduction by providing benchmark climate and crop data for key producing regions andcountries. For each area, maps define the zones of concentration for major crops, and, temperature and precipitation by month at representative locations. Tables report historicalaverages of crop area, yield, and production. Coverage includes major agricultural regionsand crops of coarse grains, winter and spring wheat, rice, major oilseeds, sugar, and cotton.World maps show the normal developmental stage of regional crops by month.

Keywords: barley, climate, com, cotton, crop area, crop production, crop yield, El Nino,freeze dates, harvest, monsoon, oilseeds, planting, precipitation, rice, soybeans, Soviet Union,sugarcane, sugarbeets, temperature, wheat.I

Acknowledglments

This revision updates a handbook originally published in September 1981 and first revisedSeptember 1987. It was prepared by the staff of the Joint Agricultural Weather Facility ofthe World Agricultural Outlook Board, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S.Department of Commerce. Robert Stefanski, Mark Brusberg, Thomas Puterbaugh, BrianMorris, and Raymond Motha prepared this report under the supervision of Gerald A. Bange,Acting Chairperson of the World Agricultural Outlook Board. Agricultural data wereprovided by analysts from USDA's Foreign Agricultural Service, Production Estimates andCrop Assessment Division; Economic Research Service, and National Agricultural StatisticsService (NASS). Slayton and Associates, the Embassy of Sweden, and SIGMA (Paris,~ France) also provided help in obtaining information utilized in this report.

Washington, DC 20250-3800 Revised September 1994

1

JI'li l" c'! ; ,

Ij

Contents

Index of Crop Maps. viii

Introduction. 1

World Crop Calendars. 4

Metric Conversion Units and Climate Station Key. 16

World Climates. 17

Region A: United StatesLandforms 18Climate 19Climate stations. 20Climate stations (cont'd.) 21Average dates of last spring freeze. 22Averagedatesofflfstautumnfreeze 23Hard and soft red winter wheat 24White winter wheat and winter wheat statistics. 25Other spring wheat (excluding durum) 26Durum spring wheat and total wheat statistics. 27Com. 28Sorghum 29Barley (spring sown) 30Oats 31Rice. 32Soybeans 33Groundnuts(Peanuts) 34Sunflowerseed 35Cotton 36Sugarcane ..'.".'...""..'.""".' '.'..' ' 37Sugarbeets 38Oranges. 39

Region B: CanadaLandformsandclimate 40Climate stations 41

PrairiesAverage freeze dates 42Spring wheat 43Durum wheat. 44Barley 45Canola 46

~ ii

I,

r

I; Ontario and Quebec

Average freeze dates 47~ Winter wheat 48~ Com and soybeans. 49

I Region C: Mexico

!~ Statenamesandlandforms 50;I~ Climate. 51i, Com. 52I' Wheat 53

Sorghum 54Sugarcane. 55Coffee 56Oranges. 57Vegetable crops for export 58

~

Region D: CubaI i Landformsandclimate 59lJ Sugarcane 60

..,

Region E: Argentina, Chile, and ParaguayProvincial names and landforms 61Climate 62South America: Average freeze dates. 63

ArgentinaCom. 64Wheat 65Sorghum 66Soybeans. 67Sunflowerseed 68Cotton 69Sugarcane. 70Citrus 71

ParaguaySoybeans 72Cotton 73

Region F: BrazilLandforms 74Climate 75Climate stations 76Com. 77Wheat 78Rice. 79Soybeans 80Cotton 81Sugarcane 82Cocoa 83

iii

Coffee 84Oranges. 85

Region G: Europe ,Political boundaries and leading producers. 86Major landforms 87Generalclimatefeatures 88Averagelengthofgrowingseason 89Average freeze dates 90Northwestern Europe: Climate 91Northeastern Europe: Climate. 92Southern Europe: Climate. 93

BulgariaCorn and wheat. 94

Former CzechoslovakiaCropstatistics 95

DenmarkBarley, rapeseed, and wheat 96

FinlandCropstatistics 97

FranceWheat 98Corn. 99Barley 100Rapeseed. 101Sunflowerseed 102

G~:;:~;ets 103 ~

IWheat 104 .Winter and spring barley 105 .Rye 106Rapeseed 107

G~::::beets 108 \

Cotton. 109 I

Hungary1

Corn. 110Sunflowerseed and wheat. 111 1

ItalyWheat 112Corn 113Barley 114Rice 115Soybeans 116Sunflowerseed 117

PolandWheat 118Rye. 119

IV.

I

fI Oats 120Rapeseed. 121l Sugarbeets 122

~ Romania

Com. 123~ Wheat 124

t SpainBarleyandwheat 125

ICom and sunflowerseed 126

~ Cotton and rice. 127I

SwedenCrop areas and barley 128Oats and winter wheat 129.Rapeseed

and rye 130~ United Kingdom,

Wheat 131~ Barley 132,

Rapeseed 133~ Sugarbeets 134

Former Yugoslaviat Com and wheat 135t

.Region H: Former Soviet UnionLandforms 136Annual rainfall 137I Climatestations 138,

Winter wheat 139,

Springwheat 140Spring barley 141

I Rye 142Oats 143Com for grain 144.Sunflowerseed

145~ Sugarbeets 146.CropstatisticsforRussianFederation 147

Crop statistics for Ukraine 148, Crop statistics for Kazakhstan 149.,

Region I: Former Soviet Union (Central Asia), Landformsandclimatestations 150Cotton 151

r Former Soviet Union: Area, yield, and production of cotton for selected countries. .152

JI

Region J: Middle East and EgyptI Landforms 153I Climatestations 154

v

r

I

IJ

Winter wheat 155 jCotton 156

J

Region K: China ~Landforms 157Climate 158 J

Climatestations 159 IAverage freeze dates 160Single-croprice 161Double-croprice 162 iWheat 163Com 164Soybeans 165Groundnuts 166Rapeseed 167Cotton 168Sugarcane. 169Sugarbeets 170

Region L: South AsiaLandformsandclimate 171Climatestations 172Rice 173

BangladeshRice 174

IndiaKharif rice. 175Rabirice 176Winter wheat. 177Sorghum 178Millet 179Com 180Groundnuts 181Soybeans 182Rapeseed 183Cotton 184Sugarcane. 185

PakistanWinter wheat 186Rice 187Cotton 188Sugarcane. 189

Region M: Southeast AsiaLandformsandclimate 190Climatestations 191Indochina: Rice 192

VI.

';.1;'it '[

Burma (Myanmar), Regional rice statistics. 193

~ ThailandMain and second-crop rice. 194

~) Corn. 195

~ Sugarcane. 196

t VietnamRice. 197

~ Ricestatisticsbycrop 198

~ Region N: PhilippinesLandforms and historical cyclone tracks. 199

I Climate stations. 200

~ Rice. 201Corn. 202

I Sugarcane. 203I:

~ Region 0: Indonesia and Malaysia~ Landformsandclimate 204

Rice. 205t Indonesia

I Corn. 206

.Region P: Japan and South Korea

I Landformsandclimate 207

, Climate stations 208

, Japan

I Rice. 209

South Korea.Rice 210

Region Q: Northwestern AfricaLandformsandclimatestations 211

.Winter wheat 212Barley 213

.Region R: South Africa~ Landformsandclimatestations 214~ Corn 215

Winter wheat 216~) Sugarcane 217

,~ Region S: Australia~ Landformsandclimate 218

Climate stations. 219I Winter wheat 220

.Winter barley 221f Cotton, sorghum, and sugarcane. 222

\ vii

~.~ -

,~

Appendix I: Climate station location and normal climate data. 223 1Append~x ll: EI Nino:. Background, Mechanisms, and Im~acts 247 ~Appendix ill: The indian Monsoon and Its Impact on Agnculture 253 ~Appendix IV: The Geography, Climate and Soils of the Former Soviet Union. 260 '

~

.

.~

Index of Crop Maps (

J

Barley j

United States (Spring) 30 ICanada, Prairies. 45Denmark. 96France 100 IGermany (Winter, Spring) 105Italy. 114Spain. 125Sweden 128United Kingdom. 132FormerSovietUnion(Spring) 141NorthwestemAfrica 213Australia (Winter) 221

Citrus and OrangesUnited States 39Mexico 57Argentina. 71Brazil 85

CocoaBrazil 83

CoffeeMexico 56Brazil 84

CornUnited States 28Ontario and Quebec. 49Mexico 52Argentina. 64Brazil 77Bulgaria 94France. 99

VIII.

Hungary. 110Italy. ; 113

~ Romania. 123~ Spain. : 126.Former YugoslavIa 135t Former Soviet Union. 144I

China 164India 180

~ Thailand. 195.Philippines.

202, Indonesia. 206South Africa 215.

~ Cotton, United States 36I Argentina. 69.Paraguay.

73J BTazil 81

Greece. 109Spain. 127South Central Former Soviet Union 151Middle East and Egypt. 156China 168India 184Pakistan 188Australia. 222

Groundnuts (peanuts)United States 34China. 166India 181

MilletIndia. 179

OatsUnited States 31Poland 120Sweden. 129FormerSovietUnion 143

Rapeseed and canolaCanada, Prairies. 46Denmark. 96France. 101Germany. 107Poland. 121Sweden 130

IXI

I

1J

j

United Kingdom 133China 167 )

India 183 :~

Rice ~

United States 32 IBrazil 79 jItaly 115S .jpain 127China (Single-crop) 161 ~China (Double-crop) 162 ISouthAsia 173Bangladesh. 174India (Kharif) 175 ~India (Rabi) 176Pakistan 187 1

Indochina. 192Burma (Myanmar) 193 IThailand 194 1Vietnam 197Phil' .j

Ippmes 201Indonesia and Malaysia. 205 '

Japan. 209SouthKorea 210

RyeGermany. '. 106Poland 119Sweden 130Former Soviet Union. 142

SorghumUnited States 29Mexico. 54Argentina. 66India 178Australia 222

SoybeansUnited States 33Ontario and Quebec. 49Argentina 67Paraguay 72Brazil 80Italy 116China 165India 182

x

I

I

SugarbeetsUnited States 38

~ France 103Germany. 108".

Poland 122~ United Kingdom. 134

.FormerSovietUnion 146China 170,

~ Sugarcane~ United States 37

Mexico 55.Cuba. 60

~ Argentina 70~ Brazil 82,

China 169~ India 185

Pakistan 189Thailand ., 196Philippines. 203South Africa 217Australia 222

SunOowerseedUnited States 35Argentina 68France. 102Hungary. 111Italy 117Spain. 126FormerSovietUnion 145

VegetablesMexico 58

WheatUnited States (Hard red winter) 24United States (Soft red winter) 24UnitedStates(Whitewinter) 25United States (Spring) 26United States (Durum) ,., ""."..., , ,. 27Canada, Prairies (Spring) 43Canada, Prairies (Durum) 44Ontario and Quebec (Winter) 48Mexico 53Argentina 65Brazil 78Bulgaria 94

Xl

I

'I!'o_--

~Denmark. 96 1France 98Germany. 104Hungary. 111Italy 112Poland 118Romania. 124Spain. 125Sweden (Winter) 129United Kingdom. 131Former Yugoslavia 135Former Soviet Union (Winter) 139Former Soviet Union (Spring) 140Middle East and Egypt (Winter) 155China. 163India (Winter) 177Pakistan (Winter) 186Northwestern Africa (Winter) 212South Africa (Winter) 216Australia (Winter) 220

XlI

~IIIIII .~IIIIIIII'I-. --~~~J _.~

Major World Crop Areasand Climatic Profiles

Joint Agricultural Weather Facility

Introduction climate and agricultural production regime. Thefinal product depended upon data availability

Weather is one of the most important factors and resource constraints.

affecting the variability of agricultural produc-tion. This handbook presents climatological Using the Handbook

data, agricultural statistics, and crop calendarinformation in widely ranging crop areas. It The first section of this bulletin includes aserves as a reference for evaluating the effect of world crop calendar--12 world maps that depictweather on world crop production. For each of the normal monthly phase of crop developmentthe world's major crop growing areas, the report for selected regional crops.describes average (normal) weather patterns andhistorical crop area, yield, and production The main section concentrates on importanttrends. It also highlights unique landforms and crop-producing regions. Some of these regionsclimatic features important to the region. are introduced with special maps noting

landforms, river systems, and specific climaticThe present handbook is the second revision of features which often dictate the crop domain.

the original, which was published in 1981. Thefirst revision was issued in 1987. Country and A crop area map identifies the major productioncrop coverage are greatly expanded from the zones within the country. Where possible,1987 edition and information is organized by percentages of crop production by state, county,country rather than by crop. New articles pro- or other political divisions within the countryvide insight into the EI Nino phenomenon, the are presented. Several meteorological stationsIndian monsoon, and the climate and agriculture are identified in each crop area. These stationsof the former Soviet Union. typify the climate within the area, and were

chosen on the basis of long-term historicalThe handbook was produced by the Joint Agri- records and reliability of current daily observa-cultural Weather Facility (JAWF), which is tions most readily available to the JAWF.

jointly operated by the World Agricultural Out-look Board of the U.S. Department of Agricul- Monthly climatological information for theture (USDA) and the National Oceanic and stations are graphically portrayed to illustrateAtmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the normal precipitation and temperature conditionsU.S. Department of Commerce. The Production during the crop cycle. These data are based onEstimates and Crop Assessment Division of long-teml averages. Bar charts represent aver-USDA's Foreign Agricultural Service cooperat- age monthly precipitation in millimeters anded extensively with JA WF, providing crop sta- line graphs indicate mean monthly temperaturestistics and sharing expert knowledge of growing in Celsius plotted at mid-month. An example isareas. A major effort was undertaken by JAWF shown in the box on page 16. The reader mayto present a complete profile of each country's compare current conditions to these climatic

1

~

~

norms. Likely impacts of any weather anoma- Union, presenting the crop diversity and weather ~lies on crop growth and vigor can be assessed variability of the region.based on known crop-weather relationships. 4Monthly precipitation and temperature data for USDA Weather Monitoring Activities .all stations are presented in tabular format inappendix I. These statistics are meant to The JAWF, located in Washington, D.C., moni- f

provide a historical benchmark for comparison. tors daily global world weather events and as- .sesses the likely impact of weather on crop I

The source of JA WF's climate data is the World conditions and development. This requiresMeteorological Organization's (WMO's) global knowledge of the cumulative departures from ~

data base, accessed daily from the NOAA's normal in the weather during the current grow- jNational Weather Service (NWS). ing season and long-term patterns of historical

crop production, like those published in thisHistorical crop statistics are given for the coun- handbook. Relationships among weather pa-try as a whole, and generally include at least 10 rameters, stages of crop development, technolo-years of data on area, yield, and production, if gy developments, and yield trends are alsoavailable. This information can be used to essential for analytical interpretation.evaluate trends in the data series and to analyze ~

the impact of weather on crop yields during the Assessments of world crop conditions are pub- 1reporting period. These country-level statistics lished in the Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin, ~were extracted from the official USDA data jointly issued by USDA and by NOAA. Thebase maintained by the Foreign Agricultural JA WF also supports preparation of the monthlyService. Regional breakouts (provincial, state, World Agricultural Supply and Demand Esti-etc.) were compiled from unofficial data and mates published by the World Agriculturalmay not add up to the official USDA national Outlook Board in cooperation with severaltotals. Production units are expressed in metric USDA agencies. For more information abouttons unless otherwise stated. A table on page JA WF activities call (202) 720-9807.16 provides factors for converting metric unitinto U.S. measures. Obtaining Crop-Weather Publications

and Production DataA crop calendar indicates the normal growthcycle. Usual planting and harvesting periods Additional copies of this handbook can be pur-are shown, and in some cases, other important chased from the ERS-NASS order desk. Callgrowth periods are identified. Crop calendar 1-800-999-6779 toll free in the United Statesdata were assembled from many sources and and Canada. The cost at time of publicationoften cover broad regions. Hence, they are was $20.00 per copy, and should be verified.general in nature and require careful interpreta- Add 25 percent for non-U.S. addresses. Pur-tion. chases can be charged or paid with a check or

purchase order in U.S. funds, payable to ERS-Three articles are presented in the appendices. NASS. Send your order to ERS-NASS, 341The first provides insight into the El Nino phe- Victory Drive, Herndon, VA 22070. Thenomenon, which has gained substantial notoriety World Agricultural Supply and Demandfor affecting global weather. The second covers Estimates report also is available from thisthe Indian monsoon, which governs the success source.or failure of agricultural productivity on theIndian subcontinent. The third reviews the The Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin is avail-climate and agriculture of the former Soviet able by subscription from the NOAA/USDA

2

I

,

Joint Agricultural Weather Facility, Room 5844 Additional SourcesSouth Building, USDA, Washington, D.C.

~ 20250. Phone (202) 720-7917 for subscription In addition to sources cited above, the followinginformation. publications were used to prepare this hand-

.book.Historical commodity supply and use data are

,. available in easy-to-use electronic formats from Agroclimatic Atlas of Canada. Agro-I the ERS-NASS order desk noted above. For meteorology Research and Service Section,

J example, national and state-level production, Chemistry and Biology Research Institute, Re-

acreage, and yield data back to 1975 for major search Branch, Agriculture Canada, 1977.U.S. field crops are available on disk inspreadsheet format (order "Crops By State," Climatology of North Pacific Tropical Cyclonestock no. 92111). Tracks. Miller, et al, Naval Environmental

I Prediction Research Facility, Technical Report-Foreign production, supply, acreage, and use are TR 88-10, November 1988.

available for 190 countries and regions as partof "PS&D View," a user-friendly software and 1992-1993 Annual Report. South African Sugar

I I database package (order stock no. 93002). Association Experiment Station..: "World Agriculture Trends and Indicators"1 provides annual data for 160 countries for Volkart Cotton Maps. Volkart Worldwide,I"I!I' 1961-69, grouped by region. Many other data revised 1988....,'I' titles for U.S. and international agricultural"'m subjects are available. Contact ERS-NASS for World Climates. Willy Rudloff,

ordering information and the Economic Re,. Wissenschaftliche Vevlagsgesellschaft-Stuttgart,search Service Information Services Division, 1981.(202) 219-0012, for technical questions.

World Survey of Climatology. H.E. Landsberg,Editor in Chief, Elsevier Scientific PublishingCompany, 1977.

r

3

ji,

.January normal crop calendarSummer crops ,,

4EuropeSugarbeets: Harvesting (Spain) .Citrus: Harvesting (Mediterranean)

I

I

.

.~

I~~ti! ...~~~ .

,I

Australia )'Cotton & Sorghum: 4

Vegetative~

So etative ~

Winter crops

EuropeGrains: Dormant (North);

Semi-Dormant (Spain)

1: n China

Grains:

NorthwestMexico VegWheat: Vegetative ~

Vegetables: Harvesting01 ~

f'(i;"':'~.d''~ .

1

~

ArgentinaWheat: Harvesting \/ ~

* Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY

1

4r

.February normal crop calendarSummer crops

~

~

,Europe

.Cotton:Citrus:

.-

,r Mexico~ Sugarcane: Harvesting

l Citrus & Coffee: Harvesting.

r Cotton: Maturing~ : Podding~ Southern Africa Awtralia

Corn: Silking * to Filling Cotton & Sorghum: ,)Argentina Reproductive *

Corn: FillingCotton: Filling to MaturingSo beans: Flowerin *

Winter crops

EuropeGrains: Dormant (North);

Greening (South)

China

Q

Mexico ~Wheat: Heading * 1"<)

Vegetables: Harvesting ~ tv~ -~.d'

-,.' ~

~,)* Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development


5.

14

March normal crop calendar ;Summer crops

~1

1Europe ,Small Grains: PlantingSugarbeets: Planting jCorn: Planting (Italy)Citrus: Harvesting (Mediterranean)

Cotton: Planting.Harvesting ~

1

Mexico t AfriSugarcane: Harvesting arse GCoffee & Citrus: Harvesting Planti

EaatAfricaBrazil Grain (~inor): H~rvesting jSoybe 8elg (minor) Grain:

Planting (Ethiopia)Cotto Maize, Sorghum: Planting

(Kenya, Ethiopia) (

Argentina. Cotton: FillingCorn: Maturing Southern AfricaCotton: Harvesting Corn: Filling to jSoybeans: Podding * Maturing

Winter crops

Former Soviet UnionGrains: Dormant (North);

Greening (South)

-Middle East &0 EgyptWheat: Heading *

(South)

~Mexico South Asia I ~Wheat: Filling Wheat: Maturing ~fi! ~~~

~!?~ d


JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

6I

~

April normal crop calendarSummer crops

~

E Fonner Soviet Union

.CanadaSuropeb t . PI t' Small Grains: Planting (West);

.ugar ee s. an Ing Pre-Planting (East)Small Graln~ & Rapeseed: Corn: Planting (France, Hungary)

Pre-Planting Small Grains: Planting (Scandinavia) Corn, Sunflowers, .&.Cotton: Planting (Greece) Sugarbeets: ~Iantlng (South~

Cotton: Planting (Central Asia)

.United Statu

Corn, Small Grains, & Cotton:Planting

Maico West AfricaCitrus & Sugarcane: .'.Harvesting Coarse Grain, Rice.

L Planting (Coast)Cocoa: Flowering'

) Brazil

Cotton & Soybeans:Harvesting.Awtralia

.Cotton & Sorghum:Argentina Maturin to Harvesting

Corn & Cotton: Harvesting

Soybeans: Maturing

Winter crops

Fonner Soviet UnionGrains: Greening (North);

Vegetative (South)

~

Maico I~Wheat & vegetables: ~

.Harvesting South Asia. r ~~.".I Wheat: Harvesting ' ~

~ ~~ \)

~

~ , Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA),

~ 7.

I,

I

4

May normal crop calendarSummer crops

~

Canada Europe Fonl1er Soviet Union ~

Small Grains & Rapeseed: Corn: Planting Corn, Sunflowers, &

Planting Sunflowers: Planting Sugarbeets: PlantingSugarbeets: Planting (Germany) Small Grains: Vegetative (West);

Planting (East)Cotton: Planting (Central Asia)

ChinaCorn, Cotton, &

Soybeans: PlantingEarly Rice: Heading *

Single Rice: Planting

M " \?.exlCO "I ~ j

Sorghum & Corn: Planting East Africa

Citrus & Sugarcane: Planting Maize, Sorghu'!1: ~Ianting Southea&t Asia(Kenya, Ethiopia) Rice & Corn: Planting

Grains: Planting (Sudan)Brazil Small Grains: Planting 1

Citrus & Sugarcane: Harvesting (Ethiopia), 8elg (minor) Grain:

Cotton & Soybeans: Harvesting R d t' * (Eth " ')epro uc Ive lopla

Argentina -AustraliaC S b & South Africa

orn, oy eans, "Cotton & Sorghum: HarvestingCotton: Harvesting Corn: Harvesting

Winter crops

EuropeGrains:Heading (France, Romania) *;

Maturing (Spain)Rapeseed:Flowering (England, Poland) *

Middle East &- EgyptWheat: Heading *

(North) to

Harvesting (South)

Planting

)1* Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA) ~-

8.

~

June normal crop calendar~ Summer crops

~ E Fonner Soviet UnionuropeC da C S'lk ' (S th) -Corn, Sunflowers, &ana orn: ling ou "

Small G-ains & Ra peseed' ., Sugarbeets, VegetativeI 'Small Grains: Heading -"-Vegetative Small Grains: Heading (West) ;

'- Corn: Planting Vegetative (East)

Cotton: Vegetative (Central Asia)~

~ China

United States Corn, Soybeans, &

Corn, Cotton, & Sorghum: Cotton: Flowering-I

Vegetative West Early Rice: Maturing

Soybeans: Planting Coar Single Rice: Vegetative, Small Grains: Heading -Q

South Asia'Mexico

Grain, Cotton, &

Sorghum & Corn: Planting Oilseed: Planting..

: Citrus & Sugarcane: Harvesting

~ &at Africa, Maize, Sorghum: Reproductive-

~ (Kenya, Ethiopia)Brazil Grains: Planting (Sudan)

r Citrus, Coffee, & Small Grains: Planting (Ethiopia) Cotton & .Sugarcane: Harvesting 6elg (minor) Grains: Sorghum: Harvestln

t Reproductive- (Ethiopia),

ArgentinaCotton &,

Soybeans: Harvesting

Winter crops

EuropeGrains: Heading (Poland) -;

Maturing (France, Hungary);

Harvesting (Mediterranean)

United States

Grains: Maturing toHarvesting

orthMexico rains

Wheat: Harvesting

ing t

AustraliaSouthern Africa Wheat: Planting J1'?

Grains: Planting \J §

-Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development


9

J

JJ Diy normal crop calendar ~

Summer crops ~

Canada I

Small Grains: Heading' Europe Former Soviet Union ~

Rapeseed: Flow,ering' Corn: Silking (France, Hungary) .Corn: Silking' -Corn: Ve etatlve Sunflowers: Blooming' Sunflowers: Blooming'

Small Grains: Maturing Small Grains: Filling (West) ';Heading (East)Cotton: Flowering (Central Asia) .

United States 4

Small Grains: jMaturing China

Corn: Silking' Corn: Silking'Soybeans: Flowering' Soybeans: Podding'Sorghum: Heading' .Cotton: Flowering'Cotton: Blooming' South Atla Early Rice: Harvesting

Cotton, Grain, & Oilseeds: Single Rice: Heading' I

1IT Afri Planting I Vegetative Late Rice: Plantingyyest ca ICoarse Grain, Rice:

Planting (Sahel); Ea,&t Africa , .IHarvesting (Coast) Maize, Sorghum, Rep, -

Filling (Kenya, Ethiopia)Grains: Planting (Sudan)Small Grains: Planting

Brazil (Ethiopia)C ff C ' t & Belg (minor) Grains:

oee,lrus, H ' (Eth ")S H t' arvestlng lopla

ugarcane: arves Ing

Winter crops

Former Soviet UnionGrains: Maturing (North);

Harvesting (South)

EuropeGrains: Maturing (England, Poland);

Harvest (France, Hungary)Rapeseed: Harvesting

\J ,I

.Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development


10.

August normal crop calendar'- Summer crops

~ Canada Former Soviet UnionSmall Grains & Rapeseed: Small Grains: Harvest (West);Filling ~o ~at~ring Europe Filling (East)

Corn: Sllklng Corn: Maturing Corn, Sunflow~r~, &

Small Grains: Harvesting Sugarbeets: Filling(South) Cotton: Filling (Central Asia).

.ChinaCorn, Cotton, &Soybeans: FillingEarly Rice: HarvestSingle Rice: MaturingLate Rice: Vegetative

t

West Africa) Mexico Coarse Grain, Rice:

Corn & Sorghum: Floweri~g* (Sahel);! Harvesting (Coast)

..East Africa Southeast AsiaMaize, Sorghum: Harvestin Rice: Filling

.(Kenya, Ethiopia) Corn: Filling to MatureBrazil Grains: Repoductive*Coffee, Citrus, & (Sudan)Sugarcane: Harvesting Small Grains: Repoductive*

(Ethiopia)

-Sugarcane:

Winter crops

Former Soviet UnionGrains: Planting (North);

Europe Pre-Planting (South)Grains:Rapese,

~I~

~ ~f ...~~~:

: Heading * ~

1;/ ,/~ Argentina Australia,

Wh t V t t' Wheat: Vegetativeea: ege a Ive

~

~ * Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development


~.11

r

I~.

September normal crop calendarSummer crops

Canada Fomler Soviet UnionSmall Grai.ns & Rapeseed: Europe .Corn Sunflowers &

Harvesting Corn & Sunflowers: Harvesting , .' ..C . F 'll ' Cotton' Harvestin g (Spain Greece ) Sugarbeets. Mostly Filling

orn. I In ., S II G .. H t.Sugarbeets: Harvesting (France Germany) ma rains. arves Ing

, Cotton: Early Harvesting (Central Asia)

United Statu China

Corn, Sorghum, Corn, Soybeans, &Soybeans, & Cotton: Cotton: Harvesting

Maturing Single Rice: HarvestingSmall Grains: Harvesting Late Rice: Heading'

Weal AfricaCoarse Grain, Rice:

Mexico .Flowering' (Sahel);Corn & Sorghum: Maturing Harvesting (Coast)

Secondary: Planting(Coast)

.Ea&t AfricaBrazil Maize, Sorghum: Harvesting

Coffee: Blooming (Kenya, Ethiopia)

Citrus & Sugarcane: Harvesting Grains: Reproductive' (Sudan)Small I Grains: Reproductive'

.(Ethiopia) AustraliaArgentina Cotton: PlantingCorn & Cotton: Planting Sugarcane: Harvesting

Winter crops

Fomler Soviet Union.. ..

Australia

"Argentina Wheat: Vegetative toWheat: Vegetative to Headin '

Heading'

, Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development


12

I

October normal crop calendarI.- Summer crops

~ Europe Fonner Soviet Union

Corn & Sugarbeets: Harvesting Corn, Sunflowers, &

Cotton: Harvesting (Spain, Greece) Sugarbeets: HarvestingCotton: Harvesting (Central Asia)

~

~ ChinaCorn, Cotton, &

~ Soybeans: HarvestingSingle Rice: Harvesting

.Late Rice: MaturingSouth Asia

.Mexico est A/ri Oilseed: Fillingoarse Gr R ' M t 'I

Corn & Sor g hum' H ' Ice: a urlng, ' arvestl , .econdary Cotton: Flowering

" (Coast) ing, ocoa: H East Africa sting

~ .Maize, Sorghum: HarvestingBrazil (Kenya, Ethiopia)

Cotton & Soybeans: Planting Grains: Filling (Sudan)Coffee: Blooming Small Grains: Filling (Ethiopia)Citrus & Sugarcane: Harvesting Minor grain: Planting Awtralia

Cotton & Sorghum:

S th Afri Plantingou ern ca ,C PI ' Sugarcane: Harvesting

Planting orn: antlng

Winter crops

EuGrai

PI

\l..

I~

~tt ,.~~~Mature tsting

AustraliaWheat: Heading'

ing to Fil to Maturing

.Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development


)

13r

---INovember normal crop calendar

Summer crops

EuropeCorn & Sugarbeets: Harvesting Former Soviet Union

Cotton: Harvesting (Spain, Greece) Corn: HarvestingCotton: Harvesting (Central Asia)

United States Ch'Ina

Corn, Cotton, & S H 0S b H to ugarcane: arvestlng

oyeans: arves Ing L 0 0 0Sugarcane (FL): Harvesting ate Rice, Harvesting

West AfricaMexico Coarse Grain, Rice: South AsiaCorn & S?rghum: Harvesting (Sahel) Rice: Harvest

Harvesting S d . Foli o0 econ aryo I Ing Cotton: Open Boll Stage'

Sugarcane: HarvestIng (Coast)Citrus & Coffee: Cocoa: Harvesting Ea.,t Africa ..,

Harvestin Maize, Sorghum: Harvesting

(Kenya, Ethiopia)beans: Planting Grains: H~rvesting (S~dan)

0 , Small Grains: Harvesting A ~-"mlng (Eth O 0 ) wuuua 0 lopla

estlng Grain (minor): Planting Cotton & Sorghum:

Argentina PlantingCorn: Planting to Vegetative Sugarcane: Harvesting

Cottono & Soybeans: Southern Africa

Planting Corn: Planting

Winter crops

)I, Moisture I Temperature Sensitive Stage of Development

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACiliTY

(

14

~"'-~" ;;;;~.~ --~' -.,- "',;;~;", ~---

---~llllllla- ""1" .~IIIIIIIIIII'""""

~~~~~~~J. :.

December normal crop calendar

Summer crops

Former Somet Union

Cotton: Late-Harvesting

Europe (Central Asia)

Sugarbeets: Harvesting

Citrus: Harvest (Mediterranean)

China

United Statu Late Rice: Harvesting

Cotton: Harvesting Sugarcane: Harvesting

Sugarcane (FL): Harvesting

M ' West AfricaS th A."

alCO S d ou IUlaC & S h H ' econ ary: R ' H t '

orn org um: arvestlng H t ' Ice: arves Ing.arves I ,

Sugarcane: Harvesting Cotton: Harvesting

Citrus & Coffee: Harvesting

East Africa .)0

Brazil Grains: Harvesting (Sudan)

Soybeans: Planting to Small ~rai,ns: Harvesting

Vegetative (,Ethlo,pla) , '*Cotton: Vegetative Grain (minor), Flowering Australia

Cotton: Vegetative,, Sorghum: Planting

Arg~tina , , " * Southern Africa Sugarcane: Harvesting

Corn, Vegetative to Sllklng Corn: Vegetative

Cotton: Vegetative

Soybeans: Planting

Winter crops

Europe

Mexico

Wheat: Planting

Vegetables: Harvesting



15I

.

1j

~Metric conversion units .~

Metric unit Factor U.S. unitA

1

~

1 hectare -+- .4047 = 2.471 acres .1 kilogram -+- .4536 = 2.205 pounds1 metric ton -+- .9072 = 1.102 short tons 4

Metric tons of: '

wheat, soybeans -+- .027216 = bushelsrice, rapeseed, sunflowerseed -+- .045359 = cwt ~

com, sorghum, rye -+- .025401 = bushels '

barley -+- .021772 = bushels J

oats -+- .014515 = bushelssugar -+- .907185 = short tonscotton -+- .217720 = 480-lb. bales

II

<

~

I

I

I

Climate Station Key :

~ ~ Sacramento~ 160 30

';;:' 120 20 ~0 co

:; 60 10 m-CD"0. 0 .."u 40 (")~ 10a. 0

[] Precipitation, millimeters

-Temperature, degrees Celsius~

~

Bars show average monthly precipitation. Lines plot mean I

monthly temperatures. Data for both are reported in :appendix I. The boxed number (AI above) is referenced in ~the country map and the appendix.

~

1;

!'

16I

I

~IIIIIIII'

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23

I

~IIIIIIIII'I

,I

United States: Hard and soft red winter wheat ~Hard red winter wheat J

I

..

.

~

,

Hard and soft red winter wheat crop calendarfor most of the United States

I,..'""" ,".",.""=~.,"=,."","""II PLANT I~

I HARVEST! .Hard red winter wheat accounts for 42%JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC of total wheat production from 1988/89-1992/93.

Soft red winter wheat

Legend

Major growing areas

Minor growing areas Soft red winter wheat accountsfor 21% of total wheat production .

[&J Climate stations from 1988/89-1992/93. 4

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USD

24

United States: White winter wheat and winter wheat statistics." White winter wheat.

'I

~

~ Legend ..I d fM ..White winter wheat crop ca en ar or most

aJor growing areas of the United States

~ ..I I___I L_I..:I.~=I___II PLANT I WhiJewinterwheataccounts , Minor growing areas = for 9% of total wheat production

~ I U'DU~.T I from 1988/89-1992/93.

rA-:::-l I HARVEST I, ~ Climate stations

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

~

~ Winter wheat statistics,

United States: Winter wheat statistics .b t t (1988/89 -1992/93 ) Winter wheat classes: Percent acreage,

y sa e average breakdown by state (1992)

State Area Yield Prod. Pct.I

1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 t State Hard red Soft red White

Kansas 4,201 2.25 9,446 22% Kansas 99% 1% 0%

~ Oklahoma 2,242 2.04 4,569 10% Oklahoma 99% 1 % 0%

Texas 1,376 1.95 2,683 6% Texas 94% 6% 0%

; Colorado 943 2.06 1,946 4% Colorado 100% 0% 0%

Nebraska 830 2.20 1,826 4% Nebraska 100% 0% 0%

t Montana 809 2.11 1,711 4% Montana 99% 0% 1%

California 209 5.24 1,095 3% California 90% 0% 10%

South Dakota 544 1.94 1,053 2% South Dakota 100% 0% 0%

Washington 643 3.88 2,496 6% Washington 5% 0% 95%

Oregon 325 3.94 1,278 3% Oregon 1% 0% 99%

Idaho 324 4.67 1,511 3% Idaho 29% 0% 71%

Michigan 259 3.37 874 2% Michigan 0% 28% 72%

Illinois 601 3.33 2,004 5% Illinois 2% 98% 0%

Missouri 668 2.87 1,914 4% Missouri 3% 97% 0%

Ohio 461 3.55 1,635 4% Ohio 0% 100% 0%

r Arkansas 441 2.69 1,187 3% Arkansas 0% 100% 0%

Indiana 301 3.41 1,027 2% Indiana 0% 100% 0%

These states account for 87% of total winter wheat production.

United States: Historical winterwheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.Year 1,000ha t/ha 1,0001

1988/89 16,107 2.64 42,509

1989/90 16,798 2.36 39,590

1990/91 20,195 2.74 55,272

1991/92 15,947 2.34 37,357

1992/93 16,954 2.58 43,723

1988/89.

1992/93 17,200 2.53 43,690

average JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

25r

,J

,United States: Other spring wheat (excluding durum) j

~

,

;

.-

,

j

~

J

Legend

Major growing areas

Hard red spring wheat accounts for 21 % of White spring wheat accounts for 2% oftotal wheat production from 1988/89-1992/93. total wheat production from 1988/89-1992/93.

U .t d St t Oth . h t Spring wheat classes:nl e a es: er spring w ea

P t..ercen acreagestatistics by state (1988/89-1992/93 average) breakdown by state (1992)

State Area Yield Prod. Pct.1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t State Hard red White

North Dakota 2,881 2.11 6,076 44% North Dakota 100% 0%Minnesota 993 2.65 2,628 19% Minnesota 100% 0%Montana 987 1.72 1,698 12% Montana 100% 0%South Dakota 785 1.82 1,426 10% South Dakota 100% 0%Idaho 202 4.61 929 7% Idaho 30% 70%Washington 278 2.84 789 6% Washington 20% 80%Oregon 33 3.34 109 1% Oregon 15% 85%Colorado 20 4.85 96 1 % Colorado 84% 16%

These states account for 100% of total production.

United States: Historical other springwheat statistics

Area Yield Prod.1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t H d d . h t I d f t f th U .

t d St t1988/89 4,266 1.31 5,592 ar re sprln w el crop ca en ar or mos 0 e nl e a es

1989/90 6,883 1.94 13,329 ~1990/91 6,425 2.47 15,870 ~1991/92 6,111 2.25 13,732 HARVEST1992/93 7,312 2.81 20,5541988/89- JAN DEC

1992/93 6,199 2.16 13,815average JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

26

I

United States: Durum s wheat and total wheat statisticsI..

\,

~,,

~

r.Durum spring wheat accounts! for 4% of total wheat productionfrom 1988/89-1992/93.

PLANT

~ United States: Historical totalI HARVEST! wheat statistics

JAN DEC Crop Area Yield Prod.Year 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I

United States: Durum spring wheat 1970/71 17,651 2.08 36,795statistics by state (1988/89-1992/93) 1971/72 19,298 2.28 44,052

1972/73 19,143 2.20 42,081State Area Yield Prod. Pct. 1973/74 21,913 2.12 46,560

1,000ha I/ha 1,0001 1974/75 26,454 1.83 48,496North Dakota 1,089 1.85 2,019 81% 1975/76 28,126 2.06 57,888California 25 6.16 155 6% 1976/77 28,692 2.04 58,487Montana 92 1.40 129 5% 1977/78 26,993 2.06 55,684Arizona 21 6.04 128 5% 1978/79 22,865 2.11 48,336South Dakota 31 1.71 52 2% 1979/80 25,293 2.30 58,081Minnesota 11 2.24 25 1% 1980/81 28,773 2.25 64,797

1981/82 32,618 2.32 75,806These slates account for 100% of total production. 1982/83 31,525 2.39 75,251

...1983/84 24,848 2.65 65,856United States: Historical durum 1984/85 27,085 2.61 70,618spring wheat statistics 1985/86 26,185 2.52 65,974

1986/87 24,560 2.32 56,896Crop Area Yield Prod. 1987/88 22,640 2.53 57,362Year 1,000ha t/ha 1,0001 1988/89 21,525 2.29 49,320

1988/89 1,152 1.06 1,220 1989/90 25,167 2.20 55,4281989/90 1,486 1.69 2,510 1990/91 28,038 2.66 74,4731990/91 1,419 2.35 3,332 1991/92 23,352 2.31 53,9181991/92 1,294 2.19 2,829 1992/93 25,257 2.65 66,922

1992/93 991 2.67 2,645 1988/89-1988/89- 1992/93 24,668 2.42 60,012

1992/93 1,269 1.99 2,507 averageaverage JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

27

I

".j

.

United States: Corn ~4

~

t

:~

Legend

Major growing areas

Corn crop calendar for most of the Midwest United States United States:

I L_I I.:I.I:_I___;~I___IPLAN Historical corn statistics~ Crop Area Yield Prod.

IHARVEST! Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1970/71 23,212 4.54 105,472

The corn crop calendar is typically 1 month ahead across 1971/72 25,950 5.53 143,422the southern United States. 1972/73 23,275 6.09 141,734

1973/74 25,149 5.73 144,0431974/75 26,469 4.51 119,421

United States: Corn statistics by state 1975/76 27,367 5.42 148,3621976/77 28,938 5.52 159,752

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1977/78 28,981 5.70 165,236.1978/79 29,109 6.34 184,614

State Area Yield Prod. Pct. 1979/80 29,299 6.87 201,384

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1980/81 29,526 5.71 168,648Iowa 4,897 7.51 36,769 19% 1981/82 30,159 6.84 206,223Illinois 4,274 7.33 31,331 17% 1982/83 29,428 7.11 209,181Nebraska 2,962 7.99 23,658 12% 1983/84 20,833 5.09 106,031Minnesota 2,343 7.09 16,619 9% 1984/85 29,096 6.70 194,881Indiana 2,199 7.39 16,246 9% 1985/86 30,436 7.41 225,447Ohio 1,319 7.12 9,392 5% 1986/87 27,886 7.49 208,944Wisconsin 1,125 6.70 7,534 4% 1987/8824,081 7.52 181,143Missouri 880 6.45 5,672 3% 1988/89 23,573 5.31 125,194South Dakota 1,182 4.62 5,459 3% 1989/90 26,184 7.30 191,156Michigan 829 6.54 5,421 3% 1990/91 27,095 7.44 201,534Kansas 584 828 4841 3"A 1991/92 27,862 6.82 189,886Texas 592 6:65 3:942 2~ 1992/93 29,203 8.25 240,846

Colorado 343 9.54 3,270 2% 1988/89.Kentucky. 488 6.45 3,150 2% 1992/93 26,783 7.02 189,723Pennsylvan~a 380 6.03 2,291 1"10 averaneNorth Carolina 403 5.38 2,169 1% ~-

These states account for 95"10 of total production.JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

28I

United States: Sorghum

Legend

Major growing areas

~ Climate stations

Sor calendar for most of the United States United States:

~ Historical sorghum statistics~ Crop Area Yield Prod.

IHARVESTr Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

JAN DEC 1970/71 5,491 3.16 17,3541971/72 6,533 3.37 22,048

The sorghum crop calendar is about 1 month earlier 1972/73 5 347 3.81 20 355across southern Texas and the Mississippi Delta. 1973/74 6:354 3.69 23:451

1974/75 5,588 2.83 15,8181975/76 6,233 3.07 19,1611976/77 5,854 3.08 18,055

.1977/78 5,583 3.55 19,837United States: Sorghum statistics by state 1978/79 5,427 3.42 18,575

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1979/80 5,221 3.93 20,5091980/81 5,064 2.91 14,716

State Area Yield Prod. Pct. 1981/82 5,535 4.02 22,247

1,000ha t/ha 1,0001 1982/835,721 3.71 21,2121983/84 4,047 3.06 12,384

Kansas 1,299 3.94 5,124 31% 1984/85 6,735 3.27 22,004Texas 1,234 3.67 4,526 28% 1985/86 6,791 4.19 28,456Nebraska 585 4.71 2,757 17% 1986/87 5,610 4.25 23,848Missouri 227 5.22 1,184 7% 1987/88 4,262 4.36 18,563Arkansas 130 4.18 543 3% 1988/89 3,659 4.00 14,648Oklahoma 138 3.00 413 3% 1989/90 4,493 3.48 15,632Illinois 69 5.39 370 2% 1990/91 3,678 3.96 14,563South Dakota 118 2.70 319 2% 1991/92 3,994 3.72 14,856Colorado 96 2.53 243 1 % 1992/93 4,917 4.57 22,455New Mexico 66 3.59 239 1 % 1988/89Louisiana 58 3.98 232 1 % 1992/93- 4 148 3 95 16 431Mississippi 44 3.86 170 1 % ' .,

.averageThese states account for 97% of total production.


29

United States: Barley (spring sown)

,m!,i'!'I~::~

Legend

~ Climate stations U "t d St t~ nl e a es:

Historical barley statistics

Barley cro calendar for most of the United States Crop Area Yield Prod.

~ Year 1,000 ha Vha 1,000 t

1970/71 3,930 2.31 9,059lH~~V~~TJ 1971/72 4,089 2.46 10,068

1972/73 3,903 2.35 9,182JAN DEC 1973/74 4,166 2.18 9,089

1974/75 3,209 2.03 6,5031975/76 3,487 2.37 8,255

United States: Barley statistics by state 1976/77 3,415 2.44 8,339(1 ~HH/H~-l ~~:l/~:i av~ra[]~ 11988/89-1992/93 avera e ) 1977/78 3,937 2.37 9,314'" '-"-1 1978/79 3,743 2.65 9,901

Area Yield Prod. Pct. 1979/80 3,046 2.74 8,343State 1 000 ha t/ha 1 000 t 1980/81 2,938 2.68 7,863

, , 1981/82 3,658 2.82 10,310

North Dakota 1,030 2.47 2,543 29% 1982/83 3,647 3.08 11,233Montana 573 2.23 1,280 14% 1983/84 3,934 2.81 11,066Idaho 323 3.77 1,219 14% 1984/85 4,540 2.87 13,021Minnesota 324 2.90 940 11% 1985/86 4,691 2.74 12,850Washington 198 3.13 621 7% 1986/87 4,846 2.73 13,249South Dakota 189 2.08 393 4% 1987/88 4,029 2.82 11,354California 89 3.20 285 3% 1988/89 3,090 2.04 6,314Oregon 69 3.81 264 3% 1989/90 3,364 2.62 8,800Colorado 59 4.05 241 3% 1990/91 3,047 3.02 9,192Wyoming 50 3.92 195 2% 1991/923,405 2.97 10,110Utah 45 4.27 192 2% 1992/93 2,964 3.36 9,970

These states account for 92% of total production. 1988/89-1992/93 3,174 2.80 8,877

average


30

--~-~ -"

,

United States: Oats

~.

~

~

~

~

~,,,

LegendI..

[&:J Climate stations United States:

Historical oat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.Oat crop calendar for most of the United States Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1 ...'""" '...=0"'.' ~L"" I___I._I_"_IPLANT 1970/71 7,525 1.77 13,285

1971/72 6,356 2.01 12,745

IHARv6sri 1972/73 5,427 1.85 10,0241973/74 5,573 1.72 9,567


1975/76 5,276 1.76 9,2741976/77 4,789 1.64 7,8441977/78 5,457 2.00 10,926. d S 0 t t t . t . b t t 1978/79 4,503 1.87 8,443

Unite tates: a s a IS ICS Y s a e 1979/80 3,918 1.95 7,646

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1980/81 3,503 1.90 6,6591981/82 3,807 1.94 7,396

State Area Yield Prod. Pc!. 1982/83 4,1512.07 8,6021 000 ha t/ha 1 000 t 1983/84 3,667 1.89 6,916, '0 1984/85 3,303 2.08 6,875

South Dakota 340 1.70 577 13~o 1985/86 3,297 2.28 7,526Minnesota 275 1.87 515 12 Yo 1986/87 2 768 2.02 5 588Wisconsin 250 2.04 508 12% 1987/88 2: 787 1.95 5:424Iowa 214 2.25 482 11% 1988/89 2,239 1.41 3,158North Dakota 231 1.61 371 9% 1989/90 2,785 1.95 5,423Pennsylvania 95 1.98 188 4% 1990/91 2,406 2.16 5,189Ohio 83 2.22 183 4% 1991/92 1,945 1.82 3,534Nebraska 104 1.72 179 4% 1992/93 1,818 2.35 4,278Michigan 78 1.97 154 4%Illinois 65 2.30 149 3% 1988/89-Texas 76 1.45 110 3% 1992/93 2,239 1.94 4,316New York 52 2.09 109 3% average

These states account for 82% of total production.


31.

United States: Rice

Legend

United States:Historical rice statistics

Yield Prod.Crop Area (Rough) (Milled)

Rice crop calendar for most of the United States Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 .

I I___I.._=.::I~~._I___IPLANT 1970/71 734 5.18 2,796I HEAD I 1971/72 736 5.29 2,838

I HARVEST! 1972/73 736 5.26 2,8281973/74 878 4.79 3,034

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1974/75 1,024 4.98 3,6671975/76 1,140 5.11 4,0991976/77 1,004 5.22 3,7811977/78 910 4.95 3,1201978/79 1,202 5.02 4,271

United States. Rice statistics by state 1979/80 1,161 5.16 4,324.1980/81 1,340 4.95 4,838

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1981/82 1,535 5.40 5,9741982/83 1,320 5.28 4,948

State Area Yield Prod. Pc.. 1983/84 878 5.15 3,2161,000 ha t/ha 1,000 .1984/85 1,134 5.55 4,382

1985/86 1,008 6.07 4,333Arkansas 501 6.00 3,005 41% 1986/87 955 6.33 4307California 158 8.71 1,37419% 1987/88 9446.23 4'111Louisiana 218 5.22 1,14016% 1988/89 1,1746.18 5:185Texas 144 6.62 949 13% 1989/90 1,087 6.45 5,087Mississippi 100 6.27 630 9% 1990/91 1,142 6.20 5,098Missouri 36 5.57 201 2% 1991/92 1,123 6.36 5,035These states account for 100% of total production. 1992/93 1,267 6.43 5,704

1988/89-1992/93 1,159 6.32 5,222

average


32

Soybeans

Legend

So calendar for most of the United States

I PLANT ! United States:

IFLOWE~ Historical soybean statistics

! HARVEST! Crop Area Yield Prod.JAN EC Year 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I

1970/71 17,098 1.79 30,6751971/72 17,282 1.85 32,0091972/73 18,488 1.87 34,581

U . t d S S ..1973/74 22,528 1.87 42,118n I e tates: oybean statisticS by state 1974/75 20,777 1.59 33,102

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1975/76 21,698 1.94 42,1391976/77 19,992 1.75 35,070

State Area Yield Prod. Pcl. 1977/78 23,403 2.06 48,0971,000ha I/ha 1,0001 1978/7925,7641.97 50,859

..1979/80 28,467 2.16 61,525IllinoIs 3,657 2.52 9,202 18% 1980/81 27,443 1.78 48,921Iowa 3,323 2.64 8,761 17% 1981/82 26,776 2.02 54,135Minnesota 2,036 2.29 4,666 9% 1982/83 28,102 2.12 59,610Indiana 1,771 2.52 4,464 9% 1983/84 25,303 1.76 44,518Missouri 1,733 2.06 3,565 7% 1984/85 26,755 1.89 50,644Ohio 1,502 2.33 3,494 7% 1985/86 24,929 2.29 57,127Arkansas 1,304 1.85 2,410 5% 1986/87 23,598 2.24 52,868Nebraska 987 2.31 2,285 4% 1987/88 23,137 2.28 52,746South Dakota 805 1.80 1,445 3% 1988/89 23,218 1.82 42,153Kansas 773 1.79 1,387 3% 1989/90 24,094 2.17 52,354Mississippi 785 1.63 1,283 2% 1990/91 22,870 2.29 52,416Michigan 507 2.34 1,185 2% 1991/92 23,477 2.30 54,065Louisiana 613 1.77 1,087 2% 1992/93 23,546 2.53 59,545

North Carolina 556 1.81 1,005 2% 1988/89-Kentucky 452 2.18 984 2% 1992/93 23,441 2.22 52,107Tennessee 463 1.88 872 2% average

These slates account for 94% of total production.


33

I

~

J

United States: Groundnuts (peanuts)4

j

Legend

~ Climate stationsUnited States: Historicalgroundnut statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.Groundnut cro calendar for most of the United States Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

~ 1972/73 601 2.47 1,4851973/74 605 2.60 1,576

'HAR"ESTi 1974/75 596 2.79 1,664I"~"V~~., 1975/76 609 2.87 1,745

JAN DEC 1976/77 616 2.75 1,6961977/78 614 2.74 1,6851978/79 611 2.93 1,7931979/80 615 2.93 1,800

United States: Groundnut statistics by state 1980/81 566 1.85 1,0451981/82 602 3.00 1,806

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1982/83 517 3.02 1,560

State Area Yield Prod. Pct. 1983/84 556 2.69 1,4951984/85 618 3.23 1,999

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1985/86 594 3.15 1,870

Georgia 300 2.73 821 44% 1986/87 621 2.70 1,677Texas 116 2.19 254 13% 1987/88 626 2.62 1,640Alabama 101 2.45 246 13% 1988/89 659 2.74 1,806North Carolina 63 3.05 194 10% 1989/90 666 2.72 1,810Virginia 38 3.31 126 7% 1990/91 732 2.23 1,634Oklahoma 38 2.77 105 6% 1991/92 816 2.74 2,235Florida 41 2.55 104 5% 1992/93 677 2.87 1,943

New Mexico 8 2.74 21 1% 1988/89-South Carolina 5 2.73 15 1% 1992/93710 2.66 1,886

These states account for 100% of total production. average


34

United States: Sunf1owerseed

!~i':~:'~!:~~~\11!~::1]:):r:)j::: II

~~::~11~~:::::::::::::::::9;

Legend

~ Climate stations

United States: Historical

sunflowerseed statisticsSunflower crop calendar for most of the United StatesI .I___I.._I.__I..~.I..I._I_--~_I___I Crop Area Yield Prod.

~ Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1972/73 329 1.02 334~ 1973/74 301 1.17 353

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1974/75 263 1.03 2721975/76 481 1.12 5411976/77 425 1.09 4631977/78 959 1.39 1,3301978/79 1,192 1.53 1,8231979/80 2,189 1.51 3,3091980/81 1,490 1.14 1,6971981/82 1,542 1.32 2,035

United States: Su nflowerseed statistics by 1982/83 1,912 1.27 2,419state (1988/89-1992/93 average) 1983/84 1,240 1.17 1,451

1984/85 1,494 1.14 1,698State Area Yield Prod. Pct. 1985/861,151 1.241,430

1 000 ha t/ha 1 000 t 1986/87 791 1.53 1,214" 1987/88 718 165 1183

North Dakota 551 1.24 684 63% 1988/89 777 1.05 '813South Dakota 131 1.33 175 16% 1989/90 723 1.10 798Minnesota 60 1.81 109 10% 1990/91 749 1:38 1,031Kansas 52 1.34 70 6% 1991/92 1,082 1.51 1,639Texas 13 1.45 19 2% 1992/93 839 1.41 1,181

These states account for 97% of total production. 1988/89-

1992/93 834 1.29 1,092

average


35r

United States: Cotton

Legend

Major growing areas

Ax Climate stationsUnited States:

Historical cotton statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.Cotton cro calendar for most of the United States Year 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 Ib

I PLANT I bales

1970/71 4,514 490 10192ISQUAREI 1971/72 4,643 490 10:476

HARVeST 1972/73 5,255 570 13,705JAN DEC 1973/74 4,844 580 12,975

1974/75 5,086 490 11,5421975/76 3,560 510 8,304

United States' Cotton statistics b y state 1976/77 4,417 520 10,582.1977/78 5,372 580 14,390

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1978/79 5,018 470 10,8581979/80 5,193 610 14,628

S Area Yield Prod. Pc!. 1980/81 534 8 450 11 124tate "1,000ha kg/ha 1,0004801b 1981/825,601 610 15,648

bales 1982/83 3,939 660 11,965Texas 1,854 490 4,213 28% 1983/84 2,973 570 7,771California 439 1,357 2,707 18% 1984/85 4,200 670 12,984Mississippi 486 860 1,922 13% 1985/86 4,140 710 13,434Arkansas 322 830 1,241 8% 1986/87 3,427 620 9,732Louisiana 303 814 1 140 8% 1987/88 4,061 790 14,762Arizona 131 1,318 '788 5% 1988/89 4,835 690 15,409Tennessee 221 603 618 4% 1989/90 3,860 690 12,194Georgia 146 750 516 3% 1990/91 4,748 710 15,506Alabama 153 648 459 3% 1991/92 5,245 730 17,614Missouri 109 735 371 2% 1992/93 4,510 780 16,218

North Carolina 103 681 331 2% 1988/89.Oklahoma 151 379 264 2% 1992/93 4640 720 15388South Carolina 66 648 201 1 % "

averageThese states account for 97% of total production.


36

" --~--~ ~.~- '"~ ~~

United States: Sugarcane.,...

I

~,

~

~ NOTE: Hawaiian rainfall is highlylInset B ~ 1M:?] variable due to terrain features.

~Kauai :::

OahuMaui

0 Production on north coast of Hawaiiis discontinued as of October, 1994.

0 Production in southern section ofLe gend Hawaii is discontinued as of late

1996.

::::::::::: Major 9 rowi ng areas 0 Production on the south coast of Oahu...is discontinued as of March 1995.

~ Climate stations B

Su arcane crop calendar for most of the United StatesPLANT/ Southeast: PLANT/HARVEST 10-12 month crop HARVEST

Hawaii: 24month crop, year-round harvest (peak May -Sep) United States:HARVEST H ' . I t t ' t.

Historical sunarcane STaTISTICSJAN NOV DEC , --~ Crop Area Yield Prod. Raw sugar

Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 t

Percent of total production 1980/81 277 83.84 23,208 2,4751981/82 290 81.92 23,737 2,570

by state 1982/83 283 91.10 25,809 2,779

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1983/84 297 83.19 24,677 2,658Texas -4% 1984/85 284 83.17 23,594 2,728

1985/86 293 83.33 24,383 2,7521986/87 304 86.37 26,251 2,9771987/88 315 80.75 25,425 3,0241988/89 321 80.50 25,836 3,0831989/90 325 78.36 25,464 2,8811990/91 294 81.75 24,018 2,8591991/92 344 76.37 26,273 3,1121992/93 352 74.39 26,194 3,060

1988/89-1992/93 327 78.28 25,557 2,999

average


37

United States: Sugarbeets

~:::::::~

Legend

Sugarbeet crop calendar for most of the United States

I ~ I

I...,I~~~I...~I.~~I...,.I I I...~I~~~~~~I~~~I United States:JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Historical sugarbeet statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Raw sugarYear 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 I

1980/81 482 44.27 21,321 2,857Percent of sugarbeet 1981/82 497 50.27 24,982 3,074production by state 1982/83 416 45.61 18,955 2,483

1983/84 427 44.56 19,044 2,449Minnesota 21 % 1984/85 444 45.27 20,080 2,635Idaho 170;0 1985/86 446 45.79 20,438 2,722California 170;0 1986/87 482 47.36 22,827 3,099

° 1987/88 507 50.26 25,467 3,627North Dakota 11 '/0 1988/89 527 42.75 22,508 3,182

Michigan 100;o 1989/90 524 43.54 22,799 3,123

Nebraska 50;0 1990/91 557 44.79 24,960 3,485Wyoming 50;0 1991/92 561 45.58 25,586 3,381M t 401 1992/93 571 46.27 26,439 3,979

on ana 10

Colorado 4% 1988/89.

Texas 30;0 1992/93 548 44.58 24,458 3,430

Oregon 20;0 average

Ohio 10;o

These states account for 99%of lotal production.


38

,--~.,c,,~-"~

United States: Oranges,

Legend

United States:Historical orange statistics

Crop Area" Yield Prod.

.Year 1 000 ha t/ha 1 000 tOran e cro calendar for most of the United States "

I BLOOM I 1972/73 351 25.15 8,8331973/74 351 24.24 8,5151974/75 349 26.63 9,291

HARVEST 1975/76 343 27.74 9,519

JAN DEC 1976/77 338 28.28 9,5671977/78 329 26.32 8,6601978/79 324 25.63 8,3101979/80 326 32.91 10,734

Percent of total production by 1980/81 322 29.57 9,514.1981/82 315 21.90 6,895state 1982/83 304 28.41 8,636

(1988/89-1992/93 average) 1983/84 278 23.60 6,5711984/85 250 24.37 6,095

AZ&TX-1%total 1985/86 227 29.82 6,782, 1986/87 231 30.27 6,983

1987/88 232 33.39 7,757, 1988/89 238 34.06 8,1191989/90 242 29.03 7,026, 1990/91 248 28.70 7,120I 1991/92 259 31.20 8,082

f' 1992/93 278 35.91 9,968

1988/89-1992/93 253 31.78 8,063

IaverageI

"Bearing trees.JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

39.

~

1~,

Canada: Landforms and climate .I

Prairie Provinces~ Climate stations ~

1120 Days! Frost-free period(0 degrees C; 1931-60 avg.)

,

: ALBERTA

: SASKATCHEWAN

.' ,

: ~

..

BRITISHCOLUMBIA

Ontario and Quebec.~ Climate stations

1120 Days!


40

I

Canada: Climate stations

~ Peace River E ~ Edmonton.5. 100

c 800

~ 60-:§. 40()() Q) 20...

a. 0

~ Saskatoon

() ()

~ The Pas ~ Brandon-

() ()

E EE 100 E 100--c 80 c 800 0

~ 60 ~ 60--"Ci 40 °Ci 40"u "uQ) 20 Q) 20a. 0 a. 0

J FMAMJJ ASOND

-EE 100-c 800

":§ 60

:§. 40()Q) 20...c.. 0

JFMAMJJA


41

I

Canadian Prairies: Avera e freeze datesAverage date of last spring freeze ~ Climate stations

IJune 10 I Date label (1931-60 avg.)~~ ;~~~~~~~. Before May 31 (but after May 20, most areas)e ..

.')~~ ~.. e"~. ..............ALBERTA' .....: SASKATCHEWAN :

~ ~ ~ MANn'OBAAft ' ..er ..

June 10 ........

.. .................

.BRITISH

COLUMBIA ..fter

ay 31

Average date 0 Irst autumn reeze ~ Climate stations

~~ Date label (1931-60 avg.)

;~~~~~~~. After Sep. 10 (but before Sep. 20, most areas)

...

...

...

...

...

...

7::;J; ~ ALBERTA ~ :After ::;~~ ~ : SASKATCHEWAN : MANITOBA

Aug.31 ~ .~ .............. ...

....

..p.10........BRITISH

COLUMBIA

forep.10

42

I

Canadian Prairies: Spring wheat.."Spring wheat calendar for most of CanadaMajor growing areas c--

I..., 1""01"'01."" I.:".,:..~".I""" I""" !PLANT Climate stations ~ 1~ ft_1I HARVEST I

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

ilililllill j!,i!llil!i.'iBii,;r' ALBERTA SASKATCHEWAN MANITOBA


Canada: Historical spring wheat statistics

Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta National

Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.

1,000ha t/ha 1,0001 1,000ha Vha 1,0001 1,000ha t/ha 1,0001 1,000ha t/ha 1,0001

1980/81 1,275 1.43 1,829 5,989 1.54 9,253 2,206 2.24 4,940 9,599 1.71 16,368

1981/82 1,470 2.12 3,115 6,414 1.86 11,961 2,408 2.25 5,416 10,395 2.00 20,750

1982/831,5322.29 3,504 6,6772.0713,7932,489 2.175,408 10,7962.1222,9401983/84 1,766 1.84 3,243 7,183 1.81 13,017 2,792 2.19 6,110 11,839 1.91 22,631

1984/85 1,686 2.09 3,520 6,596 1.46 9,607 2,590 1.69 4,379 10,978 1.62 17,787

1985/86 1,797 2.66 4,782 6,657 1.65 10,968 2,671 1.67 4,450 11,247 1.82 20,519

1986/87 1,817 2.24 4,061 7,021 2.13 14,941 2,630 2.35 6,170 11,590 2.20 25,500

1987/88 1,807 2.03 3,663 6,354 1.87 11,907 2,428 1.94 4,708 10,751 1.93 20,720

1988/89 1,821 1.24 2,259 5,888 0.92 5,443 2,347 1.96 4,602 10,194 1.24 12,671

1989/90 1,942 1.96 3,810 5,929 1.61 9,525 2,610 2.11 5,498 10,604 1.81 19,181

1990/91 2,104 2.66 5,604 6,718 2.15 14,424 2,853 2.23 6,368 11,799 2.27 26,758

1991/922,0872.19 4,572 6,9922.1214,8332,786 2.496,940 11,9332.2326,6041992/93 2,023 2.80 5,656 7,083 1.92 13,608 2,833 2.06 5,832 12,042 2.11 25,353

1988/89-1992/931,9952.20 4,380 6,5221.77 11,567 2,686 2.185,848 11,3141.9522,113

average

Note: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta statistics account for about 98% of the total crop.

43

I

j~

,Canadian Prairies: Durum wheat .

Durum wheat calendar for most of Canada ~:!:!:::::::::::!::: Major growing areas I ~ ~ I I

W Minor growing areas 1,..,I"""I"'DI'DDI...vl""::"'~"'TI'"r\\lln~f'1JAN FED MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

rn!J Climate stations ~

~

ALBERTA .SASKATCHEWAN MANfroBA 1

BRmSH !

COLUMBIA ~ .,

.-'-':.:~:;";";':;:.:' .:~:;:;..;..;:.::.:~:;::~::;:~::;~:::::~::::~:::::~::::~:::::;::::::~:;.:;:;..;..;:.::.:;.o..;.:;:;:.;..;..::.:;.:- .JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

Canada: Historical durum wheat statistics


Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.1,000ha I/ha 1,0001 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001

1986/87 154 2.30 354 1,420 2.09 2,967 263 2.12 558 1,837 2.11 3,878

1987/88 142 1.82 259 1,720 1.79 3,075 324 2.10 680 2,185 1.84 4,014

1988/89 105 1.07 112 1,801 0.76 1,361 324 1.34 435 2,229 0.86 1,908

1989/90 142 1.65 234 2,064 1.48 3,048 425 2.02 857 2,630 1.57 4,1401990/91 130 2.76 359 1,6591.963,252 304 1.92 585 2,0922.014,197

1991/92 101 2.18 220 1,589 2.28 3,620 302 2.47 746 1,992 2.30 4,586

1992/93 65 2.38 155 1,2082.03 2,450 231 2.30 531 1,5032.09 3,135

1988/89-1992/93 109 1.99 216 1,664 1.65 2,746 317 1.99 631 2,089 1.72 3,593

average

Note: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta statistics account for 100% of the total crop.

I

44 :

!I

~IIIIIIIII' .~IIIIIIIII'~

Canadian Prairies: BarleyMajor growing areas Barley calendar for most of Canada

I M'I"'I."I'" I.:"': '"~C, I,D. 10,cIPLANT Minor growing areas ~ Climate stations IHARVESJj

, JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV

---J'D"i1 11111111111tff(111111~ AlBERTA

:~~~~i..IIIIIIIIIIII~;-' SASKATCHEWAN MANffOBA

~ ~ ~ .-'.'~""'=""""""=" -

Canada: Historical barley statistics

Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta Ontario National

Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha Vha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1980/81 809 1.94 1,568 1,315 2.12 2,787 2,226 2.73 6,075 164 3.12 511 4,634 2.43 11,259

1981/82 951 2.45 2,330 1,497 2.23 3,331 2,610 2.67 6,967 190 3.07 584 5,476 2.51 13,724

1982/83 809 2.93 2,373 1,396 2.60 3,636 2,469 2.66 6,575 235 3.19 749 5,149 2.71 13,966

1983/84 708 2.24 1,589 1,113 2.17 2,417 2,064 2.47 5,095 212 2.48 526 4,353 2.35 10,209

1984/85 728 2.661,938 1,295 1.902,460 2,104 2.20 4,638 192 3.20 615 4,5662.2510,279

1985/86 749 3.372,526 1,416 2.573,636 2,125 2.24 4,768 210 3.60 755 4,7502.6112,387

1986/87 627 2.95 1,851 1,437 2.79 4,006 2,246 3.20 7,185 239 3.23 771 4,829 3.03 14,634

1987/88 688 2.82 1,938 1,538 2.55 3,919 2,266 2.91 6,586 239 3.28 784 5,004 2.79 13,957

1988/89 567 1.92 1,089 1,234 1.69 2,090 1,902 3.06 5,813 198 2.53 501 4,152 2.46 10,212

1989/90 647 2.391,546 1,497 2.013,005 2,064 2.76 5,704 194 3.15 612 4,6582.5011,666

1990/91 627 3.21 2,014 1,437 2.71 3,897 2,066 3.21 6,641 178 3.26 581 4,702 2.96 13,925

1991/92 506 2.82 1,426 1,265 2.43 3,070 2,023 2.96 5,979 190 2.89 549 4,217 2.76 11,618

1992/93 425 3.69 1,568 1,186 2.57 3,048 1,760 2.76 4,855 174 3.63 631 3,790 2.88 10,919

1988/89-

1992/93 554 2.761,529 1,324 2.283,022 1,963 2.95 5,798 187 3.08 575 4,3042.7111,668

average

Note: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Ontario statistics account for about 94% of the total crop.

45

.r':""'~

~ ,c: Canadian Prairies: Canola

, : Major growing areas Canola calendar for most of Canada .'

,

I .,. I... 1",0 I,.. 1 :~: .,.~, 1.0. ke IPLANT Climate stations ~ !HARVEST!

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC .

.:::~;;~ ALBERTA

!11~lr;"i ~;:lli"il"; SASKATt'HEWAN MANnuBA ~


Canada: Historical canola statistics


Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1980/81 324 0.91 295 809 1.23 998 890 1.27 1,134 2,080 1.19 2,484

1981/82 243 1.26 306 546 1.39 760 587 1.29 760 1,402 1.32 1,849

1982/83 344 1.16 399 607 1.31 794 769 1.27 975 1,777 1.25 2,225

1983/84 384 1.03 397 850 1.25 1,066 1,012 1.05 1,066 2,334 1.12 2,609

1984/85 486 1.12 544 1,295 1.10 1,429 1,214 1.12 1,361 3,071 1.11 3,412

1985/86 405 1.57 635 1,174 1.31 1,542 1,133 1.10 1,247 2,783 1.26 3,498

1986/87 405 1.43 578 1,020 1.47 1,497 1,133 1.40 1,588 2,630 1.41 3,714

1987/88 405 1.44 585 1,052 1.47 1,542 1,153 1.42 1,633 3,019 1.23 3,720

1988/89 627 0.98 612 1,558 1.08 1,682 1,416 1.35 1,905 3,715 1.14 4,218

1989/90 465 0.86 399 1,295 1.00 1,293 1,093 1.22 1,338 2,918 1.10 3,209

1990/91 360 1.31 472 1,133 1.28 1,451 1,032 1.24 1,281 2,529 1.29 3,266

1991/92 508 1.57 798 1,359 1.27 1,724 1,207 1.28 1,542 3,141 1.34 4,224

1992/93 597 1.60 953 1,214 1.18 1,429 1,044 1.21 1,259 2,904 1.27 3,689

1988/89-

1992/93 511 1.26 647 1,312 1.16 1,516 1,158 1.26 1,465 3,041 1.23 3,721

average

Note: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta statistics account for about 98% of the total crop.

46.

\

Ontario and Quebec: Average freeze datesAverage date of last spring freeze

...QUEBEC'. .

~I~~~~~~~~~~=~~~) " ~~.." .Ma 89 QUEBEC

.I May 10 I ..A\ J..~~

~ Climate stations

~~~ Date labels (1931-60 avg.)

Average date of first autumn freeze

~ Climate stations

~~~ Date labels (1931-60 avg.)

47

I

Ontario and Quebec: Winter wheatPercent of total production

by province \ .".'.' (1988/89-1992/93 average) ::::::::: Major growing areas *

Other -3% rD:l~ Climate stations

\,

/

.1QUEBEC .:-",

r

...

:.,1ANT

OCT NOV DEC

--.

.Prairie growing areas concentrated in southern Alberta, scattered throughout Saskatchewan.

Canada: Historical winter wheat statisticsOntario Saskatchewan Alberta National

Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1980/81 1943.66 711 812.19 177 2753.23 888

1981/82 204 3.48 709 20 2.05 41 101 3.07 310 332 3.24 1,075

1982/83 121 2.92 353 402.1887 812.46 199 2482.64 6541983/84 229 3.39 776 61 2.10 128 121 2.36 286 425 2.85 1,213

1984/85 206 3.87 797 142 1.73 245 121 1.80 218 483 2.67 1,291

1985/86 212 4.50 954 324 1.54 498 162 1.26 204 713 2.36 1,6861986/87 260 3.64 947 324 1.43 463 182 2.66 484 804 2.46 1,9811987/88 150 3.50 525 182 1.42 259 190 2.15 408 548 2.29 1,2571988/89 279 3.69 1,029 81 0.67 54 142 1.38 196 527 2.55 1,346

1989/90 279 3.71 1,034 49 1.51 74 61 2.15 131 412 3.15 1,2991990/91 316 4.29 1,357 73 1.49 109 69 2.36 163 481 3.51 1,6901991/92 1643.57 585 24 2.0048 322.72 87 2393.16 756

1992/93 279 4.581,277 15 1.73 26 282.14 60 329 4.191,380

1988/89-1992/93 263 4.01 1,056 48 1.29 62 66 1.92 127 398 3.26 1,294average

Note: Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta statistics account for about 97% of the total crop.

48

Ontario and Quebec: Corn and soybeans,

,

/

QUEBEC .i,

-_:: ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ _..

r :.:i.i.i.:i'.'

f::::.. -.-,:: ',

.." .

..

t ;

~ " :

.I ,

" ,

I

t

I 0'

t ,,.

Major corn areas

Major corn and soybean areas

Climate stations,

Corn calendar for most of Canada Soybean calendar for most of Canada

1 ,,1""_1..." 1...1.= ~:'..~lo.cIPLANT

1 ".I...lu..I.o.IU::~I.~'I"c,IPLANT I TASS/SILKI IFLOWERI

I HARVEST! I HARVEST!

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DE

Canada: Historical corn statistics Canada: Historical soybean statistics

Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Crop Year Area Yield Prod.

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1980/81 958 6.01 5,753 1980/81 277 2.49 690

1981/82 1,139 5.86 6,673 1981/82 279 2.18 607

1982/83 1,107 5.88 6,513 1982/83 364 2.33 848

1983/84 1,107 5.36 5,931 1983/84 364 2.02 735

1984/85 1,192 5.69 6,778 1984/85 405 2.26 917

1985/86 1,123 6.21 6,970 1985/86 405 2.50 1,012

1986/87 994 5.95 5,912 1986/87 385 2.49 960

1987/88 1,006 7.02 7,065 1987/88 461 2.75 1,270

1988/89 995 5.48 5,450 1988/89 533 2.16 1,153

1989/90 1,035 6.35 6,571 1989/90 540 2.26 1,219

1990/91 1,062 6.65 7,067 1990/91 484 2.61 1,262

1991/92 1,105 6.71 7,413 1991/92 598 2.44 1,460

1992/93 857 5.70 4,883 1992/93 560 2.48 1,387

1988/89- 1988/89-

1992/93 1,011 6.18 6,277 1992/93 543 2.39 1,296

average average


49.

~!"'"

Mexico: State names and landformsState names

',

) r.. "-anHUAHUA

Central Mexican states1 = AGUASCAUENTES2 = QUERETARO3 = FEDERAL DISTRICT4 = MORELOS5 = TLAXCALA

Landforms

GULF OF

MEXICO

PACIFIC

OCEAN

[illJJ Elevations above 300 m (Approx. 1000 It)

Elevations above 1500 m (Approx. 5000 11)JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

50

t.,

~ Mexico: Climate

"-, Legend

~ Aw : Tropical w~t & dry ~ Climate stationsl

.BS -Steppe (arid) .Preferred tropical storm,lB W = Desert ~ hurricane tracks (excluding

Cr = Subtropical wet extra-tropical remnants)lJun-NovAug-Sep PeakOn average, 1- 2 storms peryear affect the east coast.

May-NovJul-Sep PeakOn average 12 -14 storms peryear form in the Northeastern PacificOcean. Of these, 3-4 storms affect ~ -Stations C4, C5, and C7 are classifiedthe west coast, mostly from Sep-Oct. -::r -as tropical wet and dry mountain climates.

-200 @IJ Hennosillo ~ MatamorosE E 200E-150 5 .s 150 5§ 00 c 00:= 100 5 ~ .g 100 5 CD

co 0 ...co co.~ CD - 0 ...Co 50 CD .-CD

.-15 '" .e- 50 5 CD() 0 () '"~ 0 () Q) 0,..,0- ~ 0 0- N

@IJ Culiacan ~ GuadalajaraE 200 E 200E E-150 5 -150 5§ 00 § 00~ 100 5 ~ := 100 5 ~- 0 ...co 0 ....-CD .~ CD.e- 50 5 ~ .e- 50 5 CD'"() ()

Q) 10 ,.., Q) 0 ,..,~ 0 ~ 0 0- 0-

~ T oluca ~ Veracruz-200 -200E EE E-150 t35 -150 35 § 30 0 c 30 0

:= 100 25 ~ .g 100 25 ~~ 20 <D .~ 20 <D.e- 50 15 ~ .e- 50 15 ~~ 10 () ~ 10 ()~ 0 JJASOND ~ 0

C7 Las Casas rc81 Merida-200 -200 ~E EE E-150 135 -150 5 § 30 0 coo

:= 100 25 ~ .g 100 5 ~~ 20 ...~ 0 ....-CD .-CD.e- 50 15 CD Co 50 5 CD'" .-'"~ 10 ,.., ~ 0,..,~ 0 ~ 0 0- 0-


51I

\,

Mexico: CornPercent of total corn area by state

(1991/92-1992/93)

LegendLess than 3%

3-7%

Climate stations

Percent of total productionby state (1991/92-1992/93)

Jalisco 15%

Mexico 11%

Sinaloa 9%

Chiapas 8%

Michoacan 6%

Tamaulipas 6%

Veracruz 6%

Gu~rrero 5% Mexico: Historical corn statistics

Chihuahua 5"10

Guanajuato 4"10

Puebla 4% Crop Year Area Yield Prod.

Oaxaca 3"10 1 000 ha t/ha 1 000 t

Hidalgo 3% 1970/71 8,000 1.11 8,900

Tlaxcala 2"10 1971/72 8,000 1.14 9,100

Sonora 2"10 1972/73 7,500 1.08 8,100

These states account for 89% of 1973/74 7,900 1.14 9,000

1991/92-1992/93 production. 1974/75 7,700 1.01 7,780

1975/76 7,900 1.18 9,300

1976/77 7,870 1.22 9,600

1977/78 7,920 1.22 9,700

1978/79 8,000 1.28 10,200

Corn crop calendar for most of Mexico 1979/80 7,600 1.21 9,200

I '--_I_I_-~;~_I_--~ 1980/81 8,100 1.28 10,400I PLANT I

~ 1981/82 8,150 1.53 12,500

HARVEST 1982/83 6,000 1.17 7,000

1983/84 6,500 1.43 9,300JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1984/85 6,300 1.57 9,900

Summer planted corn accounts for about 80-85 percent of 1985/86 6,200 1.69 10,500

total production. Add 1-2 months to the above crop calender 1986/87 6,000 1.67 10,000

for corn grown in the Yucatan Peninsula. 1987/88 6,000 1.65 9,900

1988/89 6,000 1.68 10,100

1989/90 5,800 1.68 9,750

1990/91 6,600 2.14 14,100

Corn crop calendar for northwestern Mexico 1991/92 7,700 1.88 14,500~ .__I I.II.._;~.._I___I 1992/93 8,100 2.10 17,000

I PLANT I 1988/89-

HARVEST 1992/93-

avera e 6,840 1.90 13,090JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 9


52

I

Mexico: Wheat"Percent of total wheat area by state,.,

Legend~ Less than 4%

~ 4-10%

~.Climate

stations,Jl

Percent of total production

by state (1991/92-1992/93)Sonora 25%

Guanajuato 20%

Sinaloa 14%Baja Californa Norte 12%

Michoacan 6%Chihuahua 4%

Jalisco 4%Tlaxcala 3%

Tamaulipas 2% Mexico: Historical wheat statisticsMexico 2%

These states account for 92% of Crop Year Area Yield Prod.1991/92-1992/93 production.

1,000ha t/ha 1,0001

1970/71 763 2.82 2,148

1971/72 697 2.90 2,019

1972/73 680 2.50 1,700

1973/74 720 2.78 2,000

1974/75 790 3.04 2,400

1975/76 802 3.62 2,900

1976/77 885 3.79 3,350

1977/78 775 2.97 2,300

1978/79 760 3.09 2,350

1979/80 620 3.68 2,280

.1980/81 740 3.58 2,650Winter wheat crop calendar for most of Mexico 1981/82 850 3.59 3,050

I =~; ,.- ,__- ~HEAD PLANT 1982/83 950 4.42 4,200

I HARVEST I 1983/84 840 3.81 3,200

1984/85 950 4.42 4,200


1986/87 1,075 4.19 4,500Winter wheat accounts for about 85-90 percent of 1987/88 900 4.11 3,700

the total crop and nearly all is irrigated. 1988/89 800 4.00 3,200

1989/90 950 4.21 4,000

1990/91 950 4.11 3,900

1991/92 880 4.20 3,7001992/93 762 4.20 3,200

1988/89-1992/93-average 868 4.14 3,600


53

I

,~

~

Mexico: Sorghum J

A

Percent of total sorghum area by state (1991/92) 1

I

LegendI

Less than 4%

Climate stations

Percent of total productionby state (1991/92)Tamaulipas 39%Guanajuato 22%Jalisco 11%M ichoacan 10%Sinaloa 5%Nuevo Leon 20;0Queretaro 20;0Chihuahua 2%

Mexico: Historical sorghum statisticsThese states account for 93% of1991/92 production.

Crop Year Area Yield Prod.Summer sorghum crop calendar for most of Mexico 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 tI...L_, L::..., ,...I...I...~ 1970/71 940 2.50 2,350

~ 1971/72 900 2.44 2,200HARVEST 1972/73 900 2.00 1,800

1973/74 1,160 2.50 2,900JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1974/75 1,137 2.43 2,760

Summer sorghum accounts for about 60-65 percent of 1975/76 1,200 2.83 3,400the total crop and is primarily grown in the Bajio. 1976/77 1,170 2.74 3,200

1977/78 1,000 2.80 2,8001978/79 1,1002.91 3,2001979/80 900 2.22 2,0001980/81 1,100 3.45 3,800

Winter sorghum crop calendar for most of Mexico 1981/82 1,400 2.86 4,000I ..~;."",..~"" ,..-'"""1--"1 1""_1 1982/83 1,100 2.55 2,800 I PLANT I 1983/84 1,400 2.86 4,000

~ 1984/85 1,300 3.15 4,1001985/86 1,300 2.85 3,700


Winter sorghum accounts for about 35-40 percent of 1987/88 1,375 2.91 4,000the total crop and is primarily grown in the Northeast 1988/89 1,100 2.83 3,110(Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas) and west coast 1989/90 1,300 2.88 3,750

.1990/91 1,300 2.85 3,700(Slnoloa). 1991/92 820 3.17 2,600

1992/93 700 3.40 2,380

1988/89-1992/93average 1,044 3.00 3,108


54r

,

~l

Mexico: Sugarcanell

Climate stations

Percent of total productionby state (1991/92)Veracruz 32%Oaxaca 11%Jalisco.. 11 % Mexico: Historical sugarcane statisticsSan LuIS POtOSI 9%Sinaloa 6% Sugar- RawTamaulipas 5% Crop Year Area Yield cane sugar

Morelos 4% 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I 1,000 IMichoacan 4% 1970/71 417 62.31 25,985 2,475Nayaril 4% 1971/72 414 63.42 26,254 2,520Tabasco 4% 1972/73 440 67.84 29,849 2,769Puebla 3% 1973/74 447 68.21 30492 2805Chiapas 3% 1974/75 450 64.33 28:949 2:696

1975/76 435 62.61 27,237 2,698These states ac~ount for 92% of 1976/77 416 67 18 27 947 2 6961991/92 production. ., ,

1977/78 445 72.69 32,348 3,0291978/79 463 73.14 33,865 3,0581979/80 479 65.43 31,343 2,7631980/81 439 65.32 28,677 2,5181981/82 450 69.22 31,150 2,8421982/83 475 68.38 32,482 3,078

Sugarcane crop calendar for most of Mexico 1983/84 495 70.19 34,746 3,242~ ;~~~; I._I___I___;~ 1984/85 540 70.56 38,100 3,436

PLANT/ PLANT/ 1985/86 543 74.31 40,350 3,928

HARVEST HARVEST 1986/87 597 69.30 41,372 3,9701987/88 561 66.39 37,244 3,806

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUl AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1988/89 542 66.24 35,900 3,678

1989/90 511 68.10 34,800 3,1001990/91 525 68.57 36,000 3,9001991/92 519 68.02 35,300 3,5001992/93 530 74.90 39,700 4,330

1988/89-1992/93average 525 69.16 36,340 3,702

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACiliTY (NOAA/USDA)

55

I

I

,j

Mexico: Coffee J

.-

Legend

~

Climate stations

Percent of total production

by state (1992/93) . H ." I ff t t " t '

MexIco: Istorlca co ee s a IS ICSChiapas 32%

Veracruz 24% * .

Oaxaca 19% Crop Year Area Yield Prod.

Puebla 15% 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

Guerrero 6% 1970/71 329 9.73 3,200

0 1971/72 381 8.92 3,400These s:ates account for 96 Yo of 1992/93 1972/73 374 10.47 3,914

production. 1973/7 4 379 9.23 3,500

1974/75 363 11.10 4,030

1975/76 373 11.09 4,136

1976/77 356 9.64 3,431

1977/78 356 9.27 3,301

1978/79 356 11.30 4,022

1979/80 356 10.11 3,600

1980/81 356 10.85 3,862

1981/82 356 10.96 3,900

Coffee crop calendar for most of Mexico 1982/83 395 11.47 4,530

~ ~~:~;...I I.._I_"_~ 1983/84 390 11.62 4,530

I BLOOM I 1984/85 380 11.18 4,250

HARVEST HARVEST 1985/86 400 12.07 4,826

1986/87 404 13.11 5,297JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1987/88 440 10.72 4,717

1988/89 580 9.48 5,500

1989/90 530 9.62 5,100

1990/91 530 8.58 4,550

1991/92 580 7.97 4,620

1992/93 570 7.33 4,180

1988/89.

1992/93-

average 558 8.60 4,790

* Bearing trees.


56

~IIIIIII

Mexico: Oranges

LegendMajor growing areas withprincipal cities

~ Climate stations

Percent of total production Mexico: Historical orange statistics

by state (1991/92)Veracruz 55% Crop Year Area' Yield Prod.

San Luis Potosi 12% 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 tTamaulipas 8% 1970/71 na na 1,310Sonora 6% 1971/72 na na 1,130Yucatan 5% 1972/73 na na 1,410Nuevo Leon 4% 1973/74 na na 1,280

0 1974/75 na na 1,230These states account for 90 Yo of 1975/76 na na 1,2801991/92 production. 1976/77 na na 1,710

1977/78 na na 1,2901978/79 na na 1,2801979/80 na na 1,630

Orange crop calendar for most of Mexico 1980/81 na na 1,6001981/82 na na 1,650

~ ~~~~ I I___I___~ 1982/83 na na 1,380

I BLOOM I 1983/84 94 13.83 1,300

HARVEST HARVEST 1984/85 65 15.38 1,000

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOY DEC 1985/86 70 20.14 1,4101986/87 73 23.05 1,6831987/88 96 19.79 1,9001988/89 112 17.86 2,0001989/90 160 11.88 1,9001990/91 170 13.53 2,3001991/92 185 11.89 2,2001992/93 205 13.17 2,700

1988/89-1992/93.average 166 13.67 2,220

na = Not availableJOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA) 'Bearing trees.

57

I

,1

I

Mexico: Vegetable crops for export ~,

Legend)

~ Climate stations

OnionsPeak Harvest:

Mar-Apr

ProcessedBroccoli/Califiower

Peak Harvest:Jan-Mar

Sinaloa vegetable area

Tomatoes(75% of Export

Production)

Cucumbers

EggplantGreen beans

SquashSweet peppers

Los (90% of Export

Production)

Peak Harvest:

Dec-May


58.

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~IIIIIIIIII I

South America: Average freeze dates (00 C)Average date of last spring freeze (August-October)

...

Note: Period of record is from 1977-1991. Dueto the short period of record, low station density,and local climate variations, these maps should beconsidered as a general representation.

...

LEGENDA = Freezes occur ~fter specified date

8 = Freezes occur 2efore specified date

Freezes occur north of' this line in less than

half of the years

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USOA)

63

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85

-

Europe: Political boundaries, leading producers

.I~ 0"' ~...'/ -1 .

\0 POLAND o'

J } ....GERMANY. '

"l\ .~o ')0 1"". 0 0 0"\.. c: .CZECH'" -

.7~ .'" REPUBUC """'r.. ..SLOVAKWXF.MBOURG ) :"- .0 -." " r- ~ REPUBUC

( -<: AUSlRIA. ,". -J I- /'.~ .0 "'\.FRANCE ' .-., '0" ) \.

J"SwnZER~',t" o'{. : _.0 ,.HUNGARY ." '\, ~.::JP.. ." .-<" ROMANIA,0 .

n'ALY FORMER. . r o r.. .

~GOSLAVIA '~- 0 ,_.

). BULGARIA't" .~ ' .f"....

POR7U' 'SPAIN ~~~",a .

<7 ',,'(/ ...~, ~

4 "!)~ 00"1. ,,'"

, I"'. oQ .,. r :Irq-0 J (1

~.

Top 5 European producers for selected crops (1988/89-1992/93 average)

Barley Corn RapeseedGermany 20% France 24% Germany 24%France 15% Former Yugoslavia 16% France 24%

Spain 13% Romania 15% Poland 14%

United Kingdom 11 % Italy 12% United Kingdom 14%

Denmark 7% Hungary 7% Denmark 7%

Sugarbeets* Sunflowerseed WheatFrance 21% France 37% France 26%Germany 19% Spain 18% Germany 12%Poland 8% Hungary 12% United Kingdom 11 %

Italy 8% Romania 10% Italy 7%

United Kingdom 6% Bulgaria 7% Poland 7%

.Based on total raw sugar production.


86

,

~..,,,$-l'

<7'":'{] ~, ~

~~-(l~ p

~~Elevations above 300 meters ( -1,000 feet)

Elevations above 900 meters ( -3,000 feet)

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOANUSDA)

87

jGeneral climate features j

~ ./'-"",- ~) Ec ~

~ ...\

~

~ .9.1' .No close U.S. analog

.Extreme south: mild summer, cold winter, j.year -round precipitation .

.North: Cold to mild summer, very cold !arctic winter ,

.Growing season": May to October j,~

.A

.Similar to U.S. Pacific Northwest .Similar to U.S. Midwest & Northeast .

.Mild summer; cool winter 1 .Mild summer, cold winter with frequent

.Occasional severe North Atlantic storms snowcover; periodic storminess t

..Growing season": April to October ~

"- ," """'\ ..'. r..v" '" \

" "~ .' , ~,"~' I '"~

.,.., -, ""\,.. .-,- IDo .' ,..JDc"" .

..4 ""' ")" "'\.. " -< :

I."..

sQ I;:) .Similar to California

Southwestern Europe Hot, dry summer south; mild winter but....Complex but similar to U.S. Southwest snow In mountains

...Growing season": March to November.Warm to hot & dry summer, mild to cool with winter crop growth in the south

winter with periodic storms'"

.Growing season": Nearly year-round with .slow growth from December to February ~

This climate classification is based on the Koppen- Trewartha system as presented in "World Climates"by Willy Rudloff (1981):

as -Steppe or Semi-Arid; Cr -Subtropical rain; Cs -Subtropical winter rain; Do -Temperate Oceanic;

Dc -Temperate Continental; Eo -Subarctic Oceanic; Ec -Subarctic Contintental.

"Growing season based on average temperatures of at least f C for cool-season crops and 1 rf' C for warm-season crops.


.,

88 1

,I

I

.

Europe: Average length of growing season (days)

.0, , , ~:, ':':':~ :;,;:,"

~

.v

~I

~ 2

~

2,

~,,,

t~'

180 Days or less


89.

"~.._~-- ~,.

.

Europe: Average freeze datesAverage date of

last spring freeze ""'",

1f

AfterMar 1

After April 15

<7"'

.~.

Average date of :

first autumn freeze,"", :p.,

~

BeforeDec 1

Before November 1

..JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA) ~

90

~~ --

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cj bO 00~ " OJ

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Degrees C

~0eo<

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.c ~ ~ b.~. 'I.. .(!j -0" , ~ 0:

= oe~ u ~Z z~,-' Q

91

Degrees C Degrees C Degrees C Degrees Co~o~o~ o~o~o~ o~o~o~ o~o~o~N--. N--. N--. N--.

0 0u~ Z "0 Z

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Degrees C Degrees C Degrees C Degrees CO~O o~o~o~

o~o~o~ o~o~o~ -, ~o~ N--'N--' N--, ,

0 0

Z Z

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-<0

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= ffie." B.-~~ ~;)\"r) Degrees C ~U -..J o~o~o~ §~ N--'!:i

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~ ~ i r& ..(~w) UOnel!d!:>eJdZ z ~

92

r

I.

Degrees C Degrees C.onoonoon onoonoon(\1(\1-- (\1(\1--I,

a., cd Z

'"i 0~ -C/)..c

~ c(.c:;:; -, ~l

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(ww) UO!}EI!d!:>SJd (ww) UO!}EI!d!:>SJd g-<LL

~W:I:.--<

Degrees C Degrees C ~onoonoon onoonoon ~(\1(\1-- (\1(\1-- ~

:J.--J:Ja ~ 9;

Z V) ~0 t!I= -<0 C/) l? 6

c( t..~ 0\ ~ ~ -,

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.I' ~N ~~cooqo(\l O~CO"'(\1

~ \ ~ (Ww) UO!lel!d!:>SJd (';;w) UO!}el!d!:>SJd~ II)

~ ~= .~e ~ .-Degrees C Degrees C

on 0 on 0 on on 0 on 0 on~ ~ .> ro (\1(\1-- (\1(\1--U c:: -

"- (/)~ Q) a--

..Ib ro Z 0~ "~ Eo. =

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r...' 0.. U ~ = ~ S~ O"-Q) ~ 0

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= -=~U) 00000 00000-oQ"tJ O~CO"'(\1 O~CO"'(\1= O~c: --

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93

Bulgaria: Corn and wheat

Percent of total corn Percent of total wheatarea by province area by province

Legend

D 5% or less

[ill 6-15%

:::::::::::= 16% or more

~ Climate stations

Corn crop calendar for most of Bulgaria Winter wheat crop calendar for most of Bulgaria

I ~ I I ~ I1 I___I I.ftftl...,.1 , 1 I.)... 1~~~;~~~I.:~..lft~~1 1 I___I I._ftl...,.I"~~~~lft~ftl~~~I..~..lft~~1JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOY DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOY DEC

Bulgaria: Bulgaria:Historical corn statistics Historical wheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Crop Area Yield Prod.

Year 1,000 ha Vha 1,000 I Year 1,000 ha Vha 1,000 I

1970/71 635 3.74 2,375 1970/71 1,014 2.99 3,0321971/72 655 3.84 2,518 1971/72 1,013 3.06 3,095

1972/73 689 4.32 2,974 1972/73 961 3.73 3,5821973/74 627 4.12 2,586 1973/74 934 3.49 3,2581974/75 523 3.11 1,626 1974/75 904 3.36 3,0341975/76 652 4.33 2,822 1975/76 912 3.29 2,9961976/77 731 4.15 3,031 1976/77 918 3.82 3,5111971/78 702 3.58 2,513 1971/78 910 3.72 3,3841978/79 601 3.72 2,236 1978/79 935 3.71 3,4661979/80 666 4.84 3,223 1979/80 958 3.50 3,3551980/81 584 3.86 2,256 1980/81 968 3.97 3,8471981/82 563 4.26 2,401 1981/82 1,032 4.31 4,4431982/83 621 5.50 3,418 1982/83 1,059 4.64 4,9131983/84 596 5.23 3,115 1983/84 1,128 3.19 3,6001984/85 542 5.52 2,994 1984/85 1,126 4.29 4,8361985/86 435 3.10 1,350 1985/86 1,067 2.88 3,0681986/87 573 4.97 2,848 1986/87 1,127 3.84 4,3271987/88 497 3.74 1,858 1987/88 1,085 3.82 4,1491988/89 490 3.18 1,557 1988/89 1,182 4.01 4,7431989/90 563 4.30 2,421 1989/90 1,138 4.75 5,4021990/91 400 3.10 1,241 1990/91 1,163 4.38 5,0951991/92 560 4.96 2,775 1991/92 1,200 3.75 4,5001992/93 615 1.59 980 1992/93 1,107 3.11 3,440

1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 526 3.43 1,795 1992/93 1,158 4.00 4,636

average average


94

.c u .c ut) w t) wGI 0 GI 0N NU U~ ..GI GIE E~ ~ .. ., 0 I- 0 c:

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~ = ~~ ~ U ~~ ~

e=~

95

, ,.,

Denmark: Barley, rapeseed, and wheat

~ Climate stationsC7 Winter crop calendar for most of Denmark

I ~ I"" I,..,I~~~ I...~I.~~I..."I",.,I..~__I___I I___I

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NaY DEC

q Summer crop calendar for most of Denmark

I ~ I

I...,I___I...~I.~~I..."I,...,I".. I.,,~~~ I___IJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NaY DEC

Denmark: Denmark: Denmark:Historical barley statistics Historical rapeseed statistics Historical wheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Crop Area Yield Prod. Crop Area Yield Prod.

Year 1,000ha Uha 1,000t Year 1,000ha Uha 1,000t Year 1,OOOha Uha 1,000t

1970/71 1,352 3.56 4,813 1970/71 13 2.08 27 1970/71 114 4.49 5121971/72 1,370 3.98 5,458 1971/72 25 2.00 50 1971/72 121 4.83 5851972/73 1,406 3.96 5,571 1972/73 31 1.45 45 1972/73 135 4.39 5921973/74 1,468 3.75 5,507 1973/74 46 2.00 92 1973/74 123 4.41 5421974/75 1,437 4.15 5,967 1974/75 48 2.33 112 1974/75 110 5.38 5921975/76 1,443 3.57 5,156 1975/76 72 1.82 131 1975/76 102 5.10 5201976/77 1,478 3.25 4,801 1976/77 44 1.84 81 1976/77 127 4.66 5921977/78 1,527 4.02 6,143 1977/78 39 1.97 77 1977/78 116 5.22 6061978/79 1,570 4.01 6,301 1978/79 47 1.94 91 1978/79 122 5.26 6421979/80 1,629 4.09 6,657 1979/80 65 2.31 150 1979/80 110 5.35 5891980/81 1,577 3.83 6,044 1980/81 103 2.18 225 1980/81 139 4.69 6521981/82 1,541 3.92 6,044 1981/82 132 2.20 290 1981/82 150 5.57 8351982/83 1,485 4.28 6,357 1982/83 152 2.20 335 1982/83 180 6.71 1,2071983/84 1,359 3.25 4,423 1983/84 162 1.91 309 1983/84 243 6.37 1,5481984/85 1,180 5.15 6,072 1984/85 191 2.48 474 1984/85 333 7.35 2,4461985/86 1,104 4.76 5,251 1985/86 217 2.51 544 1985/86 340 5.80 1,9721986/87 1,078 4.76 5,134 1986/87 227 2.72 618 1986/87 354 6.15 2,1771987/88 943 4.55 4,292 1987/88 250 2.22 556 1987/88 398 5.74 2,2851988/89 1,165 4.65 5,419 1988/89 199 2.53 504 1988/89 309 6.73 2,0801989/90 988 5.02 4,959 1989/90 231 2.84 655 1989/90 446 7.23 3,2241990/91 910 5.48 4,988 1990/91 270 2.94 793 1990/91 534 7.40 3,9531991/92 944 5.34 5,041 1991/92 280 2.59 726 1991/92 521 7.04 3,6701992/93 892 3.33 2,974 1992/93 171 2.37 406 1992/93 581 6.17 3,583

1988/89- 1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 980 4.76 4,676 1992/93 230 2.65 617 1992/93 478 6.91 3,302average average average

Percent of European Union Percent of European Union Percent of European Unionbarley production rapeseed production wheat production

(1988/89-1992/93 average) (1988/89-1992/93 average) (1988/89-1992/93 average)~% (!) 0% c5

Spring barley is about 80 percent Winter rapeseed is about 76 percent Winter wheat is about 97 percentof total barley production. of total rapeseed production. of total wheat production.


96

Finland: Crop statisticsPercent of total arable land under cultivation by province

Use of arable land

(1989/89-1993/94 average for six crops)

Winterwheat

2%

LAPPLANDS Sugarbeets

3%2% y

4

Legend

D 0-4%

5-10%

1% Greater than 10%ISLANDS~ ! [§] Climate stations

~AD


97

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Germany: Winter and spring barleyPercent of total winter barley area Percent of total spring barley area(60% of total barley area) (40% of total barley area)

0-4% Greater than 10%

5-9% Climate stations

Winter barley crop calendar for most of Germany crop calendar for most of Germany

I ~ I ~1 I_-_I I.__I ~~i I~-_I_-_I I___1JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Germany:Percent of European Union Percent of total German barley production barley production HistorIcal barley statIstIcs

(1988/89-1992/93 avera ge ) (1988/89-1992/93 average) C .rop Area Yield Prod.

Year 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001Former 1991/92 2,535 5.72 14,494

G East 1992/93 2,408 5.06 12,196

ermanyFormer 1991/92-

West 1992/93 2,472 5.39 13,345

Germany average

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Hungary: CornPercent of total area by county

See Northeast Europe landforms andclimate map for nearby climate stations.

Hungary:Legend Historical corn statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.

I I 0-4°~ Year 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001I I 0 1970/71 1,189 3.38 4,013

5-9°~ 1971/72 1,321 3.58 4,7320 1972/73 1,392 3.99 5,554

1973/74 1,461 4.08 5,963Greater than 10% 1974/75 1,461 4.24 6,195

1975/76 1,413 5.01 7,0801976/77 1,339 3.84 5,1411977/78 1,281 4.69 6,0071978/79 1,283 5.19 6,6551979/80 1,352 5.47 7,3961980/81 1,229 5.43 6,6731981/82 1,163 6.02 6,9981982/83 1,130 6.86 7,752

Corn crop calendar for most of Hungary 1983/84 1,102 5.68 6,2561 '_-- L_;~J 1 '."_~.'_J".J 1984/85 1,107 5.88 6,514 ~ 1985/86 1,053 6.47 6,818

1986/87 1,118 6.49 7,261I HARVEST I 1987/88 1 144 6.32 7234

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1988/89 1:103 5.47 6:0281989/90 1,084 6.22 6,7471990/91 1,082 3.99 4,3171991/92 1,106 7.00 7,7451992/93 1,164 3.70 4,301

1988/89-1992/93 1,108 5.28 5,828

average


110

.~IIIIIIIIII~.

Hungary: Sunflowerseed and wheatPercent of total sunflowerseed Percent of total wheat

area by county area by county

See Northeast Europe landforms andG reate r than 10% climate map for nearby climate stations;

Hungary corn map for county names.

Sunflower crop calendar for most of Hungary Winter wheat crop calendar for moat of Hungary

I ~ I IE~ 5 II I~~~ I...~I.~~I ,I."., I,." I ~~~~~.,_..I~~_I I I___I I.~_I ~~ I__~I___I.,_..I~__IJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Hungary: H~nga.ry: ..Historical sunflowerseed Historical wheat statistics

statistics Crop Area Yield Prod.Year 1,OOOha tlha 1,0001

Crop Area Yield Prod. 1970/711,274 2.13 2,718Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1971/72 1,273 3.08 3,9151975/76 129 1.19 154 1972/73 1,317 3.10 4,0891976/77 135 1.37 185 1973/74 1,294 3.48 4,4981977/78 138 1.53 211 1974/75 1,324 3.75 4,9681978/79 151 1.48 223 1975/76 1,251 3.20 4,0051979/80 228 1.83 417 1976/77 1,325 3.88 5,1431980/81 273 1.67 456 1977/78 1,311 4.05 5,3151981/82 302 2.08 627 1978/79 1,324 4.28 5,6731982/83 297 1.96 582 1979/80 1,135 3.26 3,7031983/84 287 2.07 593 1980/81 1,276 4.76 6,0771984/85 317 1.89 600 1981/82 1,151 4.01 4,6141985/86 343 1.96 673 1982/83 1,310 4.39 5,7511986/87 391 2.19 857 1983/84 1,355 4.40 5,9681987/88 376 2.09 787 1984/85 1,361 5.41 7,3671988/89 363 1.95 708 1985/86 1,358 4.84 6,5781989/90 356 1.94 692 1986/87 1,318 4.40 5,7931990/91 346 1.95 673 1987/88 1,301 4.42 5,7481991/92 389 2.05 797 1988/89 1,281 5.44 6,9751992/93 427 1.77 756 1989/90 1,242 5.24 6,5091988/89- 1990/911,121 5.50 6,1611992/93 376 1.93 725 1991/92 1,152 5.22 6,008average 1992/93 848 4.06 3,444

1988/89-1992/93 1,129 5.09 5,819

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA) average

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Romania: Corn

Percent of total area by county

Romania:Historical corn statisticsCrop Area Yield Prod. Greater than 5%Year 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I ..1970/71 3,084 2.12 6,538 Climate stations1971/72 3,131 2.51 7,8501972/73 3,197 3.07 9,8171973/74 2,957 2.50 7,3971974/75 2,963 2.51 7,4401975/76 3,305 2.80 9,2411976/77 3,378 3.43 11,5831977/78 3,318 3.05 10,1141978/79 3,179 3.21 10,2081979/80 3,311 3.75 12,425 Corn crop calendar for most of Romania1980/81 3,288 3.39 11,1531,---,.,-,=."... ~---,._,___IPLANT 1981/82 3,327 3.57 11,8921982/83 2,764 4.57 12,620 I HARVEST!1983/84 2,935 4.08 11,982 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC1984/85 3,091 4.29 13,2741985/86 3,090 3.40 10,5001986/87 3,000 4.00 12,0001987/88 2,900 3.62 10,5001988/89 2,900 3.45 10,0001989/90 2,733 2.47 6,7601990/91 2,470 2.75 6,8001991/92 2,575 4.08 10,5001992/93 3,334 2.05 6,8291988/89-1992/93 2,802 2.96 8,178averageJOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)123

"""

Romania: Wheat

Percent of total area by county

Romania:

Historical wheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. LegendYear 1,000ha Vha 1,00011970/71 2,321 1.45 3,356 I I 0-2% Greater than 5%1971/72 2,501 2.24 5,595 I I

1972/73 2,522 2.40 6,047 3-4~ ~ Climate stations1973/74 2,352 2.33 5,478 0 I \..IX I

1974/75 2,385 2.09 4,994

1975/76 2,345 2.07 4,860

1976/77 2,388 2.82 6,724

1977/78 2,269 2.85 6,463

1978/79 2,284 2.74 6,250

1979/80 2,100 2.22 4,666

1980/81 2,244 2.86 6,427

1981/82 2,106 2.52 5,305

1982/83 2,151 3.01 6,465

1983/84 2,232 2.34 5,220

1984/85 2,360 3.21 7,578 IW::I~'_:';O'::::::.':::'.~:;;~I._,.,_"Jheat cro calendar for most of Romania

1985/86 2,355 2.41 5,665 I PLANT I

1986/87 2,530 2.65 6,700

1987/88 2,400 2.50 6,000 I HARVEST I

1988/89 2,400 3.50 8,4001989/90 2,319 3.39 7,857 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

1990/91 2,263 3.23 7,311

1991/92 2,180 2.52 5,490

1992/93 1,475 2.07 3,048

1988/89-1992/93 2,127 2.94 6,421average

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACiliTY (NOAA/USDA)

124

.~IIIIIIII'.

Spain: Barley and wheatPercent of barley area by region Percent of wheat area by region

Legend

D 0-5% Greater than 20%6-20% ~ Climate stations

Winter barley crop calendar for most of Spain Winter wheat crop calendar for most of Spain

I ~1...'___i I.__I ~.._I___I___=IPLANTI I___I I.__I.""~~I.,._I___I___I.._,.I___I I HARVEST I

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Percent of European Union barley production Percent of European Union wheat production

(1988/89-1992/93 average) (1988/89-1992/93 average)

~ crSpain: Spain:Historical barley statistics Historical wheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Crop Area Yield Prod.Year 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001 Year 1,000ha Vha 1,0001

1975/76 3,262 2.06 6,728 1975/76 2,661 1.62 4,3021976/77 3,240 1.69 5,473 1976/77 2,772 1.60 4,4361977/78 3,348 2.02 6,766 1977/78 2,715 1.50 4,0641978/79 3,389 2.38 8,068 1978/79 2,752 1.75 4,8061979/80 3,477 1.80 6,252 1979/80 2,551 1.60 4,0821980/81 3,575 2.43 8,705 1980/81 2,698 2.24 6,0391981/82 3,507 1.36 4,758 1981/82 2,635 1.29 3,4081982/83 3,615 1.46 5,269 1982/83 2,662 1.66 4,4101983/84 3,735 1.78 6,662 1983/84 2,603 1.64 4,2681984/85 4,023 2.68 10,789 1984/85 2,306 2.62 6,0521985/86 4,246 2.52 10,698 1985/86 2,043 2.61 5,3291986/874,340 1.71 7,431 1986/872,114 2.08 4,3921987/88 4,352 2.13 9,282 1987/88 2,223 2.59 5,7681988/89 4,175 2.89 12,070 1988/89 2,333 2.65 6,1731989/90 4,260 2.14 9,100 1989/90 2,295 2.27 5,2001990/91 4,359 2.16 9,414 1990/91 2,006 2.37 4,7591991/92 4,371 2.09 9,141 1991/92 2,257 2.22 5,0001992/93 4,012 1.52 6,105 1992/93 2,293 1.90 4,356

1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 4,235 2.16 9,166 1992/93 2,237 2.28 5,098average average

125

Spain: Corn and sunflowerseedPercent of corn area by region Percent of sunflowerseed area by region

C~] 0-5% Greater than 20%

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 6-20% ~ Climate stations

Corn cro calendar for most of S ain Sunflower crop calendar for most of Spain

I PLANT 1 IC ~ I

HARVEST 1 1___1 1.__1 1 1 \...~H;A~R_V~;S:~~i..~"I~~~1

JAN EC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Percent of European Union corn production Percent of European Union sunflowerseed production

(1988/89-1992/93 average) (1988/89-1992/93 average)

~'1%Spain: Spain: HistoricalHistorical corn statistics sunflowerseed statistics


Year 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001 Year 1,000ha Vha 1,00011975/76 485 3.70 1,794 1975/76 792 0.53 4161976/77 432 3.58 1,545 1976/77 507 0.62 3121977/78 442 4.28 1,892 1977/78 545 0.71 3881978/79 443 4.44 1,969 1978/79 584 0.80 4701979/80 467 4.74 2,212 1979/80 638 0.79 5041980/81 454 5.10 2,314 1980/81 668 0.74 4951981/82 429 5.03 2,157 1981/82 750 0.54 4051982/83 418 5.57 2,330 1982/83 870 0.86 7501983/84 354 5.09 1,803 1983/84 950 0.79 7501984/85 440 5.75 2,529 1984/85 1,007 1.09 1,1001985/86 526 6.49 3,414 1985/86 1,215 0.81 9901986/87 524 6.53 3,424 1986/87 1,070 0.86 9201987/88 540 6.53 3,526 1987/88 994 1.01 1,0061988/89 556 6.40 3,557 1988/89 921 1.22 1,1231989/90 510 6.08 3,100 1989/90 977 0.95 9291990/91 450 6.22 2,800 1990/91 1,201 1.08 1,3001991/92 490 6.33 3,100 1991/92 1,070 0.84 9001992/93 390 6.41 2,500 1992/93 1,366 0.98 1,343

1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 479 6.29 3,011 1992/93 1,107 1.01 1,119

average average


126

.-111111111.

Spain: Cotton and ricePercent of cotton area by region Percent of rice area by region

Greater than 20%

Climate stations

Cotton crop calendar for most of Spain Rice crop calendar for most of Spain

I~ I I~ II I___I I.__I ,I I I ~~~~~~___I I I_-_I I.__I I I I ~~ I___IJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Percent of European Union cotton production Percent of European Union rice production

(1988/89-1992/93 average) (1988/89-1992/93 average)

Spain: Spain:Historical cotton statistics Historical rice statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Yield Prod.

Year 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 Ibs. Crop Area (Rough) (Milled)

1975/76 62 694 b1a~~s Year 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I

1976/77 56 696 179 1975/76 62 6.10 2611977/78 78 603 216 1976/77 64 6.34 2801978/79 43 744 147 1977/78 68 5.59 2621979/80 50 820 188 1978/79 68 5.90 2771980/81 63 937 271 1979/80 69 6.20 2951981/82 72 972 322 1980/81 68 6.37 3031982/83 49 1122 253 1981/82 69 6.43 3111983/84 40 1'000 184 1982/83 68 5.90 281

1984/85 60 '917 253 1983/84 41 5.46 157

1985/86 64 1078 317 1984/85 73 5.99 3061986/87 79 1'089 395 1985/86 74 6.20 3211987/88 79 1'051 381 1986/87 79 6.25 3461988/89 137 '810 510 1987/88 76 6.36 3381989/90 68 897 280 1988/89 80 6.24 3491990/91 84 940 363 1989/90 59 5.76 2381991/92 79 1,051 381 1990/91 90 6.34 4001992/93 75 930 322 1991/92 94 6.23 410

1992/93 86 6.55 3941988/89-1992/93 89 926 371 1988/89-average 1992/93 81 6.22 358

averageJOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY NOAA/USDA

127

..-,'"

Sweden: Crop areas and barleyPercent of total barley area

Provinces1- STOCKHOLMS2 -UPPSAIA3 -SODERMANlANDS4 -OSTERGO7I.ANDS : :

S-JONKOPINGS o.

6-KRONOBERGS

7 -KAlMAR

8 -GO7IANDS9-BLEKINGE Provinces not shown:

IO-KRlS11ANSTADS Norrbottens = 1%II -MAlMOHUS Vasterbottens = 3%12-HAUANDS Jamtlands = 1%13 -GOTEBORGS &0 BOHUS Vasternorrlands = 2%

14-ALVSBORGSIS -SKARABORGS16 -VARMLANDS

17-0REBRO Legend18-VAS7MANLANDS II 0 3 01 .

G t th 10 °1

19-KOPPARBERGS ~ -10 """"" rea er an 10

20-GAVLEBORGS LID 4-10% [Q!] Climate stations

21 -VASTERNORRLANDS22 -JAMILANDS23 -VASTERBOn"ENS Spring barley crop calendar for most of Sweden

24 -NORRBOn"ENS I ~ I

'0...1___1 1.__1 1 1 I..~~~~I.,~..I~~~IJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Sweden:

Inland lakes Historical barley statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.

Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

Percent of total crop 1975/76 605 3.15 1,903

area of 7 crops 1976/77 554 3.29 1,825

( 1991 d t ) 1977/78 598 3.29 1,966a a 1978/79 674 3.61 2,434

Spring 1979/80 704 3.33 2,346

rapeseed 1980/81 648 3.35 2,1721% 1981/82 681 3.60 2,452

1982/83 635 3.74 2,378~~r 1983/84 618 3.28 2,026

3 1984/85 644 4.24 2,733

1985/86 667 3.46 2,309

1986/87 638 3.65 2,327

1987/88 545 3.50 1,907

1988/89 537 3.50 1,879

1989/90 477 3.92 1,870

1990/91 461 4.60 2,122

1991/92 460 4.21 1,9351992/93 432 2.92 1,261

1988/89-1992/93 473 3.83 1,813

averageJOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOANUSDA)

128

~IIIIIII'~ ' ~ :.-.

Sweden: Oats and winter wheatPercent of oat area by province Percent of winter wheat area by province

Legend

CJ 0-3%~ 4-10°1~ 10

See the Sweden crop areapage for province names.

10.. ~:::::::::m.:::o' ::~O~; I___lat cro calendar for most of Sweden Winter wheat crop calendar for most of Sweden~ I PLANT I

I HARVEST! I HARVEST!

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1", I", I." I", I." ;~;,oo ::::1'°' 1o,}

Sweden: Sweden: HistoricalHistorical oat statistics winter wheat statistics


Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t1975/76 464 2.85 1,321 1975/76 301 4.83 1,4551976/77 450 2.78 1,251 1976/77 395 4.46 1,7631977/78 458 3.09 1,416 1977/78 374 4.07 1,5221978/79 453 3.42 1,550 1978/79 287 4.49 1,2901979/80 457 3.33 1,524 1979/80 243 4.24 1,0301980/81 452 3.47 1,567 1980/81 288 4.14 1,1931981/82 474 3.83 1,816 1981/82 224 4.76 1,0661982/83 477 3.49 1,663 1982/83 283 5.27 1,4901983/84 404 3.14 1,268 1983/84 336 5.13 1,7221984/85 428 4.45 1,904 1984/85 315 5.64 1,7761985/86 445 3.75 1,668 1985/86 277 4.83 1,3381986/87 456 3.26 1,486 1986/87 311 5.56 1,7301987/88 397 3.63 1,440 1987/88 325 4.79 1,5581988/89 424 3.14 1,330 1988/89 251 5.16 1,2951989/90 411 3.54 1,455 1989/90 285 6.14 1,7501990/91 358 4.42 1,584 1990/91 335 6.70 2,2431991/92 345 4.13 1,426 1991/92 255 5.81 1,4811992/93 342 2.36 807 1992/93 264 5.33 1,406

1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 376 3.52 1,320 1992/93 278 5.83 1,635

average average


129

Sweden: Ra eseed and ePercent of winter rapeseed Percent of winter ryearea by province area by province

Legend

c=J 0-3%., mm 4 10°1'.' Lililli -10.ii:iiili::i:i:i:i:: Greater than 10% 'I.

~ Climate stations

Inland lakes

See the Sweden crop areapage for province names.

Winter rapeseed crop calendar for most of Sweden Winter rye crop calendar for mos: of Sweden

I ~ I I ~ II I_-_I I.__I I~~ I~-_I_~_I I___I I I_-_I I.__I ;~~~; I~-_I_-_I I___IJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNJUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Sweden: Sweden:Historical raceseed statistics Historical rye statistics


Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t Year 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 t

1975/76 164 1.77 290 1975/76 95 3.44 3271976/77 140 1.76 247 1976/77 122 3.50 4271977/78 120 1.97 236 1977/78 111 3.05 3391978/79 151 1.91 289 1978/79 81 3.68 2981979/80 155 1.70 264 1979/80 59 3.31 1951980/81 172 1.66 285 1980/81 66 3.41 2251981/82 165 1.71 282 1981/82 51 3.51 1791982/83 166 1.93 320 1982/83 54 3.91 2111983/84 161 1.98 318 1983/84 62 3.82 2371984/85 164 1.99 327 1984/85 62 3.98 2471985/86 168 1.90 320 1985/86 46 3.43 1581986/87 171 1.88 321 1986/87 39 3.95 1541987/88 164 1.52 250 1987/88 40 3.43 1371988/89 146 1.71 249 1988/89 36 3.56 128

1989/90 175 2.11 370 1989/90 68 4.69 319

1990/91 163 2.25 367 1990/91 71 4.72 3351991/92 145 1.74 252 1991/92 42 3.93 1651992/93 127 1.94 247 1992/93 33 4.12 136

1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 151 1.95 297 1992/93 50 4.20 217average average


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134

Former Yugoslavia: Corn and wheatPercent of total corn area Percent of total wheat area

by republic by republic

Legend

D Less than 5% Greater than 20%

5-20% ~ Climate stationsI

Corn crop calendar for most of Former Yugoslavia Winter wheat crop calendar for most of Fmr. Yugoslavia

I ~ I I ~ I1 1___1 1.__1...,.1 1 I I~ I___I I I_-_I I.__I I ;~~~~--_I_-_I I___IJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Former Yugoslavia: Former Yugoslavia:Historical corn statistics Historical wheat statistics


Year 1,000ha t/ha 1,000t Year 1,000ha I/ha 1,0001

1975/76 2,363 3.97 9,389 1975/76 1,615 2.73 4,4041976/77 2,374 3.84 9,106 1976/77 1,723 3.47 5,9791977/78 2,321 4.25 9,870 1977/78 1,604 3.49 5,5951978/79 2,130 3.56 7,585 1978/79 1,712 3.13 5,3551979/80 2,251 4.48 10,084 1979/80 1,524 2.96 4,5121980/81 2,202 4.23 9,317 1980/81 1,516 3.36 5,0911981/82 2,297 4.27 9,807 1981/82 1,386 3.08 4,270

.1982/83 2,246 4.95 11,126 1982/83 1,558 3.35 5,2181983/84 2,264 4.73 10,719 1983/84 1,609 3.43 5,5241984/85 2,331 4.84 11,293 1984/85 1,458 3.84 5,5951985/86 2,400 4.12 9,896 1985/86 1,348 3.59 4,8391986/87 2,369 5.29 12,526 1986/87 1,346 3.55 4,7761987/88 2,218 4.00 8,863 1987/88 1,455 3.62 5,272

.1988/89 2,269 3.39 7,697 1988/89 1,506 4.18 6,3001989/90 2,268 4.15 9,415 1989/90 1,479 3.79 5,5991990/91 2,229 3.02 6,724 1990/91 1,495 4.25 6,3591991/92 2,100 5.48 11,500 1991/92 1,547 4.35 6,725, 1992/93 2,263 2.94 6,650 1992/93 1,100 3.36 3,700

; 1988/89- 1988/89-1992/93 2,226 3.80 8,397 1992/93 1,425 3.99 5,737

~ average averaae


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TURKEY

[:illANATOLIA

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153

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154

-

1

Middle East and Egypt: Winter wheat"- Egypt: Historical

w. wheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod.C~,:~. Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

:::;"::.:':'::':::ill~!~::m : :~~~~~ ::~ ~:~: ~:~~~~ ..::::"~'~::::11977/78 507 3.35 1,697

,,1978/79 580 3.33 1,933

r 7 1979/80 584 3.18 1,856,

IRAN \ 1980/81 557 3.22 1,796

Pockets of wheat scattered ~ 1981/82 588 3.30 1,938

..::::: .throughout central Iran. I 1982/83 576 3.50 2,017

~ .(' l \ 1983/84 570 3.50 1,996I EGYPT ~ / SAUDIARAB1A --' 1984/85 491 3.70 1,815

: Mostly irrigated production 1985/86 498 3.76 1,873:;:: along southern coastal areas. 1986/87 507 3.80 1,929

.',. 1987/88 577 4.23 2,443:..'...:;' :::::::: Major growing are 1988/89 597 4.76 2,839

.:, 1989/90 630 5.05 3,183

: lliJ Climate stations 1990/91 740 5.79 4,286

1991/92 760 5.90 4,482

Winter wheat calendar for most of Middle East and E ypt 1992/93 878 5.26 4,617

I PLANT I 1988/89-1992/93 721 5.35 3,881

Northern ereas harvest the latest averageI HARVEST I

JAN DEC


Middle East *: Historical Turkey: Historical Iran: Historical Syria: Historical S. Arabia: Historical

winter wheat statistics w. wheat statistics w. wheat statistics w. wheat statistics w. wheat statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.Year 1,000ha t/ha 1,000t 1,000ha t/ha 1,000t 1,000ha tlha 1,000t 1,000ha tlha 1,000t 1,000ha tlha 1,000t

1975/76 17,196 1.17 20,082 8,500 1.35 11,500 5,200 1.07 5,575 1,692 0.92 1,550 53 3.64 193

1976/77 17,423 1.28 22,257 8,600 1.51 13,000 5,000 1.10 5,500 1,590 1.13 1,790 57 3.60 205

1977/78 16,325 1.29 21,042 8,500 1.59 13,500 5,000 1.01 5,025 1,528 0.80 1,217 58 2.59 150

1978/79 17,092 1.29 21,965 8,600 1.55 13,300 5,000 1.11 5,525 1,555 1.06 1,651 58 3.02 175

1979/80 17,476 1.28 22,310 8,600 1.51 13,000 5,275 1.15 6,050 1,445 0.91 1,320 85 1.76 150

1980/81 17,870 1.29 23,125 8,600 1.51 13,000 5,925 1.00 5,925 1,449 1.54 2,238 67 2.10 141

1981/82 17,543 1.34 23,443 8,500 1.55 13,200 6,250 1.07 6,675 1,255 1.66 2,087 60 3.12 187

1982/83 16,928 1.40 23,723 8,600 1.60 13,800 6,200 1.08 6,675 1,222 1.27 1,556 137 3.01 412

1983/84 16,940 1.35 22,878 8,700 1.53 13,300 5,925 0.99 5,875 1,290 1.25 1,612 264 2.69 710

1984/85 16,833 1.35 22,710 8,600 1.55 13,300 5,960 1.04 6,200 1,107 0.96 1,068 470 2.98 1,402

1985/86 18,341 1.35 24,794 8,600 1.48 12,700 6,200 1.07 6,625 1,265 1.35 1,714 500 4.09 2,047

1986/87 18,380 1.47 27,042 8,700 1.61 14,000 6,300 1.20 7,550 1,350 1.37 1,850 556 4.12 2,290

1987/88 18,247 1.43 26,150 8,700 1.49 13,000 6,591 1.15 7,600 1,183 1.40 1,656 602 4.40 2,649

1988/89 18,083 1.66 30,038 8,750 1.83 16,000 6,150 1.18 7,265 1,100 1.88 2,067 726 4.50 3,267

1989/90 17,349 1.37 23,754 8,700 1.44 12,500 6,260 0.96 6,010 744 1.21 900 780 4.43 3,452

1990/91 18,572 1.67 30,977 8,750 1.83 16,000 6,500 1.23 8,000 1,100 1.57 1,726 771 4.64 3,580

1991/92 19,618 1.70 33,344 8,800 1.88 16,500 6,650 1.34 8,900 1,269 1.69 2,140 864 4.55 3,934

1992/93 20,334 1.70 34,507 8,800 1.76 15,500 7,200 1.42 10,200 1,380 2.03 2,800 907 4.49 4,070

1988/89-1992/93 18,791 1.62 30,524 8,760 1.75 15,300 6,552 1.23 8,075 1,119 1.68 1,927 810 4.52 3,661

average Turkey historically produces Iran historically produces Syria historically produces Saudi Arabia hist. produces44% of Middle East total. 3t% 01 Middle East total. 12% of Middle East total. 7% of Middle East total.

.For statistical purposes, the Middle East is comprised of the following countries:Bahrain, C Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, S United Arab Emirates, and Yemen

155

Middle East and Egypt: Cotton--;;:::-1..J' -

<.. 'I, Egypt:I", .> 9 Historical cotton statistics

\ "

~,.r '- Crop Area Yield Prod,

:' ti;;,... - I. :"",' ~ Year1 000 ha kg/ha 1 000 480 Ib:", ~ L..I :",,::, '::,,:,:,:,'~ ' "

J7 ~~~\ ') :,:.:.,.:,:" ,,:,,::::~:~!jj~~~' :ilijilijllllllll!j~:~ ~ :~~~~~ ~~: ~:~ ~ :b~a~~

.I \,~~~:::E:::::':: IRAN (1977/78 598 670 1,833

./ ""\ &.,. .',. .:: ( 1978/79 499 880 2,012

-~ ".,::::, L 1979/80 502 960 2,223

::~ ...',> "'-l L :::::,: I ~::~~:~ :~~ ~:~:~ ~::~~

':" /' ---L "-: 1982/83 447 1,030 2,117

,:~ '- 1983/84 425 990 1,934

1984/85 415 970 1,842

""'" M ..1985/86 454 960 1,998

':':': aJor growing 1986/87 443 910 1,851

EGYPT [EJ Climate stations 1987/88 416 840 1,612

1988/89 426 720 1,405

Cotton calendar for most of Middle East and Egypt 1989/90 422 680 1,323

1 ",' ~~~I.=_I ~"""",,_,_~"_I 1990/91 417 720 1,378 I PLANT I

1991/92 358 810 1,337

1992/93 357 990 1,621

I HARVEST I 1988/89-

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 1992/93 396 784 1,413

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA) average

Middle East *: Turkey: Historical Syria: Historical Iran: Historical

Historical cotton statistics cotton statistics cotton statistics cotton statistics

Crop Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod.

Year 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 lb. 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 lb. 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 lb. 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 lb.

bales bales bales bales

1975/76 1,312 650 3,913 670 720 2,205 208 760 726 291 470 634

1976/77 1,207 720 3,996 581 820 2,186 182 860 716 295 530 712

1977/78 1,444 690 4,579 778 740 2,641 187 810 694 316 560 818

1978/79 1,278 670 3,955 653 730 2,182 169 850 661 280 480 611

1979/80 1,151 700 3,706 612 780 2,186 154 830 588 215 460 455

1980/81 1,126 690 3,592 673 740 2,296 139 850 542 145 390 262

1981/82 1,162 700 3,748 654 750 2,241 143 910 597 194 400 358

1982/83 1,122 760 3,932 595 820 2,246 159 990 726 205 460 432

1983/84 1,135 820 4,267 614 850 2,398 173 1,120 891 184 500 418

1984/85 1,303 740 4,414 743 780 2,664 178 860 703 212 530 510

1985/86 1,190 770 4,198 660 780 2,379 170 950 744 188 560 487

1986/87 1,074 790 3,913 589 880 2,379 144 870 579 188 590 510

1987/88 1,058 780 3,798 586 920 2,466 129 740 441 196 540 487

1988/89 1,254 770 4,460 737 880 2,985 171 670 524 191 610 533

1989/90 1,248 750 4,290 725 850 2,834 158 810 588 228 500 524

1990/91 1,164 860 4,584 641 1,020 3,008 156 930 666 229 520 547

1991/92 1,095 830 4,189 599 940 2,577 170 1,070 836 207 570 542

1992/93 1,172 820 4,441 637 900 2,636 212 1,090 1,079 200 510 464

1988/89-

1992/93 1,187 806 4,393 668 918 2,808 173 914 739 211 542 522

average Turkey hlstorlcelly produces Syrle historically produces Iran historically produces

64% of Middle East total. 17% of Midd/e East total. 12% of Middle East total.

.For statistical purposes, the Middle East is comprised of the following countries:

Bahrain, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (North and South).

156

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190

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191

Indochina: RiceRice calendar for molt of Indochina

" '" I PLANT I Burma (Myanmar): Historical..-, I HARVEST I rice statistics

~a~nJw_et!s~a~o_n Yield Prod.BURMA Second (dry) season (Vietnam winter-spring) PLANT Crop Year Area (RoUQh) (Milled)

I HARVEST I 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t~- : ,'; -, 1975/76 5030 1 82 5756

::: ' JAN DEC' .,

.:::::.,.:~~~ ' -, 1976/77 4,912 1.90 5,825

," ~~~:::::::::::::::: :, :":"~AM 1977/784,8641.955,913,:::::~~ 1978/79 5,011 2.10 6,581

:'. :':'. 1979/80 4,442 2.35 6,531::::. ,.'::!::::::; lAOS ..:11::: ' ~~~~~::~~~~~~~~::", Major growing areas 1980/81 4,801 2.22 6,675

:~:..:~I::~1~~:::~~:;,', ~:~~~::::.. ,,-'. :;:::~~~~~[::]ii[:f~~! C I i mate stat ion s ~ ::~~:~ :::~~ ~::~ ::;:~

:::::::~~~~~: :~:: '~ I,"I.~I~; .!~~~i~i ~.~~~ ;~~ ~:~~i

, ~ M7 ~~~~~~~:~,::i 1987/88 4,483 2.55 6,840

1988/89 4,527 2.77 7,500

1989/90 4;733 2.85 8,100

1990/91 4,797 2.86 7,943

1991/92 4,524 2.83 7,424

1992/93 4,855 2.76 7,772

1988/89-1992/93 4,687 2.81 7,748

average., , JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

Cambodia (Khmer Rep.): Laos: Thailand: Vietnam:Historical rice statistics Historical rice statistics Historical rice statistics Historical rice statistics

Yield Prod. Yield Prod. Yield Prod. Yield Prod.Crop Year Area (RoUQh) (Milled) Area (RoUQh) (Milled) Area (RoUQh) (Milled) Area (RoUQh) (Milled)

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1975/76 1,050 1.43 900 660 1.34 575 8,357 1.83 10,098 4,940 2.14 6,850

1976/77 1,400 1.28 1,080 680 1.26 558 8,167 1.85 9,944 5,314 2.28 7,849

1977/78 1,500 1.20 1,080 690 1.23 553 8,750 1.59 9,188 5,409 2.02 7,075

1978/79 1,400 1.07 900 665 1.20 517 8,935 1.95 11,530 5,142 1.95 6,526

1979/80 672 2.33 941 724 1.20 564 8,654 1.82 10,400 5,483 1.97 6,993

1980/81 1,417 1.21 1,080 739 1.55 684 9,200 1.89 11,463 5,468 2.17 7,697

1981/82 1,317 1.13 939 731 1.72 750 9,105 1.95 11,732 5,722 2.31 8,605

1982/83 1,615 1.27 1,290 664 1.77 703 8,940 1.89 11,139 5,708 2.66 9,901

1983/84 1,611 1.27 1,285 647 1.67 650 9,606 2.03 12,902 5,742 2.72 10,145

1984/85 1,063 1.19 793 680 1.92 780 9,629 2.06 13,137 5,842 2.80 10,633

1985/86 1,541 1.16 1,127 730 2.00 875 9,833 2.06 13,374 5,825 2.74 10,371

1986/87 1,532 1.37 1,314 730 2.03 894 9,659 1.95 12,453 5,679 2.63 9,688

1987/88 1,600 1.30 1,307 675 1.80 732 9,237 2.00 12,162 5,732 3.05 11,502

1988/89 1,670 1.48 1,556 650 1.67 651 9,917 2.15 14,034 5,982 3.05 12,044

1989/90 1,640 1.63 1,682 700 2.02 850 9,986 2.02 13,317 6,053 3.20 12,772

1990/91 1,740 1.21 1,323 860 1.75 900 8,792 1.95 11,347 6,268 3.00 12,420

1991/92 1,670 1.43 1,510 750 1.67 750 9,053 2.26 13,464 6,521 3.36 14,476

1992/93 1,600 1.29 1,300 800 1.88 900 9,177 2.17 13,145 6,525 3.30 14,210.

1988/89-1992/93 1,664 1.41 1,200 752 1.80 810 9,385 2.11 13,061 6,270 3.18 13,184

average

192

~'---~Burma (M anmar): Re ional rice statistics

Rice calendar for most of BurmaI PLANT If'. .

/.. \.."'\

,..r KACHIN:\ .J...,,'

Major growing areas .~ r..

[M!J Climate stations :'~.

.\..'-.

JSHAN :-..

\ ...1"'.

,-'.-.

/'"'

Burma (Myanmar):Regional 1988/89 -1992/93 rice statistics

Prod. Prod.O... / St t Area Yield (Milled) (ys. total)

IVlslon a e 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t % .

Irrawaddy Diy. 1,290 3.17 2,410 30%Pegu Diy.. 849 3.24 1,622 20%Rangoon Diy. 479 3.17 896 11% ..Sagaing Diy. 439 2.61 677 8% ,Arakan State 320 2.70 511 6%

Shan State 341 2.44 491 6%

Mon State 257 2.69 408 5%

Mandalay Diy. 239 2.71 384 5% ..Magway Diy. 132 2.61 204 2%Karen State 156 1.95 179 2%Kachin State 100 2.29 134 2%Tenasserim Diy. 78 2.66 123 2%Kayah State 25 2.25 33 <1%Chin State 31 1.74 32 <1% ..

/Total 4,737 2.90 8,103 100% .


193

Thailand: Main and second-crop riceas as

Minor growing areas as

Percent of to~al production Percent of total productionby region by region

(1988/89-1991/92 average) (1988/89-1991/92 average)

~Main-season rice calendar for most of Thailand Second-season rice calendar for most of Thailand

b.._I I.__I=: I~IPLANT I~ IHV I HARVEST I 1,..,I~~nl...nl.nn~~"III"I",I~~DI""'TI""\/ln",,1

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV OEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Thailand: Historical Thailand: Historicalmain-season rice statistics second-season rice statistics

Yield Prod. Yield Prod.Crop Year Area (Rough) (Milled) Crop Year Area (Rough) (Milled)

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1987/88 8,426 1.86 10,334 1987/88 721 3.84 1,828

1988/89 9,064 1.97- 11,801 1988/89 842 4.01 2,231

1989/90 9,148 1.80 10,874 1989/90 731 2.90 1,399

1990/91 8,209 1.82 9,835 1990/91 583 3.93 1,511

1991/92 8,352 2.10 11,562 1991/92 701 4.11 1,902

1992/93 8,512 2.02 11,349 1992/93 665 4.09 1,796

1988/89- 1988/89.1992/93 8,557 1.94 11,084 1992/93 704 3.81 1,768

average avera!le


194

.~'IIIIIIII~.8! ~~.

-,I

Thailand:

Percent of total productionby region

(1988/89-1991/92 average)

NORTHERNREGION

:j~~~;

Thailand: Historical corn statistics

Area Yield Prod.Crop Year 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1975/76 1,312 2.18 2,863

1976/77 1,285 2.08 2,675

1977/78 1,205 1.39 1,677

1978/79 1,386 2.01 2,791

1979/80 1,424 2.32 3,300

Major growing areas 1980/81 1,450 2.21 3,200

1981/82 1,750 2.49 4,350Minor growing areas 1982/83 1,850 1.86 3,450

Climate stations 1983/84 1,825 2.16 3,950

1984/85 1,955 2.23 4,350

1985/86 2,266 2.36 5,350

1986/87 1,815 2.37 4,309

1987/88 1,754 1.56 2,736

1988/89 1,600 2.63 4,200

1989/90 1,400 2.93 4,100

Corn calendar for most of Thailand 1990/91 1,350 2.81 3,800

I PLANT I 1991/92 1,350 2.67 3,600

Second crop may follow 1992/93 1 230 2.76 3,400first crop, if conditions ,favorable.

1988/89-1992/93 1,386 2.76 3,820

average


195

, '

Thailand: SugarcanePercent of total production

by region

(1988/89-1991/92 average)

...,...::.::.:,:.:«.::.:: [] Minor growing areas

;1:r~I~III:'i'lllllll~ ~ Climate stations

.:w,. [M:?J

Thailand: Historical sugarcane statistics

Crop Year Area Yield Prod. Raw suaar

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 t

1980/81 468 42.42 19,854 1,676

1981/82 617 48.95 30,200 2,788

Sugarcane calendar for central and northern Thailand 1982/83 583 41.86 24,407 2,305

Ralnfed 1983/84 618 37.36 23,087 2,305

.I PLANT! 1984/85 609 41.14 25,053 2,533

H~R -.:'~;;~~~;...:~J- --~ 1985/86 618 38.83 24,000 2,586

Irrl 1986/87 554 44.12 24,441 2,639

1987/88 571 47.62 27,189 2,704

1988/89 659 55.64 36,667 4,055

JAN 1989/90 688 48.78 33,560 3,502

1990/91 895 45.32 40,563 3,954

u arcane calendar for northeastern Thailand 1991/92 940 50.54 47,505 5,062

1992/93 900 38.57 34,711 3,750

I PLANT IHARVEST [ft!!] 1988/89-

HVT 1992/93 816 47.77 38.601 4,069

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC average

Note: Growing period is generally 10-14 months

for all regions depending on variety.


196

--

;J r~~II- ~~~~

Vietnam: Rice

Major growing areas

[:M!] Climate stations

Vietnam: Regional rice production

1987/88.1991/92 % of total

North

Red River Delta 19%North Mountain 5%Midlands 4%

North subtotal 28%

CentralNorthland 9%Southland 9% North I South demarcation '-.Highlands 2% for crop calendars ,.-

Central subtotal 20%

South

Mekong Delta 48%East of Southland 4%

CEN1RALSouth subtotal 52%

HIGHlAND

Percent of total productionby crop

(1988/89-1992/93 average)


197

,Vietnam: Rice statistics by crop 1

~

Winter-SpringYield Prod. Percent of tot.al production 4

Crop Area (Rough) (Milled) by regionYear 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t (1987/88-1991/92 average) 4

80/81 1,640 2.54 2,711

81/82 1,620 2.80 2,945 ~

82/83 1,650 3.11 3,33583/84 1,660 3.35 3,614 ~

84/85 1,770 3.50 4,024

85/86 1,830 3.34 3,978

86/87 1,840 2.99 3,575

87/88 1,880 3.71 4,600

88/89 1,990 3.79 4,97689/90 2,070 3.79 5,181 calendar for Vietnam

90/91 2,160 3.14 4,481 PLANT

91/922,2004.18 6,072 I~ARV~STI 92/93 2,250 3.91 5,808 South

P1988/89-1992/93 2,134 3.76 5,304avera e JAN

10th Month (Main-season)Yield Prod. P f t I d tiCro p II .~~ IRnllnh\ IMill""h M 'II d) ercent a to ~ pro uc on

Area ",OU~"I ,...I.,e- by regionYear 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t (1987/88-1991/92 average)

80/81 3,210 1.93 4,017

81/82 3,400 1.99 4,388

82/83 3,380 2.34 5,142

83/84 3,290 2.26 4,823

84/85 3,220 2.27 4,752

85/86 3,080 2.22 4,440

86/87 2,950 2.33 4,472

87/88 2,860 2.47 4,666

88/89 2,850 2.33 4,389 10th month rice calendar for Vietnam

89/90 2,760 2.68 4,877 North90/91 2,740 2.65 4,798 I PLANT I

91/92 2,7702.85 5,214 J_~~R_V~S,~.j-92/93 2,750 2.75 4,983 South I ft, I

I PLANT I1988/89-1992/93 2,774 2.65 4,852

averageSummer -Autumn

Yield Prod. Percent of total productionCrop Area (Rough) (Milled) by regionYear 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t (1987/88-1991/92 average)

80/81 620 2.40 969

81/82 700 2.80 1,274

82/83 670 3.27 1,424

83/84 800 3.29 1,710

84/85 860 3.33 1,859

85/86 920 3.27 1,957

86/87 890 2.84 1,645

87/88 990 3.41 2,231

88/89 1,140 3.56 2,680 Summer-autumn rice calendar for Vietnam

89/90 1,220 3.37 2,713 Northernmost crops harvested prior to typhoon season (September)

90/91 1,370 3.48 3,148 I PLANT!

91/92 1,300 3.69 3,168

92/93 1,300 3.58 3,0691988/89- JAN DEC

1992/93 1,266 3.54 2,955avera e JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY (NOAA/USDA)

198.

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211

Northwestern Africa: Winter wheatPercent of total production(1988/89-1992/93 average)

ALGERIA

Major growing areas

Climate stations

Winter wheat calendar for most of Northwestern Africa

I..!-c. I..~. ;~ 1 "" I... 1... I_.. I::IPLANT ~ r;;ARVESTl

JAN FEB MAR APR MA~ JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Northwestern Africa: Historical winter wheat statistics

Morocco Algeria Tunisia

Year Area Yield Prod Area Yield Prod Area Yield Prod1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I 1,000 ha I/ha 1,000 I

1971/72 1,885 1.16 2,189 2,250 0.59 1,317 950 0.69 6601972/73 2,058 1.05 2,160 2,336 0.84 1,956 1,040 0.85 8871973/74 2,040 0.77 1,574 1,700 0.54 920 1,140 0.72 8201974/75 1,917 0.97 1,853 2050 0.56 1,150 1,070 0.74 7951975/76 1,691 0.93 1,575 2:605 0.73 1,897 1,065 0.91 965

1976/77 1,921 1.14 2,188 2,755 0.69 1,901 1,050 0.77 8101977/78 1,929 0.67 1,288 2,242 0.43 962 964 0.59 5701978/79 1,754 1.07 1,877 2,565 0.45 1,154 1,138 0.66 7501979/80 1,657 1.08 1,797 1,945 0.56 1,081 1,134 0.60 6801980/81 1,713 1.06 1,811 2,071 0.73 1,512 853 1.02 869

1981/82 1,647 0.54 892 2,074 0.62 1,295 783 1.23 9631982/83 1,686 1.29 2,183 1,637 0.60 977 714 1.28 9161983/84 1,976 1.00 1,971 1,400 0.57 794 931 0.66 6181984/85 1,856 1.07 1,989 1,724 0.95 1,646 900 0.79 7111985/86 1,894 1.08 2,050 1,735 0.96 1,660 1,033 1.34 1,380

1986/87 2,226 1.71 3,809 1,520 0.81 1,230 540 0.88 474

1987/88 2,288 1.06 2,427 1,511 0.78 1,175 971 1.40 1,3601988/89 2,317 1.73 4,019 1,023 0.60 615 299 0.74 2201989/90 2,630 1.49 3,927 1,470 0.78 1,150 557 0.75 4201990/91 2,720 1.33 3,614 1,550 0.50 775 882 1.27 1,122

1991/92 2,642 1.87 4,939 1,730 1.04 1,800 1,073 1.66 1,786

1992/93 2,228 0.70 1,562 1,700 1.03 1,750 981 1.61 1,5841993/94 2,310 0.66 1,520 1,500 0.90 1,350 1,030 1.36 1,400

average1986-90 2,436 1.46 3,559 1,415 0.69 989 650 1.01 7191988-92 2,507 1.42 3,612 1,495 0.79 1,218 758 1.21 1,026


212

.~IIIIIIIII~---

Northwestern Africa:

Major growing areas

Climate stations

~

Northwestern Africa: Historical barley statistics

Morocco Algeria Tunisia

Year Area Yield Prod Area Yield Prod Area Yield Prod

1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t

1971/72 1,650 1.02 1,675 600 0.62 372 350 0.46 1601972/73 1,593 1.09 1,744 800 0.81 644 358 0.68 245

1973/74 2,016 0.62 1,255 781 0.48 374 490 0.58 2821974/75 1,973 1.21 2,387 690 0.48 331 340 0.67 228

1975/76 1,019 1.56 1,585 1,175 0.94 1,101 340 0.91 310

1976/77 2,117 1.35 2,860 1,285 0.831,061 350 0.69 240

1977/78 2,316 0.58 1,345 863 0.38 325 450 0.22 1001978/79 2,389 0.97 2,326 1,108 0.46 515 497 0.40 200

1979/80 2,168 0.87 1,886 809 0.56 457 642 0.42 270

1980/81 2,150 1.03 2,210 945 0.84 794 382 0.77 296

1981/82 2,228 0.47 1,039 1,297 0.63 818 443 0.61 270

1982/83 2,047 1.14 2,334 815 0.59 483 395 0.86 3391983/84 2,151 0.57 1,228 718 0.62 444 631 0.48 303

1984/85 2,126 0.66 1,405 1,171 1.111,295 580 0.54 3121985/86 2,383 0.93 2,225 1,200 1.08 1,300 821 0.84 686

1986/87 2,472 1.44 3,563 1,212 0.89 1,083 241 0.55 132

1987/88 2,315 0.67 1,543 1,089 0.75 820 639 0.84 5371988/89 2,499 1.38 3,454 674 0.58 390 151 0.42 631989/90 2,399 1.25 2,999 1,050 0.75 790 412 0.49 200

1990/91 2,415 0.89 2,138 1,200 0.67 800 509 0.94 478

1991/92 2,357 1.38 3,253 1,500 1.20 1,800 552 1.31 7211992/93 2,233 0.48 1,081 1,300 1.151,500 503 1.13 5701993/94 2,150 0.47 1,020 1,000 0.60 600 400 0.40 160

average1986-90 2,420 1.13 2,739 1,045 0.73 777 390 0.65 2821988-92 2,381 1.08 2,585 1,145 0.87 1056 425 0.86 406


213

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Australia: Landforms and climateLandforms

CORAL SEA

TIMOR SEA

,,'

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1\I'!!Jf!.,~ D ~

~ JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILITY "",,,",.U

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saumAUS7RAUA

LegendAw = Tropical wet and dry Cs = Subtropical winter rainBS = Steppe (arid) Do = Temperate oceanic () <eo

B W = Desert ~ Climate stations VCr = Subtropical wet rz} Preferred tropical TASMANIAcyclone tracks

218

,

Australia: Climate stations~ ~ Cairns ~ [g:J EmeraldE EE 150 E 150 Temperatures

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~ till Geraldton ~ ~ Lake GraceE 150 EE E 150 Temperatures

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219

A

j

Australia: Winter wheat 4

Percent of total production by state(1988/89-1992/93 average) .

Queensland ~

4

'-

~

NORlliERNTERRnuRY

QUEENSlAND

WESTERNAUS7RAUA

souroAUS7RAUA

Winter wheat crop calendar for most of Australia

1M" I",IMA' lA" =;W' =~ ~ CMla~:,gtger:t:it~9 areas ~ H TASMANIA

~ Imaes a Ions \~

Australia: Historical winter wheat statistics1988189-

1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1992/93New South Wales average

Area (1,OOOha) 3,1623,9993,6033,5893,1952,4662,3172,0892,182 1,499 1,800 1,977Yield (1/ha) 0.47 2.24 1.61 1.66 1.50 1.60 1.75 1.61 1.89 1.53 1.94 1.74Prod. (1,000 I) 1,500 8,961 5,805 5,941 4,775 3,950 4,048 3,364 4,123 2,294 3,500 3,466

QueenslandArea (1,OOOha) 7671,006 921 961 840 676 813 8791,113 482 800 817Yield (t/ha) 0.98 1.91 1.71 1.82 1.06 1.10 2.03 1.58 1.87 0.71 0.88 1.41Prod. (1,0001) 755 1,922 1,579 1,750 890 740 1,650 1,390 2,078 344 700 1,232

South AustraliaArea (1,OOOha) 1,398 1,564 1,378 1,451 1,635 1,599 1,531 1,541 1,462 1,289 1,550 1,475Yield (Uha) 0.50 1.66 1.47 1.24 1.44 1.18 0.91 1.67 1.38 1.65 1.73 1.47Prod. (1,000 I) 692 2,590 2,031 1,798 2,355 1,886 1,389 2,569 2,020 2,129 2,680 2,157

VictoriaArea (1,000 ha) 1,327 1,614 1,523 1,549 1,345 1,050 940 952 867 678 950 877Yield (Uha) 0.302.461.751.412.071.871.852.091.651.762.53 1.98Prod. (1,0001) 394 3,971 2,666 2,176 2,790 1,966 1,743 1,991 1,431 1,193 2,400 1,752

Western AustraliaArea (1,000 ha) 4,865 4,746 4,652 4,177 4,255 3,316 3,299 3,474 3,611 3,235 4,000 3,524Yield (Uha) 1.14 0.91 1.41 1.05 1.26 1.18 1.58 1.38 1.50 1.46 1.55 1.49Prod. (1,000 I) 5,534 4,316 6,580 4,378 5,375 3,898 5,221 4,803 5,414 4,725 6,200 5,273

NationalArea (1,OOOha) 11,520 12,931 12,078 11,736 11,135 9,063 8,903 9,004 9,218 7,183 9,101 8,682Yield (Uha) 0.77 1.70 1.55 1.38 1.49 1.37 1.58 1.58 1.63 1.47 1.78 1.61Prod. (1,0001) 8,876 22,016 18,666 16,167 16,119 12,369 14,060 14,214 15,066 10,557 16,184 14,016

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILTY (NOAA/USDA)

220.

Australia: Winter barleyPercent of total production by state

(1988/89-1992/93 average) .Queenslan

'.

~

,~"'-.'.

NOR1HERN ...'--J..TERRITORY ..'~ -,' ,

., :,~ QUEENSLAND -'.~

WESTERNAUS1RAUAI

~

soum.AUS1RAUA,

NEW soumWALES.,..

Winter barley crop calendar for most of Australia

I ...,___, ,._~;=;~__~PLANT L d I)v ~ egen - HEAD :.:.:.:.:.:-:-:-:-:.. TASMANIA

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL ~EP OC;A:::S:EC ~ ~I~:~t:r:t:~~:n:reas

Australia: Historical winter barley statistics1988/89-

1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1992/93New South Wales average

Area (1,000 ha) 387 554 605 553 405 464 440 391 447 497 552 465Yield (I/ha) 0.49 1.70 1.51 1.53 1.49 1.56 1.67 1.73 1.76 1.49 1.83 1.70Prod. (1,0001) 189 941 915 843 605 724 735 678 787 740 1,008 790

QueenslandArea (1,000 ha) 167261 329342 175 179216 174 187 128 183 178Yield (I/ha) 1.612.082.142.401.571.561.872.242.050.551.52 1.65Prod. (1,000 I) 269 542 704 819 275 279 404 390 384 70 278 305

South AustraliaArea (1,000 ha) 1,0051,1041,1221,206 990 893 847 889 947 9911,014 938Yield (I/ha) 0.661.651.641.461.661.451.241.911.601.881.82 1.69Prod. (1,0001) 667 1,817 1,836 1,762 1,640 1,298 1,053 1,695 1,514 1,860 1,843 1,593

VictoriaArea (1,000 ha) 278 403 486 394 265 374 356 487 426 522 535 465Yield (I/ha) 0.27 1.88 1.31 1.46 1.66 1.46 1.55 1.41 1.42 1.67 2.51 1.71Prod. (1,0001) 75 758 638 574 440 544 552 688 606 874 1,343 813

Western AustraliaArea (1,000 ha) 603 771 965 879 475 462 383 419 494 551 605 490Yield (t/ha) 1.191.031.480.951.271.341.441.491.491.621.74 1.56Prod. (1,0001) 717 797 1,431 837 605 618 551 625 738 894 1,052 772

NationalArea (1,000 ha) 2,452 3,109 3,518 3,284 2,313 2,384 2,231 2,310 2,556 2,744 2,964 2,561Yield (t/ha) 0.79 1.57 1.58 1.48 1.56 1.46 1.48 1.75 1.61 1.65 1.82 1.66Prod. (1,000 I) 1,939 4,890 5,554 4,868 3,611 3,477 3,306 4,044 4,108 4,530 5,396 4,277

JOINT AGRICULTURAL WEATHER FACILTY (NOAA/USDA)

221

Australia: Cotton, sorghum, and sugarcaneCotton Sorghum Sugarcane

Percent of total production Percant of total production Percent of total productionby stete by stete by state

(1985/86" 1989/90 average) (1985/86" 1989/90 average) ::::::::., (1985/86" 1~89/90 average)

":'::' N.S.W(!)-: '::~::::::: 51 6% -

'::!!!j::: Queenaland~~IIIII!; ~~:~;:, ':::::::::::::::::::::::i:i:: 94%

QUEENSLAND ; ; ~ ; ; ; ; QUEENSLAND ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l,,~::J:::ij:[:::i::J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.: : : : : : : : : : : :""""""""':'::';',: : : .

1IIIIIIItI111!'~ NEWSOUTHrlj~ QUEENSLAND

: : : : WALES : : : : : ;

-:~ ~ ~NEW SOUTHWALES

~

Major growing areas Minor growing areas

Cotton crop calendar for eastern Australia Sorghum crop calendar for esstern Austrslla Sugarcane crop calendar for eastern Australia

I ~ I b I PLANT I L ",,"",,_I"_~;~jLANT/I,..,I...I ~~"" 1.,'nl...I~~TI.,~..I~.~1 1,.ub.I~~~;.." 1.,,~I...I~~Tlu~..ln.~1 HARVESTJAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOY OEC JAN FEe MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV OEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOY DEC

HIstorIcal cotton statistics Historical sorghum statIstics Historical sugarcane statistics

Sugar- RawArea Yield Prod. Area Yield Prod Area Yield cane sugar

Crop year 1,000 ha kg/ha 1,000480 lb. 1,000 ha t/ha 1,000 t 1 000 ha t/ha 1 000 t 1 000 tbales " ,

1975/7~ 30 850 115 504 2.23 1,124 257 85.44 21,959 2,9881976/77 34 830 129 532 1.80 956 288 81.06 23,344 3,4051977178 40 1,110 202 394 1.81 714 295 79.64 23,493 3,3221978/79 49 1,080 243 469 2.40 1,125 252 85.15 21,457 2,9781979/80 70 1,190 381 5191.78 922 26779.22 21,1512,963

1980/81 84 1,180 455 658 1.83 1,204 288 83.25 23,976 3,3291981/82 103 1,300 615 649 2.03 1,317 316 79.54 25,136 3,4341982/83 96 1,050 464 707 1.36 958 319 78.08 24,908 3,5351983/84 137 1,030 648 730 2.58 1,885 307 78.79 24,190 3,4141984/85 183 1,360 1,144 723 1.89 1,369 316 80.74 25,513 3,548

1985/86 177 1,460 1,185 734 1.93 1,416 304 80.31 24,414 3,4041986/87 148 1,450 983 818 1.74 1,422 310 81.98 25,413 3,4571987/88 247 1,120 1,277 765 2.191,677 314 89.21 28,013 3,528

1988/89 194 1,380 1,226 645 1.99 1,283 314 89.40 28,073 3,6801989/90 240 1,270 1,401 380 2.49 946 331 83.27 27,562 3,7971990/91 279 1,550 1,989 401 2.22 890 339 74.16 25,140 3,6371991/92 282 1,780 2,306 569 2.54 1,444 341 62.48 21,306 3,1901992/93 262 1,420 1,713 426 1.28 546 339 86.70 29,400 4,367

1988/89-1992/93 251 1,480 1,727 484 2.10 1,022 333 79.20 26,296 3,734average


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Appendix II: EI Nino: Background, Mechanisms, and Impacts*

Background warm current, but warming of the tropical Pacif-ic surface waters occurring every 2- 7 years and

The original definition of El Nino goes back to associated with changes in the atmospheric18th or 19th century when Peruvian sailors circulation in the tropical Pacific and world-coined the term to describe a warm southward wide.current that appeared annually near Christmasoff the Peruvian coast. Hence the name El Nino, MechanismsSpanish for "Christ Child." Throughout theyear, a northward cool current prevails because Figure 1 depicts the typical atmospheric andof southeast trade winds, causing upwelling of oceanic circulations that exist in the tropicalcool, nutrient-rich water. However, during late Pacific. The prevailing easterlies (NE and SEDecember the upwelling relaxes, causing warm- trades) converge over Indonesia in conjunctioner and nutrient-poor water to appear, which with the Asian monsoon, producing widespreadsignals the end of the local fishing season. convection. Additionally, warm water "piles up"

in the western Pacific, due to the easterly winds.Over the years, the warm, southward current Further east, the SE trades and equatorialoccasionally seemed more intense than usual easterlies in the eastern and central Pacific pro-and was associated with periods of extreme duce upwelling of cool water along the equatorwetness along the normally very dry Peruvian and coast of South America.coast. These events were called "years of abun-dance." In the early 20th century, researchers As the El Nino event begins, the easterliesfound a strong inverse correlation, called the relax, reducing the amount of upwelling andSouthern Oscillation, between surface pressure allowing the western warm water to move east-over the Pacific and Indian Oceans, hence the ward. As time goes on, the warm pool in thesaying, "When pressure is high in the Pacific western Pacific grows and expands eastwardOcean it tends to be low in the Indian Ocean." toward the central Pacific (figure 2). DetailedResearchers tried, but failed to correlate the monitoring of recorded El Nino episodes has re-Southern Oscillation with Indian monsoon fail- vealed that once the warmest water (near 30 C)ures. In 1958-59, a strong "year of abundance" reaches the International Dateline, anomalousoccurred, in which a large area of warm water convection usually appears in that region, ac-in the Pacific Ocean extended from the South companied by a weakening of the equatorialAmerican coast westward to the date line. easterlies. This pattern typically occurs duringCoinciding with the extensive warm water were the boreal winter (June-August) and may be pre-wetness along the Peruvian coast, low surface ceded or followed by a warming along the coastpressure in the eastern Pacific and high pressure of Peru. This coastal warming causes the Inter-in the western tropical Pacific. Consequently, Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to movescientists in the early 1960' s concluded that farther south than normal, which contributes tothese events were associated and occurred enhanced rainfall across Ecuador and northerninterannually. Since then, the term "El Nino" Peru, producing the "years of abundance".(or warm episode) has described not a local

In determining the atmospheric status of the*Robert J. Stefanski, Agricultural Meteorologist, tropical Pacific, climatologists devised theWorld Agricultural Outlook Board, United Southern Oscillation Index (SOl). It is the stan-States Department of Agricutlure dardized sea level pressure difference between

247

Figure 1

Typical Tropical Pacific Conditions

":t!.:"j,q!. ,1;...;,' ;)0 ;)0 ;)0 1

International ~Date Line

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EI Nino Tropical Pacific Conditions

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248

Darwin, Australia, and Tahiti, French Polynesia, (cold episode) or EI Nino (warm episode) oc-in the central Pacific (Tahiti minus curs, respectively. The figure also shows thatDarwin). Thus, when the surface pressure is while both La Nina and EI Nino events occurhigh at Darwin and low at Tahiti, the SOl is with regularity, there is still much variation innegative (EI Nino); conversely, when surface their occurrences and timing.pressure is low at Darwin and high at Tahiti theSOl is positive. When the SOl is strongly posi- Impactstive, cooler than normal equatorial water ap-pears throughout the central and eastern equato- When an EI Nino or La Nina develops, severalrial Pacific. This is called a cold episode or consistent weather anomalies typically occursometimes La Nina, "Little Girl." Climatolo- around the world. Figures 4 and 5 depict poten-gists prefer to use the acronym ENSO (EI tial rainfall and temperature impacts from EINino/Southern Oscillation) to describe the warm Nino while figures 6 and 7 show potential rain-(EI Nino) and cold (La Nina) episodes that fall and temperature impacts from La Nina.periodically occur across the tropical Pacific. Most climate anomalies associated with EI NinoFigure 3 depicts the SOl (5-month running are reversed during La Nina. In general, a ma-mean) from January 1933 to December 1993. jority of the impacts occur in climates which.Typically,

when the SOl index is greater than 1 have significant oceanic influences and borderor less than -1 for several months, a La Nina the tropical Pacific. Thus, the regions of the...Figure

3.Southern

Oscillation Index: Five-month Running Mean~ Jan. 1933 -Dec. 1993

t 3

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(Cold Episodes)2

1

xQ)

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.1

-2

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(Warm Episodes)-3

-41 3

1938 1948 1958 1968 1978 1988

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249

-41111111'

Figure 4

Potential Rainfall Impacts from EI Nino Events

(Warm Episodes)

j Apr(O)-Mar(+)

May(O)-Oct(O)

~ Wet (0) = Year of EI Nino Onset(+) = Year Following EI Nino Onset

Sourca: Ropalewskl end Halpert. 1997 Monthly Weather Revlew.(11S) p. 1606-1626.

Figure 5

Potential Temperature Impacts from EI Nino Events

(Warm Episodes)

(0) = Year of EI Nino Onset(+) = Year Following EI Nino Onset

Source: Helpert and Ropelewski. 1990.


250

Figure 6

Potential Rainfall Impacts from La Nina Events

(Cold Episodes)

~

~,,.,l

(0) = Year of La Nina Onset(+) = Year Following La Nina Onset

Source: Ropelewski and Halpert, 1989. Journal of Climate, (2) p. 268-284.

Figure 7

Potential Temperature Impacts from La Nina Events

(Cold Episodes)

(0) = Year of La Nina Onset(+) = Year Following La Nina Onset

Source: Halpert and Ropelewski, 1990.


251.

world that show the highest correlation to warm Rasmusson, E. M. and J. M. Hall. "The Greator cold events are Indonesia, Australia, and the Equatorial Pacific Ocean Warming Event oftropical Pacific islands. Weather anomalies 1982-1983." Weatherwise. 36(4), 1983,(drought and excessive moisture) associated pp.166-175.with EI Ninos and La Ninas can have significantimpact on agricultural production (i.e., poor Ropelewski, C. F. and M. S. Halpert. "Globalcrops due to failure of the Indian monsoon). and Regional Scale Precipitation AssociatedHowever, several factors make the impacts on with EI Nino/Southern Oscillation." Monthlycrop production less dramatic and sometimes Weather Review. 115, 1987, pp. 1606-1626.non-existent. These factors include the timing,duration, and intensity of ENSO events at vari- Ropelewski, C. F. and M. S. Halpert. "Precipi-ous stages of crop development. tation Patterns Associated with the High Index

Phase of the Southern Oscillation."Journal of Climate. 2, 1989, pp. 268-284.

Sources and Additional ReadingM. S. Halpert and Ropelewski, C. F. "Surface

Philander, S. George. £1 Nino, La Nina, and the Temperature Patterns Associated with the South-Southern Oscillation. Academic Press, Inc., em Oscillation." Journal of Climate. 6, 1992,1990, 294 pp. pp.577-593.

252

~IIIIIIIIIIII .~IIIIIIII'-:

Appendix III: The Indian Monsoon and Its Impact on Agriculture*

Introduction important for detection (and, potentially, predic-tion). Finally, agricultural impacts of the per-

The Asian drought of 1987 was, in terms of formance of the monsoon are examined.temperature and precipitation anomalies, one ofthe worst of this century from Afghanistan to Definitionthe Philippines. The drought was attributed toEl Nino (see the El Nino discussion in this A monsoon is defined as a seasonal shift inpublication), which is statistically correlated wind direction, being derived from the Arabicwith the type, location, and timing of the un- word "mausim", meaning season (Glossary ofusual weather patterns. However, the physical Meteorology). The word itself does not meancause of the drought was the weakness of the heavy rain, although the misnomer is not base-southwest monsoon circulation, the driving less. In a true monsoon climate, seasonal windmechanism of the region's weather patterns. shifts typically cause a drastic change in the

general precipitation and temperature patterns.This irregularity in the normal pattern was de- However, the monsoon may also be associatedtected in the first weeks of the expected rainy with dry weather as well, since the "wet" mon-season and lasted throughout the northern hemi- soon phase of warm, moist air is seasonallysphere summer. As a result, below-normal replaced by a "dry" monsoon of cool, dry air.rainfall and record heat damaged crops and This phenomenon is the dominant feature ofstressed livestock throughout Asia. In India, low-latitude climates stretching from West Afri-main-season grain and oilseed production was ca to the western Pacific Ocean (figure 1). Toreduced to below expected levels and winter understand why these are favored areas, wecrops that depend on residual summer moisture need to discuss some of the driving forces be-for germination were planted well beyond the hind monsoons and the Earth's weather in gen-normal time frame (USDA). While the ramifi- eral.cations of the drought did not approach thefamine years of the 1970's, commodity imports The annual monsoon cycle can be physicallyrose, reserves and exportable supplies were described as a result of the annual variation ofreduced, and growth was limited in other eco- incoming solar radiation and the differentialnomic sectors. The agricultural sector alone heating at the surface of land and water. Thisaccounts for 30 percent of India's gross domes- has been recognized for hundreds of years, astic product and 67 percent of the labor force Webster noted in his discussion of monsoon(U.S. CIA). dynamics. Simply stated, sections of the earth's

surface heat and cool at different rates depend-This article presents a brief physical description ing on their ability to absorb solar radiation andof the forces driving monsoons. Global mon- the time of year. Bodies of water, which cansoon climates will be identified, but in particu- absorb sunlight at varying depths (and conse-lar, the South Asian monsoon is featured in quently reflect less back to the atmosphere),terms of seasonal changes in circulation patterns store energy more efficiently than land andand what precursor and post-onset signals are therefore retain heat longer than a land mass.

Land surfaces gain or lose heat at a quicker ratedue to the shallowness of their absorbing surfac-

*Mark D. Brusberg, Agricultural Meteorologist, es. To maintain an energy balance, heat isWorld Agricultural Outlook Board, United transferred from areas of surplus to deficit, andStates Department of Agriculture in the case of a land-water differential, this is

253

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..'111111' .~IIIIIIII'J

accomplished through a phenomenon known as flowing from high to low pressure mix areas ofthe "land-sea breeze". For example, on a sunny warmer and colder air and water, contributing today at the beach, the land warms more quickly the global energy balance. This exchange isthan the ocean. As the hot air rises over the evident at different levels of the atmosphere.land, it is replaced by the cooler air over the Air converging into a low pressure center at thewater. At night, however, the land cools at a surface rises, leading to moisture condensationquicker rate than the water, so the wind shifts, and the subsequent transfer of heat into the up-blowing from the land to the warmer water per atmosphere. Diverging air at the surface in(figure 2). a high pressure center is associated with subsid-

ing air from the upper atmosphere and evapora-On a larger scale, such as a continent surround- tion, a mechanism for energy storage.ed by oceans, heat buildup on land over timewill result in lower density air masses, or areas Just as energy imbalances develop between landof low pressure. Conversely, denser air associ- and water surfaces, the variations in space andated with high pressure dominates ocean surfac- time of solar heating due to the earth's tilt cre-es. Wind and ocean currents that result from air ate seasonal hemispheric energy imbalances.

Figure 1. Monsoon dominated climates (shaded)Source: The Encyclopedia of Climatology (Oliver & Fairbridge, 1987)

30

0

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0 60 90

Figure 2. Simplified sketch of land-sea breeze phenomenon

Day Night

Water Land Water Land

254

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I

The hemisphere receiving the most direct radia- Himalayan snowcover directly affected regionaltion (during the summer months) experiences a weather patterns. However, before forecastingnet radiative heating (more energy is gained can be attempted, knowledge of the phenome-from the sun than is lost to space). The winter non itself must be obtained. In the case of thehemisphere is at the same time experiencing net Indian monsoon, what to look for in the periodradiative cooling. As part of a global compen- leading up to the monsoon onset as well assation, heat is transported from warmer to cool- during the active monsoon itself are vital com-er areas by ocean and wind currents. Since the ponents of understanding the physical nature ofareas of heat surplus and deficit change through- the phenomenon.out the year, as in the sea breeze example, thedirection of transport must change as well. In the months prior to the expected start of theFigure 3 shows low latitude surface wind direc- rainy season, the Indian Meteorological Depart-tions averaged over the summer and winter ment (IMD) predicts the onset date and rainfallseasons. As noted earlier, climates dominated potential of the monsoon using a statisticalby monsoons experience the most pronounced model that evaluates 16 "precursor" conditions,seasonal wind shifts, indicative of a pronounced which indicate the potential strength of theland-sea effect. In the South Asian example, monsoon circulation (Monsoon, 1991). Of thethe rainy season, typically beginning in June, is 16 parameters used, 6 regard temperature condi-preceded by nearly two months of scorching tions, 3 wind or pressure field values, 5 pressuretemperatures, cooled only with the commence- anomalies, and 2 snowcover. The most impor-ment of the summer rains brought by the tant of these appear to be: 1) the average Aprilsouthwesterlies. January is the peak of the dry position of the 500mb ridge centered over 75 Eseason, which is marked by cool, dry northeast- longitude; 2) monthly average temperatures overerly flow over most of the region. the Indian subcontinent (March and May month-

ly averages at different locations); and 3) EINino/Southern Oscillation conditions. Indepen-

The Indian Monsoon and dent studies have shown these parameters toIts Forecasting Potential have a high correlation separate from other

fields, and are frequently used separately forUnderstanding the mechanisms driving global unofficial pre-season forecasts (Mooley).weather patterns leads us to question "whatwent wrong" when anomalous conditions arise. Once the season has begun, forecasts of dailyWhen periods of drought or flooding exceed rainfall are attempted by observing and predict-what is normally expected, driving forces in the ing the lengths of "active" and "break" periods.weather have likely been either suppressed or These are naturally occurring phases in theenhanced in some manner. Anticipating anoma- monsoon, lasting from 5 to 7 days, identified bylies aids in mitigating their impact. fluctuations in the typical pattern. Das iden-

tified several features associated with the activeAs with any meteorological phenomenon, espe- phase, which brings rain to the northern Indiancially one demonstrating a periodic (cyclic, or Plains and its west coast. They include tropicalrecurring) tendency, attempts to forecast the depressions in the Bay of Bengal, a low-levelmonsoon have been underway for many years. jet stream along the east African coast, and theIn fact, efforts to predict the performance of variations in the monsoon trough, the area ofmonsoons based on correlations of observed low pressure that develops over India during theweather features have been pursued since the summer monsoon season. Figure 4 depicts alate 1800' s, when Blanford hypothesized that typical active monsoon (Hamilton).

255

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Figure 3. Seasonal average surface winds in monsoon dominated climatesAdapted from The Elementary Monsoon (Webster, 1987)

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..the potential for using satellite observations inFigure 4. Su~face features a~soclated supplementing conventional data sets. Also

with a sample actlv~ monsoon pointed out are the limits to their effectiveness(Adapted from Hamilton, 1987) by data availability and computer technology.

Agricultural Planning forMonsoon trough h I d.Mten Ian onsoon

To ensure sustainable agriculture in a region,knowledge of the local climate is vital. Clima-tic limitations are a strong indicator of agro-nomic potential and can be used to determinewhich crops are best suited for a region, asrainfall and temperatures are two major vari-ables affecting crop type and yield. Planning isespecially critical in monsoon regions which

L L t experience distinct wet and dry seasons. Soilow pressure ten er

moisture prior to the beginning of the rainyseason is usually negligible, a situation exacer-bated by the preceding heat buildup and highevaporative losses. Except where irrigation isavailable, planting is consequently restricted tothe beginning of the wet season.

The current monsoon forecast methods are gen-erally either statistical or numerical. Statistical In India, the onset of the southwest monsoonforecasts look at correlations or relationships (when the dominant winds bringing rain becomebetween known phenomena and the event being established) for a particular area is expected inanalyzed, such as the earlier example of mon- June or July, depending on its location (fig-soon performance based on the Tibetan Plateau ure 5). The highest concentration of non-snowpack. However, their strength lies in steer- irrigated agriculture occurs in western anding one towards a logical result rather than southern oilseed, grain, and cotton areas and inabsolutes. For instance, in the case of the Asian the East, where much of the rice is rainfed.drought of 1987, the monsoon was weak, result- These crops would suffer most from a late oring in one of the worst droughts of the century. weak start to the rainy season, and could beBut the EI Nino which caused the disruption in considerably affected during an extended breakworld weather patterns was not as strong as the in monsoon rains. Also, if the southwest mon-1982/83 event (Stefanski). In contrast, a numer- soon withdraws from the region earlier thanical model is a mathematical simulation of the expected, late-planted crops may be hurt duringatmosphere, represented by known physical the filling stages from lack of moisture. Con-relationships such as the equations of motion, versely, a late withdrawal, if accompanied bythermodynamics, etc. For example, the various late-season rain, could be detrimental to matur-models used by meteorologists to provide tem- ing crops, especially cotton.perature and precipitation forecasts out to 5days are numerical models, run on super- During the drought of 1987, kharif (summercomputers due to the large amounts of data planted) crop production was down as tempera-being processed. Krishnamurti identified sever- tures and rainfall were among the lowest onal current models and the physical basis of each, record in central and northern rainfed grain,outlining the problems of data initialization and oilseed, and cotton areas. Rabi (fall-planted)

257

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,Figure 5. Average monsoon onset and withdrawal dates

(From Cas, 1987) i

Average onset dates Average withdrawal dates t

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May 25

crops, planted primarily in southern India and in the open boll stage. Disease was also a prob-areas with adequate irrigation reserves, partially lem as the spraying patterns were disrupted bymade up for the shortfall but also suffered some the unseasonable heavy showers. However,losses. In winter wheat areas of northern Paki- while the rainfall was unusually heavy, it oc-stan and India, planting was delayed for months curred only a few weeks later than normal,due to insufficient moisture availability for highlighting the hazard for the regions's cotton,germination (although most of the crop is irri- which ripens so close to the end of the rainygated, low reservoirs and fuel shortages ham- season.pered irrigation efforts).

From the early 1950' s to late 1970' s, IndianConversely, a strong monsoon circulation can food production outpaced population growth,bring flooding, especially along the Ganges and owing to increased area cultivated as well as aIndus Rivers. Bangladesh encompasses most of number of technological factors including in-the area considered the Mouths of the Ganges, creased irrigation and fertilizer inputswith other major rivers (primarily the (Sanderson). Over the past 20 years, coarseBrahmaputra and the Meghna) converging with- grain production has risen steadily despite dra-in its boundaries. Rao (WMO) showed that matic decreases in area. Much of this area,eastern India and Bangladesh are the least predominantly rainfed acreage in western India,drought-prone areas, indicating the consistency is increasingly used for oilseed production,of the monsoon in that region. In fact, a certain which has increased dramatically over the samelevel of flooding is expected each year, and period (USDA). This shift in agriculture, vitallocal rice cropping patterns are dependent upon in meeting the Nation's nutritional requirements,the seasonal abundance. In September of 1992, was possible due to the region's versatile cli-a late surge in the monsoon flooded cotton areas mate. As stated earlier, though, the rainfedof Pakistan and generally soaked crops, mostly crops are at greatest risk of failure in times of

258

" "

drought, especially in the drought-prone west Hamilton, M.G. Monsoons -An Introduction.(WMO). Advances in genetic research have Weather, June 1987, 186-193.been important in developing cultivars whichwould thrive in certain areas, balancing drought Krishnamurti, T. N. Monsoon Models. Mon-resistance and yield. In fact, some of the more soons, Chapter 15, Fein & Stephens, Wiley,drastic increases in production stem from im- New York (1987).proved germplasm, most notably wheat produc-tion, which has more than quadrupled over the Monsoon 1991 -Precipitating a Controversy.last 30 years (Swaminathan). The Economic Times of New Delhi (April 20,

1991).Conclusion

Mooley, D. A., B. Parthasarathy, G. B. Pant.The monsoon climates identified in this discus- Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology 25,sion are especially vulnerable to disruptions in 633 (1986).global weather which in any given year couldresult in drought, flooding, or both. Over 100 Sanderson, Fred H. and Shyamal Roy. Foodyears of research on the driving forces behind Trends and Prospects in India. The Brookingsthe Indian monsoon circulation has resulted in a Institute, Washington, DC (1979).better understanding of weather extremes expe-rienced throughout the tropics, and their subse- Stefanski, Robert J. El Nino: Backgrounds,quent impact on agriculture. The benefits of Mechanisms, and Impacts. This publication.monsoon abundance are certainly tempered bythe risks of farming in such a volatile area, Swaminathan, M. S. Predictions and Warningalthough forecast techniques currently being Systems. Monsoons, Chapter 19, Fein &developed are helping to mitigate the impacts of Stephens, Wiley, New York (1987).poor monsoon performance.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. The WorldF actbook 1992. Government Printing Office,

References 1992.

Blanford, H. F. Proceedings of the Royal Soci- U.S. Department of Agriculture. Official cropety of London. 37, 3 (1884). production estimates (1994).

Das, P. J. Short- and Long-range Monsoon Pre- Webster, Peter J. The Elementary Monsoon.diction in India. Monsoons, Chapter 17, Fein & Monsoons, Chapter 1, Fein & Stephens, Wiley,Stephens, Wiley, New York (1987). New York (1987).

Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteoro- World Meteorological Organization. Droughtlogical Society, Boston, 1957. Probability Maps. WCP 2470 (Rao, 1986).

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~

.Appendix IV: The Geography, Climate and Soils of the Former Soviet Union* A

.I

Introduction to restructure their own agriculture. While great ~

diversity in natural resources and variability in ,

Climate and weather are significant factors agricultural production created the need for ,

affecting agricultural production around the strong economic and trade relations between the ,

world. Both seasonal and regional variability in former republics, there has been considerable ~weather directly influence crop yield potential. friction and protectionist policies. Thus far, the .

In order to improve the global monitoring of former republics have created only a loose asso- .

agricultural weather, the Joint Agricultural ciation known as the Commonwealth of Inde- .

Weather Facility (JA WF) was established within pendent States. The four nonparticipating re-the United States Department of Agriculture publics include Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and ~

(USDA) in 1978. JAWF is a cooperative effort Georgia. AllIS former republics of the Soviet ,

between the National Weather Service's Climate Union are shown in figure 1. ,

Analysis Center and USDA's World Agricul- .

tural Outlook Board and National Agricultural As the former republics strive to restructureStatistics Service. The facility's primary func- agriculture to meet their particular interests, ,

tion is to coordinate a world agricultural weath- environmental factors such as climate, soils, and

er watch and assess the impact of weather vari- water resources will playa major role in deter-

ability on crop and livestock production pros- mining crop varieties and production levels.

pects (Motha). One of the primary responsi- This article summarizes the environmental and

bilities of JA WF is to monitor weather and crop geographic contexts that influence crop produc-

conditions within the former Soviet Union. tion in the former Soviet Union (FSU). State-

level statistics on population, soils, and crop

With the breakup of the Soviet Union in late production are presented for background infor-

1991, the agricultural system changed from one mation. Climate and weather variability which

where most decisions of agricultural programs influence crop yield potential are discussed.

were centrally planned, originating from Mos-

cow, to one where individual republics and even Population, Geography, and

regional authorities began making these deci- Agricultural Statistics

sions. In the past, the former Soviet govern-

ment dictated where certain crops were to be State-level statistics on population, land mass,

grown and set levels on agricultural production. total area sown to all crops, area sown to grain

These decisions were based on perceived eco- crops, and total grain production for 1986-90

nomic needs and climate considerations. Agri- are shown in tables 1 and 2. The data were

culture was geared to satisfying planners' as reported by the State Statistical Committee

opposed to consumers' desires. As a result, (GOSKOMSTAT) of the FSU.

crop varieties and production levels between

republics often differed considerably. Containing about 1,708 million hectares or 77

percent of the total land mass of the FSU, Rus-

After the dissolution of the USSR, individual sia is the largest of the former republics.

republics (states) began some type of program Kazakhstan ranks second in geographic expanse,

with 272 million hectares or 12 percent of the

total land mass. Ukraine ranks third, containing

*Thomas L. Puterbaugh, Agricultural Meteorol- about 60 million hectares, or 3 percent of the

ogist, World Agricultural Outlook Board, United total area. The other 12 former republics con-

States Department of Agriculture tain the remaining 8 percent of total size.

260

Fi ure 1. Former Soviet Union

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UZBEKISTAN TAJIKISTANI

III

F Former Soviet Union:III

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.Shaded area is defined by oblast boundariesand accounts for about 97 percentof total grain production.

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About half of the total population, or, 146 mil- production. Most of Kazakhstan is arid to semi-lion people, live in Russia. Ukraine, the second arid, with agriculture largely limited to themost populous former republic, has about 51 Steppe region in the north. Ukraine contains 16million people. The former republics of percent of total FSU sown crop area or about 33Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Belarus rank third, million hectares. Since about 55 percent offourth, and fifth in total population, respectively. Ukraine land area is sown to all crops, with 26

percent sown to grains, Ukraine was often re-Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan account for ferred to as the breadbasket of the Soviet Union.about 90 percent of the area sown to crops. The other 12 former republics contain about 11About 119 million hectares of land are sown to percent of total FSU sown area and 7 percent ofall crops in Russia, or 57 percent of the total FSU grain area.FSU crop area. Only 7 percent of the total landmass in Russia is sown to crops, with area sown The major agricultural area in the FSU (definedto grains around 4 percent. Russia's far north- by obiast-level boundaries) is shaded in figureem location, vast rugged terrain, and harsh 2. The shaded area accounts for about 97 per-climate cause most of the area to be unsuitable cent of total grain production, and will be en-for crop production. About 36 million hectares larged and used as the primary base map forof land are sown to crops in Kazakhstan (17 most of the remaining customized maps in thispercent of total FSU crop area). However, as in article. The remaining unshaded areas andRussia, only a small portion of the land in boundaries of the FSU that are provided inKazakhstan is sown to crops (about 13 percent). figure 2 are shown as a point of reference andThe climate of Kazakhstan restricts grain do not appear in the later maps.

Table 1, Statistics of Population, Land Mass, Sown Area, Total Grains Area, Table 2, Percent of Total FSU Statistics in Table 1 by Former RepublicsTotal Grains Production, Former Republics of the USSR (1986-90

Average)

Former Total Grains Former Total Grains Republic Republic

Population Land Mass Sown Area Area Production Population Land Mass Sown Area Area Production

1,000 1 ,000 hectares 1,000 percent of total FSU

metric tons

Russia 146,000 1,708,000 119,049 65,643 104,260 Russia 51,35 76,66 56,63 57,74 53,05

Ukraine 51,300 60,400 32,775 15,525 47,420 Ukraine 18,04 2,71 15,59 13,66 24.13Belarus 10,000 20,700 6,191 2,709 6,820 Belarus 3.52 0.93 2.94 2.38 3.47Moldova 4,200 3,400 1,798 746 2,560 Moldova 1.48 0.15 0.86 0.66 1.30

Kazakhstan 16,400 271,700 35,456 24,109 24,120 Kazakhstan 5.77 12.19 16.87 21.21 12.27

Uzbekistan 19,500 44,800 4,198 929 1,680 Uzbekistan 6.86 2.01 2.00 0.82 0.86Turkmenistan 3,500 48,800 1,217 184 360 Turkmenistan 1.23 2.19 0.58 0.16 0.18Kyrgyzstan 4.200 19,800 1,297 540 1,640 Kyrgyzstan 1.48 0.89 0.62 0.48 0.83Tajikistan 5,700 14,300 817 208 300 Tajikistan 2.00 0.64 0.39 0.18 0.15

Azerbaijan 6,900 8,700 1,390 478 1,140 Azerbaijan 2.43 0.39 0.66 0.42 0.58Armenia 3,200 3,000 446 133 260 Armenia 1.13 0.13 0.21 0.12 0.13Georgia 5,400 7,000 721 260 620 Georgia 1.90 0.31 0.34 0.23 0.32

Lithuania 3,700 6,400 2,306 1,128 3,040 Lithuania 1,30 0.29 1.10 0.99 1.55Latvia 2,700 6,500 1,641 691 1,480 Latvia 0.95 0.29 0.78 0.61 0.75Estonia 1,600 4,500 929 396 840 Estonia 0.56 0.20 0.44 0.35 0.43

TOTAL 284,300 2,228,000 210,231 113,679 196,540

262

~IIIIIIII' .~IIIIIIIII'~--

Soils rainfall than the chernozem zone, making it amore marginal producing area. This zone is

Under the leadership of V. Dokuchaiev, in about well suited for growing wheat and sunflowers.1870, the Russians pioneered the system of soilclassification still found today (Brady). Russian Podzolic intergrade soils are located in thesoil scientists were the first to study soils in the Baltic States, Central Region, Northwest Re-field as compared to their European counterparts gion, Volga Vyatsk, northern Urals, and Siberia.who restricted these studies to the laboratory. Podzolic soils are less fertile than theVegetation and climate were considered major chernozem or chestnut soils, and lack the abilityfactors responsible for regional characteristics of to generate and store nutrients. Found in north-soils, and this was the premise from which a em latitudes where the growing season is short,system of soil classification was developed. podzolic soils require large and continuousMany of the Russian terms such as Podzol, applications of fertilizer and lime. They have aChernozem, and Solonetz, are still used by soil poor water holding capacity, resulting in anscientists. Major soil zones in the primary grain inefficient use of both rainfall and fertilizerproducing areas of the FSU include chernozem, (CIA). This zone is suited for growing rye,chestnut and desert, and podzolic intergrade barley, oats, potatoes, and flax.

soils.Although the FSU has some of the best soils in

Chernozem soils are found in Moldova, most of the world, the degradation of these soils contin-Ukraine, North Caucasus, Central Chernozem ues to be a concern. Removal of straw from the(Central Black Soils Zone), western Volga, fields after threshing combined with deep tillagesouthern Urals, northern Kazakhstan, and south- contributes greatly to the decrease in organicem areas of West Siberia. Chernozem is a matter of the soil. Although deep tillage is anRussian term meaning black soils. Chernozem effective practice for combatting weeds, soilssoil characteristics include a thick, black top are subject to water and wind erosion, resultingsoil, a neutral pH, rich in humus and the highest in the depletion of topsoil and decline in organ-fertility of all soil types. ic material.

Chernozem soils are fine grained and easily Climatecultivated but are also highly susceptible towind erosion. As a result of the natural fertility Climate and weather in the FSU limit grainof chernozem soils, they are rated among the production and influence crop yield potential.world's best (Brady). This zone is well suited Climate is the long-term trend of weather in afor growing wheat, sugarbeets, and a variety of region, which influences the types of crops thatother crops. can be grown and the yield potential. Weather

influences year-to-year variations in crop yield.Chestnut and desert soils stretch eastward in a Weather variability will be discussed in a laterzone that covers the eastern North Caucasus, the section.lower Volga, and central Kazakhstan. This zonereceives progressively less rainfall and is a mar- The climate of the FSU is influenced by itsginal grain producing area. Chestnut and desert geographic location in high latitudes and its vastsoils are less fertile and more alkaline than the size. Most of the agricultural activities notchernozem soils. However, like the cherno- dependent upon irrigation are located in thezems, chestnut soils are well drained, well struc- interior of the continent, between 40 degrees Ntured and easy to cultivate. The agricultural and 60 degrees N latitude (figure 2). Higherproductivity of these soils is limited mainly by latitudes are associated with long, cold wintersthe lack of rainfall, with this zone receiving less and short, hot summers which serve to limit the

263

growing season. The length of the growing Siberia, for example, near the center of the landseason ranges from 160 days in the extreme mass, are in excess of 60 degrees C. The geo-southern portion of the major agricultural area, graphic location away from a significant waterto 100 days in the north. The transitional sea- source, high mountain barriers along most of thesons of autumn and spring are short, creating a southern periphery, and the frozen arctic to thebrief window of opportunity for crop seeding north all combine to limit moisture resources.and harvest. Winters are harsh, with tempera- Most of the precipitation which falls over thetures dropping below -40 degrees Celsius (C) in FSU comes from the Atlantic Ocean and itssome years. As a result, snow cover is required bordering seas. However, this maritime airto protect winter grains from winterkill caused must cross the entire continent of Europe beforeby freezing and fluctuating temperatures. The reaching the FSU, with a larger portion of pre-magnitude of winterkill depends on the estab- cipitation falling over Europe (Lydolph, 1977).lishment of crops in the autumn, the severity ofthe winter, and the depth of snow cover. Since Water is the main climatic factor limiting grainmoisture becomes more limited in winter due to production in the FSU (Kogan). The maininability of air to hold moisture at lower tem- agricultural area of the FSU receives, on aver-peratures, snowfall is often meager, limiting age, annual precipitation which ranges from aspotential moisture recharge and leaving crops little as 164 mm in Guryev Oblast, Kazakhstan,vulnerable to extreme cold. to about 1,000 mm in Krasnodar Oblast, North

Caucasus (figure 3). The limitations of precipi-The FSU land mass is almost 10,000 kilometers tation and growing season determine the type offrom East to West, encompassing 10 time zones. crop that can be grown in a particular region.This vastness causes the climate to be continen- For example, spring wheat requires from 350-tal in nature, characterized by large annual, 400 mm for reliable yields (Arnon), so this cropdaily, and day-to-day ranges in temperature, low is best suited for dryland areas such as Kazakh-relative humidity, and irregular rainfall. Annual stan. Corn, on the other hand, requires moreranges of temperature in central and eastern than 600 mm of precipitation and is best suited

Figure 3. Former Soviet Union major agricultural area:Normal annual rainfall 1968-91 mm

264

for southern Ukraine and North Caucasus in Winter Wheatterms of both annual rainfall and temperatureduring the growing season. The bulk of winter wheat is grown west of the

Ural mountains, in Russia, southern Belarus,Crop Production Moldova, and Ukraine (figure 4). Winter

wheat historically accounts for about 28 percentThis section provides information on winter of total FSU grain production. Winter wheatwheat, spring wheat, com, barley, rye, oats, yields are traditionally higher than those forsugarbeets, sunflowers, potatoes, and cotton. spring wheat. For 1986-90, winter wheatState-level production statistics for each crop yields averaged almost 3.0 metric tons perare given along with crop geography, crop cal- hectare, compared to spring wheat yields whichendar information, growing practices, and gener- averaged about 1.1 metric ton per hect-al adaptation of the crop to the climate and soils are (table 5). Winter wheat is planted in the au-of the area where it is grown. State-level statis- tumn, with the optimum planting period occur-tics for the selected crops in this section were ring from late August in northern areas, to lateobtained from various agencies within the September in southern Ukraine and westernUSDA. Selected publications which were used North Caucasus. Winter wheat is harvested inas reference and data sources include the "For- July and August. Russia and Ukraine are themer USSR Agriculture and Trade Report" highest producers of winter wheat, accounting(ERS), "World Agricultural Production" (FAS, for about 45 percent and 43 percent of total1992), and "Major World Crop Areas and Cli- FSU winter wheat production, respectively.matic Profiles" (W AOB). Winter wheat is a high yielding crop, second

only to com (table 5). Highest yields of winterProduction and yield statistics in tables 3 and 5 wheat are obtained in Ukraine, while Russiarepresent averages for the 1986-90 period. In ranks fifth in yield. In figure 5, area and1991, the Soviets changed their traditional re- bunkerweight yields for winter wheat are plottedporting of grains from a bunkerweight basis to a over 1981-90. Area data are represented with acleanweight basis. As a result, the production bar graph, while yield data are indicated withand yield data in tables 3 and 5 reflect clean- data points connected by a line. Area and yieldweight averages. The difference between data used in creating figure 5 are given in abunkerweight and cleanweight is primarily that table located at the bottom of the graph. Look-in the latter, excessive moisture and foreign ing at figure 5, no definitive trend in area datamaterial have been removed. Each republic's is seen. Planted area for winter wheat variedpercentage contribution to total former USSR from a low of 15.32 million hectares in 1987 toproduction for each crop was also summarized. a high of 20.7 million hectares in 1990. InFor graphs which display yield data prior to contrast, a definite trend is seen in winter wheat1986 (figures 5 and 7), bunkerweight data were yields, particularly after 1985 whenused for a more homogeneous time series. bunkerweight yields rose from 2.16 tons per

hectare in 1985 to 3.41 tons in 1990. ThisWheat is the most important grain crop grown increase in yield is attributed to intensive tech-in the FSU. The major wheat producing repub- nology along with generally favorable weather.lics are the Russian Federation, Ukraine, andKazakhstan, accounting for about 94 percent of In 1982, under the leadership of General Secre-total wheat production. Both winter and spring tary Brezhnev, the Soviets began an intensivewheat varieties are grown in the FSU. Howev- technology program. Modeled after advanceder, the type of wheat grown in each republic growing practices in Western Europe, intensivediffers considerably. technology is an integrated management ap-

proach to growing crops, which includes the

265.

-

~

1,

Figure 4. Former Soviet Union: Winter wheat 4

j

WINTER WHEAT CROP CALENDAR FOR IIOST OF FSU

1.01... L.I... L.C:~::.. Lol...1 j I PLANT I ~

HARVUT

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUI. AUG SEP OCT NOY DEC

Major Winter Wheat Area

Figure 5. Former Soviet Union: Winter wheat area and bunkerweight yield, 1981-90

Area (1,000 ha) Yield (mt/ha)

25,0003.4

20,000 3.2

315,000

2.8

10,000 2.6

2.45,000

2.2

0 2

YEAR 19B1 19B2 19B3 19B4 19B5 19B6 19B7 19BB 19B9 1990

AREA. 20,305 20,438 16,B50 17,956 17,996 16,630 15,319 18,313 19,039 20,700

YIEL,D -2.29 2.33 2.42 2.22 2.16 2.BO 3.02 2.96 3.33 3.41

266

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I

Table 3. Cleanweight Production of Selected Grains by Former Republics (1986-90 Average)

I Former Republic Wheat ~ Winter Spring Total Rye Barley Oats Corn

1,000 metric tons I Russia 24,347 19,206 43,553 12,470 24,109 12,576 3,296

.Ukraine 23,479 31 23,510 1,198 10,034 1,384 7,344Belarus 325 59 383 2,368 2,852 849 --

f Moldova 945 --945 .-371 5 1,093

Kazakhstan 1,1671 12,728 14,399 569 6,737 456 493I

.Uzbekistan 413 26 439 10 289 --444, Turkmenistan 98 --98 --101 --125,

Kyrgyzstan 555 20 575 ..585 15 449

Tajikistan 133 9 142 .-39 --88

r

~ Azerbaijan 694 --694 --367 5 48

Armenia 144 --144 -.112~ Georgia 197 --197 --98 13 299

Lithuania 914 --914 428 1,169 204 --

Latvia 305 --305 267 721 144 ..

~ Estonia 37 12 49 135 570 59 --

TOTAL 54,257 32,091 86,347 17,445 48,154 15,710 13,679

.-= None or negligible.

Table 4. Percent of Total FSU Production, for Selected Grains by Former Republic in Table 3

Former Republic Wheat Winter Spring Total Rye Barley Oats Corn

percent of total FSU

Russia 44.87 59.85 50.44 71.48 50.07 80.05 24.10

Ukraine 43.27 0.10 27.23 6.87 20.84 8.81 53.69Belarus 0.60 0.18 0.44 13.57 5.92 5.40 _.

Moldova 1.74 _.1.03 --0.77 0.03 7.99

Kazakhstan 3.08 39.66 16.68 3.26 13.99 2.90 3.60

Uzbekistan 0.76 0.08 0.51 0.06 0.60 --3.25

Turkmenistan 0.18 --0.11 --0.21 --0.91

Kyrgyzstan 1.02 0.06 0.67 --1.21 0.10 3.28

Tajikistan 0.25 0.03 0.16 --0.08 --0.64

Azerbaijan 1.28 --0.80 --0.76 0.03 0.35Armenia 0.27 --0.17 --0.23 "- --

Georgia 0.36 --0.23 --0.20 0.08 2.19

Lithuania 1.68 --1.06 2.45 2.43 1.30 --

Latvia 0.56.- 0.35 1.53 1.50 0.92 --

Estonia 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.77 1.18 0.38 --

--= None or negligible.

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.Table 5. Cleanweight Yields of Selected Grains by Former Republics (1986-90 Average) .

Former Republic Wheat j

Winter Spring Total Rye Barley Oats Corn j

Metric tons per hectare

~

Russia 2.82 1.19 1.77 1.65 1.58 1.28 2.87

Ukraine 3.64 2.80 3.64 2.11 2.87 2.34 3.53Belarus 2.80 2.11 2.68 2.60 2.82 2.26 --IMoldova 3.61 --3.61 --3.04 2.13 3.91

i

Kazakhstan 1.53 0.92 0.97 0.92 0.99 1.10 3.87

Uzbekistan 1.08 0.95 1.07 1.33 1.18 --3.90Turkmenistan 1.64 --1.64 --1.62 --2.88Kyrgyzstan 2.85 2.09 2.82 --2.29 2.46 6.58Tajikistan 1.11 1.16 1.11 --1.07 --4.94

Azerbaijan 2.43 --2.42 --2.38 1.71 1.83Armenia 2.21 --2.16 --1.90 Georgia 2.42 --2.38 --2.28 1.19 2.74

Lithuania 3.20 --3.18 2.54 2.62 2.27 --Latvia 2.70 --2.70 2.41 2.00 1.94 --Estonia 2.35 2.40 2.35 2.36 2.06 2.07 --

TOTAL 2.99 1.07 1.80 1.74 1.68 1.37 3.39


development of high yielding seed varieties and successful the original intensive technology pro-planned applications of fertilizers, herbicides, gram will be after the breakup of the FSU isfungicides, and plant growth regulators, based hard to know. The rapid rise in input prices,on stages of plant growth rather than calendar lower availabilities of fertilizers, as well as fueldates. In 1983, some 20,000 hectares were shortages, mean that growers must be highlygrown using intensive technological methods. efficient in their management practices. InImpressive increases in yield prompted a dra- addition, the degree to which funding and re-matic expansion of the program in 1985, when search is being transferred between and withinintensive technology encompassed around 19 the former republics is unknown.million hectares. Results in 1985 were limitedbecause of grower mismanagement or lack of Spring Wheatunderstanding of the new procedures. As inten-sive technology expanded to cover 50 million Spring wheat areas in the Urals, Kazakhstan,hectares in 1990, yields increased as growers and Siberia were brought under cultivation inbecame more adept at using the new procedures. the spring of 1954, under Khrushchev's virginAlthough intensive technology is practiced land program (Medvedev). This area is gen-throughout the entire USSR, a greater percent- erally known as the "New Lands". Grownage of agrochemicals are applied in major win- mainly east of the Ural mountains, spring wheatter wheat areas where moisture is less of a is also grown in Volga Valley and Volgalimiting factor and better soils are found. How Vyatsk regions (figure 6). About 60 percent of

268

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Figure 6. Former Soviet Union: Spring wheat

Spring wheat calendar for most of FSU

I ~r=::-l I1 I_nl...nl._I J__.~I.II_I I___1IAN fEB MAR APR MAY /UN JUL AlA; SSP OCT NOV DEI;

Major Spring Wheat Area

Figure 7. Former Soviet Union: Spring wheat area and bunkerweight yield, 1981-90


YEAR 1981 1984 1985 1988 1987 1989 1990

AREA. 38,927 33,105 32,289 32,100 31,385 28,837 27,500

YIELD -0.89 1.08 0.87 1.21 1.43 1.18 1.01 1.01 1.38

269

spring wheat is produced in Russia, while about production, a sizeable portion of the com crop40 percent is produced in Kazakhstan (table 4). that is planted in the FSU is used for silage andSpring wheat historically accounts for about 16 fodder. The percentage harvested for grain canpercent of total FSU grain production. Area deviate from year to year based on weathersown to spring wheat declined steadily from conditions. In southern areas, unseasonablyabout 39 million hectares in 1981 to 27.5 mil- cool weather during the summer prevents comlion hectares in 1990 (figure 7). This decrease in some areas from reaching full maturity. As ain area planted to spring wheat is a direct result result, com that was originally planted for grainof more land left fallow in recent years, as well must be harvested for silage or fodder. Inas land being taken out of production due to areas further north and east, com is grownhigh cost and marginal returns. mainly for silage or fodder because the growing

season is not long enough for com to mature.Along with a short growing season, drought is a Com is the highest yielding grain crop (table 5),major limitation to grain production in spring accounting for about 7 percent of total FSUwheat areas. Since the meager rainfall in spring grain production. Corn is usually planted inwheat areas limits the effectiveness of agro- May and harvested in October. Com area haschemicals, intensive technology in the spring fluctuated widely in recent years from a high ofwheat areas is different from that for winter 4.6 million hectares in 1987 to a low of 2.8grains. The emphasis in spring wheat areas has million hectares in 1990. Com is also grown inbeen on stabilizing yields. Less emphasis is areas under intensive technology, which inplaced on chemical applications, because the recent years has helped to bolster yields.drier climate places an environmental constrainton the effectiveness of agrochemicals in increas- Barleying yield. Other farm management practicessuch as planting after fallow, windbreaks, and Barley, an important feed grain, is grownimproved tillage methods make up the intensive throughout the FSU. More adaptable to the

.technology methods in these areas. For inten- harsh FSU climate than com, barley accountssive technology to work efficiently, growing for one-fourth of total grain production. Mostpractices must be fine-tuned for each area based of the barley crop (about 90 percent) is sown toon soil and environmental conditions. Spring spring varieties, and is often the grain sown inwheat varieties are being bred based on local areas where winter grains are lost to winterkillconditions for drought and disease resistance. (Moore). Spring barley is planted in April inHowever, traditional varieties of spring wheat areas west of the Ural mountains, and in May,such as Saratov 29 and Altai 81 continue to in areas further east. Harvest occurs from July-predominate, mainly because of their drought August in the west to September in the east.tolerance. Other practices used to help stabilize Russia ranks first in barley production (table 3),

I yields are staggered sowing, planting several accounting for about 50 percent of the total FSUvarieties, snow retention, fallow, and improved barley crop. Ukraine and Kazakhstan rank sec-tillage methods. ond and third, producing about 21 percent and

14 percent, respectively (table 4). On average,Corn highest barley yields (table 5) of around 3.0

tons per hectare are obtained in Moldova andThe areas most suited to com for grain produc- Ukraine, while lowest yields of around 1.0 tonstion include Ukraine, Moldova, and North Cau- per hectare are obtained in Kazakhstan. Barleycasus in Russia. About 85 percent of com for yields have increased in recent years, in partgrain is produced in these areas. Although the because of intensive technology.statistics in this section refer to com for grain

270 j

~

Rye Sugarbeets

Rye, more winter hardy than wheat, is adaptable The FSU is the world's leading producer ofto the cool, moist, acidic soils of northern grow- sugarbeets. Sugarbeets are the only domesticing areas. Rye is less prone to winterkill than source of sugar. Republic-level sugarbeet pro-winter wheat. Rye accounts for about 9 percent duction can be found in table 6. The Ukraine isof total FSU grain production. Russia produces the largest producer of sugarbeets, while theI most of the rye crop, accounting for about 70 Russian Federation (mainly Central Black Soils

I percent of total rye production. Belarus ranks Region, and the Kuban region of North Cauca-~ second, producing about 14 percent of FSU rye. sus) ranks second (table 7). Sugarbeets are also

Rye is also grown in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, grown in Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova, and inI which produce about 14 percent and 3 percent irrigated areas of Kyrgyzstan, Armenia, Georgia,, of total FSU rye, respectively. Rye is planted in and Kazakhstan. Sugarbeets are planted in May

~ the autumn from mid-August to mid-September. and harvested in October. Because of signifi-.Harvest occurs from mid-July to mid-August. cant losses of beets after harvest (as much as 50

Area sown to rye has increased in recent years, percent), along with a decaying infrastructure,\ rising from about 7.6 million hectares in 1981 the Soviets have not been able to keep up with~ to 10.4 million hectares in 1990. This upward the domestic demand for sugar. As a result,

trend has been due to an increase in demand for sugar must be imported from other countries.rye bread, particularly in urban areas (Moore). The potential for significant increases in domes-Emphasis on rye production has increased. Rye tic sugarbeet plantings needed to offset theseyields increased from 1.5 tons per hectare demands is restricted because a 4-to 6-year field(bunkerweight) in 1984 to 2.0 tons (bunker- rotation pattern is necessary to reduce theweight) in 1990 as a direct result of intensive plants's susceptibility to pest and disease prob-technology. lems (CIA). Sugarbeet area has remained rela-

tively stable during the past decade, but anOats increase in sugarbeet area might occur in the

future as the former republics attempt to in-Oats, a spring grain, account for about 8 percent crease self-sufficiency.of total FSU grain production. Oats are suitableto areas sown to rye, and are well adapted to Sunflowersthe cool northern regions where soils are acidic.Russia produces about 80 percent of oats grown The sunflower plant is well suited to Sovietin FSU, mainly in the regions of Western Sibe- agriculture, because it is hardy and is a goodria, Central Region, and Volga. The Ukraine source of desperately needed vegetable oils andranks second with about 9 percent, Belarus with protein meal. As a result, the FSU is the5 percent, and Kazakhstan with 3 percent. The world's largest producer of sunflowerseed.crop calendar for oats is similar to that of spring Sunflowerseed is the primary source of vegeta-barley. Area sown to oats has declined in ble oil in the FSU, while sunflowerseed meal isrecent years, decreasing from about 13.1 million a major source of protein feed in dairy andhectares in 1986 to 10.7 million hectares in livestock production. The Russian Federation1990. This decline in area is attributed to an produces about half of the sunflowers grown inincrease in fallow. Oat yields have been rela- the former USSR (table 6). Ukraine ranks atively stable in recent years, averaging about close second, at about 45 percent of total FSU1.37 tons per hectare (table 5). production (table 7). Sunflowers in Ukraine are

271.

.I

.mainly concentrated in the south and east, while products (Lydolph). Over half of the total pota- j

greatest concentrations in Russia are located in to production comes from private plots. State- ,the Black Soils Region, Volga Valley, and level potato production is shown in table 6.North Caucasus. The area sown to sunflowers Potatoes are grown throughout all agriculturalincreased in recent years because of an attempt regions of the FSU, but are best suited for west-to improve supplies of vegetable oils to the em and central areas where soils are wellpopulation and protein meal supplies to feed drained and the climate is cool and moist.livestock. The area sown to sunflowers rose Russia ranks first in FSU potato production, atfrom 3.8 million hectares in 1986 to 4.7 million around 50 percent, followed by Ukraine,hectares in 1990. Russia realized a 25-percent Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Lithuania at 25, 15, 3,increase in area, while Ukraine experienced an and 2 percent, respectively (table 7). Area8-percent increase. Yields rose from an average planted to potatoes decreased in recent years,of 1.2 tons per hectare during 1981-85 to an falling from about 6.9 million hectares in 1981average of 1.5 tons per hectare for 1986-90. to 5.8 million hectares in 1990. Potato yieldsThis increase in yield can be attributed to inten- fluctuated widely during 1981-90. The lowestsive technology as well as more favorable yield, about 10.5 tons per hectare, occurred inweather. the drought year of 1981. The highest yields

were obtained in 1988, when 13.7 tons perPotatoes hectare was achieved.

The FSU is one of the world's largest producers Cottonof potatoes. Potatoes are the most importantfood crop after grains and are also used for The FSU ranks fourth in the world in cottonanimal feed and as a raw material for industrial production. Most of the cotton crop is grown

Table 6. Crop Production of Sugarbeets, Sunflowers, Seed Cotton, Potato, by Former Republics

(1986-90) Average

Former Republic Sugarbeets Sunflowers Cotton Potatoes

1,000 metric tons Russia 32,930 3,121 --35,879

Ukraine 47,410 2,732 --17,965Belarus 1,592 10,513Moldova 2,565 253 --362Kazakhstan 1,434 117 322 2,114

Uzbekistan 5,112 308Turkmenistan 1,318 34

Kyrgyzstan 75 328Tajikistan 904 200

Azerbaijan 644 185Armenia 71 250

Georgia 46 8 --336

Lithuania 989 1,812Latvia 401 1,228Estonia 814

TOTAL 87,438 6,231 8,375 72,328


272.

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in the Central Asian republics and Azerbaijan mountains to the north, bitter cold air from(table 6 and figure 8). Cotton is planted during Siberia often moves southward into the cottonApril and May, and is harvested during Septem- area during the winter. In contrast, summerber and October. Most FSU cotton areas are temperatures often exceed 40 degrees C. Mostlocated in a desert basin, surrounded by high of the annual precipitation that covers the cottonmountains to the east, west, and south. These area falls during the spring and autumn. Cottonmountains are the main reason the cotton area is a heat-loving plant and cannot survive frosts,i experiences dry weather during the summer prolonged cloudiness, or excessive moisture in

I months. Warm, moist winds from the Indian early stages of development. Sub-freezingl Ocean and Mediterranean Sea lose most of their temperatures or excessive rain after spring sow-moisture as they rise above the mountains and ing can have a detrimental effect on tender, become drier and warmer as they descend into young plants, necessitating replanting.I the basin cotton areas. As a result, irrigation is Uzbekistan is the largest producer of cotton,, required during the dry summer months to meet accounting for about 60 percent of total FSU

I the total water demands of the cotton crop. cotton production (table 6). Turkmenistan rankssecond, with about 16 percent, followed by

.Most of the water used to grow cotton comes Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, andI from rivers or irrigation canals that are fed by Kyrgyzstan, respectively.I melting snow from the Tien Shan mountains.~ Cotton occupies more irrigated land than any Reaching a peak of about 3.5 million hectares in

other crop. Irrigation water is supplied by the 1987, area sown to cotton declined to 3.1 mil-I Syrdar'ya and Amudar'ya Rivers. Canal sys- lion hectares in 1990 (figure 9). The decline in.terns

are used to transport water from these area is a result of several factors. In some~ rivers to the cotton areas. Since there are no areas, heavy irrigation has caused excessive

~

~ Table 7. Percent of Total FSU Production for Selected Crops in Table 6, by Former RepublicI

Former Republic Sugarbeets Sunflowers Cotton Potatoes

percent of total FSU

Russia 37.66 50.09 --49.61

Ukraine 54.22 43.85 --24.84Byelarus 1.82 14.54Moldova 2.93 4.06 --0.50Kazakhstan 1.64 1.88 3.84 2.92

Uzbekistan 61.04 0.43Turkmenistan 15.74 0.05Kyrgyzstan 0.90 0.45Tajikistan 10.79 0.28

Azerbaijan 7.69 0.26Armenia 0.08 0.35Georgia 0.05 0.13 --0.46

Lithuania 1.13 2.51Latvia 0.46 1.70Estonia 1.13


273

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~

I

Figure 8. Former Soviet Union: Cotton growing areas

r?~

KAZAKHSTAN

TURKMENISTAN

Major Cotton Area

Figure 9. Former Soviet Union: Cotton area and yield, 1981-90


4,000 3.2

33,000

2.8

2,0002.6

1,000 2.4

0 2.2

YEAR 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

AREA. 3,168 3,188 3,192 3,347 3,318 3,475 3,527 3,432 3,338 3,171

YIELD -3.04 2.91 2.89 2.58 2.64 2.37 2.29 2.53 2.57 2.62

274

I

salinization, making them unsuitable for pro- years, sukhoveis adversely affect large areas.duction. In other areas, cotton has been re- When sukhoveis occur at a critical stage of cropplaced by grains and forages, in an attempt to development, a significant decline in yield canbecome more self-sufficient in grain production. result. For example, a typical sukhovei eventYield of seed cotton has also declined in recent occurred in early July 1984 (WWCB) whenyears, falling from 2.8 tons per hectare during desiccating winds covered spring wheat areas.the period 1981-85 to 2.5 tons per hectare dur- This particular sukhovei occurred at a time

I ing the period 1986-90. This decline in yield when spring grains were in the most weather-

I has been attributed to lower quality inputs, sensitive flowering stage of development, lower-increased soil salinity, and general degradation ing yields by about 30 percent from early-sea-I of soils caused by heavy use of fertilizers, defo- son projections.

~ liants, and pesticides (USDA, May 1992).I

To better illustrate the year-to-year variability inI The high emphasis on cotton production in weather over former USSR agricultural areas,I Central Asia along with excessive use of fertil- monthly temperature and precipitation data for

izer, pesticides, and poor drainage have led to the period 1950-92 were averaged for weather, ecological and soil fertility problems. The Aral stations in the Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The

r Sea has been most acutely affected. Since most data were obtained from the World Meteorologi-, of the fresh water which feeds the Aral Sea cal Organization's Global Telecommunications

~ comes from the Syrdar'ya and Amudar'ya Riv- System via the National Oceanic and Atmo-i. ers, the siphoning off of water from these rivers spheric Administration's Climate Analysis Cen-

~ for irrigation has led to a catastrophic decrease ter. For Ukraine, the months of May-July were

~ in the Aral Sea. Over the past 30 years, the combined into one seasonal value, a time when, Aral Sea has decreased in size by about 40 winter wheat is usually advancing through thepercent, and now contains only about half of its reproductive and filling periods of development.original water. Salt deposits from the exposed For Kazakhstan, the summer months of June-areas are carried by the wind and have a July were combined to contain the period whendetrimental impact on the nearby population and spring wheat advances through the reproductivecrops. A switch from cotton production to other to early filling periods. These seasonal temper-crops (com, wheat, soybeans, sunflowers, and ature and precipitation data were then rankedbarley) that require less irrigation water, as well over the 1950-92 period and categorized intoas increasing the use of drip irrigations systems, percentiles. The years from 1977-92 are shown.would serve to increase the water flowing into To provide insight into the relationship betweenthe Aral Sea, helping to stabilize the current seasonal weather variability and fluctuations insituation. yield, bunkerweight winter wheat yields were

overlaid on the seasonal rankings for theWeather Variability Ukraine, while bunkerweight spring wheat

yields were plotted on the rankings forCrop varieties grown in marginal areas are Kazakhstan. Clean weight yields were convertedvulnerable to year-to-year variability in weather. into bunkerweight yields for 1991 and 1992Although water is the primary climatic factor because bunkerweights were not published.limiting crop production in the former USSR, Conversion was based on 1986-90 ratios. Notemperature also plays an important role. When attempt was made to de-trend yields.water is limited during the spring and summer,these dry periods are sometimes accompanied Percentile rankings of temperature and precipi-by influxes of hot, dry air commonly known as tation for Kazakhstan are shown in figure 10.sukhoveis (Dzerdzeevskii). Although local Years with rankings above the 70th percentilesukhovei conditions occur each year, in some were categorized as wet or hot years, while

275

'" "'"

rankings below the 30th percentile were catego- temperature during the June-July period. Inrized into dry or cold years. Rankings which addition, from figure 10, there appears to befell between the 30th and 70th percentiles were less variability in yields after 1985, indicatingcategorized into near-normal years. Tempera- that intensive technology is in fact, helping toture rankings exceeded or approached the 70th stabilize yields.percentile (hot category) and precipitation rank-ings fell near or below the 30th percentile (dry Percentile rankings of seasonal temperature andcategory) during the years of 1977, 1981, 1982, precipitation for Ukraine are shown in figure 11.1983, 1984, 1988, 1989, and 1991. For these The winter wheat yield series for Ukraine foryears, spring grain yields fell below the 1977-92 the period 1977-92 is overlaid on the percentileaverage of .95 tons per hectare. In contrast, for rankings. The relationship between seasonalyears when precipitation rankings exceeded the weather variability and yield variability fortemperature rankings (1978, 1979, 1985, 1986, winter wheat is not as evident as that for spring1987, 1990 and 1992), yields rose above the wheat in Kazakhstan. However, some useful1977-92 average. From this graph, year-to-year relationships between seasonal weather andseasonal weather variability for June-July ap- winter wheat yield can be found.pears to be closely associated with yield.Yields are highest on cold, wet years and lowest Of the 43 years (1950-92) of seasonal data thaton hot, dry years. Of course, the timing of the were ranked, only 2 years (1979 and 1981)weather events and the stage of , crop develop- experienced temperature rankings that were

ment will determine the degree to which yields categorized in the hot category. For these samewill be most greatly affected. Results from years, precipitation was ranked in the dry cate-figure 10 show that spring wheat yields in gory. Winter wheat yields for 1979 and 1981Kazakhstan are highly dependent on rainfall and were low. Inspection of the weather during

Figure 10, Kazakhstan: June-July rankings and bunkerweight spring wheat yields

Percentile Yield (mt/ha)100 1.5

90 1.4

80 1.3

70 1.2

60 1.1

50 1.0

40 0.9

30 0.8

20 0.7

10 0.6

0 0.51977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991* 1992*

Year

c=J Temperature ~ Precipitation .Spring wheat yield

*Data for 1991 and 1992 are based on USDA January 1993 estimates.

276

" I'

these 2 years revealed hot, dry sukhovei condi- winter wheat yields in Ukraine. In fact, in threetions occurred around the flowering and early (1985, 1988, and 1991) of the six years whengrain fill period, negatively affecting winter the precipitation was ranked in the wet categorywheat yields. However, for the low-yielding winter wheat yields declined. This observationyears of 1980, 1983, and 1985, temperature is better explained by Ulanova. In examiningrankings were either in the near-normal or be- agrometeorological conditions that affect winterlow-normal category, and precipitation rankings wheat yields, Ulanova explains that precipitationwere in the near-normal or wet category. Inves- during the summer is an inadequate determinanttigation into weather conditions for these years of winter wheat yields because the rainfall isreveals that for 1980, wet weather from the often excessive and falls extremely irregularly.spring throughout the summer caused significant Heavy precipitation in the summer is oftenharvest delays and grain spoilage, resulting in associated with thunderstorms and gusty winds,yield reductions. In 1983, adverse weather resulting in increased lodging, harvest delays,during the autumn planting season along with and disease. Precipitation during the autumn,dry weather in the spring resulted in decreased overwintering conditions, and spring moistureyields. For 1985, wet, cold weather throughout reserves have a greater role in determining thethe Ukraine posed problems for crop develop- yield of winter wheat. Therefore, weather vari-ment and harvesting. These unfavorable condi- ability not only in the summer but throughouttions in 1985 along with problems with grower the entire year help to determine the yield po-mismanagement of intensive technology resulted tential for winter wheat in Ukraine. However,in low yields. sukhovei conditions around flowering, such as

that which occurred in 1979 and 1981, can haveUnlike Kazakhstan, there appears to be no rela- a detrimental impact on winter wheat.tionship between wet summers and increased

Figure 11. Ukraine: May-July rankings and bunkerweight winter wheat yields

Percentile Yield (mt/ha)100 4.2

4.190 4.0

80 3.9

3.870 3.7

3.660 3.5

3.450

3.3

40 3.2

3.1

30 4.0

2.920 2.8

10 2.7

2.6

0 2.51977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991' 1992'

Year

c=:J Temperature ~ Precipitation .Winter wheat yield

'Data for 1991 and 1992 are based on USDA January 1993 estimates.~

277l

Conclusions areas of Russia which have some of the bettersoils, moderate temperatures, and higher rainfall

The lack of precipitation and the northerly loca- would be best suited for a wide variety of crops.tion of the FSU limit grain production. The For example, it is logical for these regions to in-climate is continental in nature, characterized by crease soybean and rapeseed production in orderlarge temperature variations and irregular rain- to improve supplies of vegetable oils and pro-fall. Adverse weather such as droughts, hot, dry tein meal.winds (sukhoveis), and winter freezes are com-mon phenomena, plaguing agriculture in some Many of the former republics are moving to-areas on an annual basis. The severity of these ward privatization of the big collective and stateadverse conditions, their geographic extent, and farms. As the size of farms decrease, the typetheir timing with respect to the crop growth of crops that can be grown economically shiftcycle will determine the degree to which crop toward cash crops, and away from crops whichyield potential is impacted. lend themselves to large-scale production.

Since the pace of privatization is likely to beGrain is produced in all of the 15 former repub- slow, the current farming practices and croplics. However, the type of grain as well as the mixes will likely continue in the near future.level of production differs for each republic.The Russian Federation, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Acknowledgmentsand to a smaller extent Belarus, account for alarge majority of the production of most crops The author wishes to thank Ray Motha, Geraldin the FSU. An exception is cotton, grown Rector, Chris Foster, Mark Lindeman, Bobmainly on irrigated land in the former republics Stefanski, and Mark Brusberg for reviewing thisof Central Asia. paper.

Regarding the intensive technology program, the Referencesavailability of inputs and management practiceswill be important determinants of the future suc- Arnon, 1972. Crop Production in Dry Regions.cesses of the program, especially in areas where Volume II: Systematic Treatment of the Princi-agrochemicals are used heavily to promote pal Crops. Leonard Hill, London.increases in crop productivity. The transfer oftechnologies, funds, and inputs between and Brady, Nyle C., 1974. The Nature and Proper-within the former republics will also play an ties of Soils. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.important role. New York.

As the former republics strive to restructure and Dzerdzeevskii, B.L., 1963. Sukhoveis anddiversify agriculture to become more self-suffi- Drought Control. Israel Program for Scientificcient, climate, soils, and weather variability will Translations, Jerusalem.be key factors in determining crop mix andproduction levels. For example, in Kazakhstan, Kogan, F.N., March 1983. "Perspectives forthe combination of limited rainfall and year-to- Grain Production in the USSR." Agricultural

1year variability in weather limits agricultural Meteorology. 28, 213-227.production to those crops which are moredrought resistant such as sunflowers. An in- Lydolph, P .E., 1977. Climates of the Soviet

1crease in com or winter wheat production seems Union -World Survey of Climatology (Volumeunlikely, due to Kazakhstan's low annual rain- 7). Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Ifall and severe winters. Ukraine and adjacent Amsterdam, the Netherlands. ~

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,1990. Geography of the U.S.S.R. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1992. Eco-Misty Valley Publishing, Elkhart Lake, Wiscon- nomic Research Service. Former USSR Agri-sin. culture and Trade Report. No. RS-92-1..Washington,

D.C.Medvedev, Z. A., 1987. Soviet Agriculture.W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. New York. , December 1991. Foreign Agricul-

.tural Service. World Agricultural Production.Moore, E., July 1986. USSR Grain Policies and Circular Series: W AP 12-91. Washington,I Data. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Eco- D.C.nomic Research Service, International Econom-I ics Division. ERS Staff Report No. , March 1992. Foreign Agricultural, AGE5860213. Washington, D.C. Service. World Agricultural Production. Circu-;

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