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Chung-Hyun Lee Dept. of English Education

ContentsI. IntroductionII. Major language trends in 20th century language teachingŸ A Brief History of LT Ÿ The nature of approaches and methodsŸ SLT Ÿ ALM

III. Alternative approaches and methodsŸ Total Physical Response Ÿ The Silent Way Ÿ Suggestopedia Ÿ Whole LanguageŸ Multiple Intelligence Ÿ Neurolinguistic ProgrammingŸ The lexical approach Ÿ Competency-Based Language Teaching

IV. Current communicative approachesŸ Communicative Language Teaching Ÿ The Natural ApproachŸ Cooperative Language Learning Ÿ Content-Based InstructionŸ Task-Based Language Teaching Ÿ The post-methods era* MALL/ E-Learning/ Blended Learning * Revised 7th English Curriculum

V. Conclusions

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Effective Teaching Methods?Effective Teaching Methods?

IntroductionIntroduction

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IntroductionIntroduction

우리나라우리나라 영어교육영어교육 :: 문제점문제점??

해결해결 방안은방안은??

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INTRODUCTION

< Teaching Plans

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Major language trends in 20th century language teaching

Language, Learning, and Teaching

1.1 Introduction

1) Key issues in language learning (LL) and teaching (LT)2) Some questions need to be asked

1.2 Language

1.3 Learning and Teaching

1.4 Schools of thought in SLA· Structuralism/Behaviorism· Rationalism and Cognitive Psychology· Constructivism

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Major language trends in 20th century language teaching

Language Teaching as a PROFESSION in the 20c

1. A Brief History of Language Teaching1.1 Two Principal Influences on Language Teaching Methodology

• Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need.

• They have also reflected changes in theories of the nature of language and of language learning.

1.2 A Brief History of Language Teaching Methods

• Two types of approaches: - Using a language (i.e., speaking and understanding) - Analysing a language (i.e., learning the grammatical rules)

1) Medieval - Pre-20th-Century2) 20th-Century

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Major language trends in 20th century language teaching

■ The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

■ LT Innovations in 19c- The Gouin Series (Gouin, 1831-1896) → SLT & TPR

* Language Learning: Through using language to accomplish events consisting of asequence of related actions

■ Reform Movement in the end of 19c

- Linguistics: Linguists emphasizes that SPEECH was

the primary form of language → IPA

■ Direct Method

■ The Methods Era6

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The Nature of Approaches and Methods

1. Approach and method■ What is method?■ Anthony's model (1963, pp. 63-67)- Approach, Method & Technique■ Richards and Rodgers' model (2001) - The revision and extension of the original

Anthony’s model- A method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by

a design, and is practically realized in procedure. See ‘Summary of elements and subelements that constitute a method’ (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 33)

2. Approach1) Theory of language- Structural view, Functional view & Interactional view

2) Theory of language learning- An account of the psychologistic and cognitive processes involved in language

learning- An account of the conditions that allow for successful use of these processes - See Richards & Rodgers, 2001, pp. 22-23.

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The Nature of Approaches and Methods

3. Design1) Objectives2) Content choice and organization: the syllabus3) Types of learning and teaching activities4) Learner roles5) Teacher roles6) The role of instructional materials

4. Procedure- The actual moment-to-moment techniques, practice, and behavior that

operate in teaching a language according to a particular method- The level at which we describe how a method realizes its approach and

design in classroom behavior.- Focusing on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and

feedback phases of teaching.

■ Summary of elements and subelements that constitute a method (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 33)

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Situational Language Teaching (SLT)

< Structural-Situational and Oral Approaches

Situational Language Teaching (SLT)• British applied linguists (the 1930s - the 1960s)

• Vocabulary control & Grammar control

* Presentation (제시) - Practice (연습) - Production (발화)

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The Audiolingual Method (ALM)

< The Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) or Army Method

The Audiolingual Method

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W W II: a significant effect on LT in America

- Need a special language training program to supply the US government with

personnel who are fluent in FLs

Practice makes perfect!

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Total Physical Response (TPR)

< Trace theory of memory in psychology(memory connection → memory association)

TPR (by James Asher)- Coordination of speech and action- Teaching language through physical (motor) activity- Humanistic psychology (affective factors)

l A grammar-based view of language: verb in the imperativel Theory of learning: innate bio-program, brain lateralization

and reduction of stress

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The Silent Way (SW)

< Teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom?

The Silent Way (by Caleb Gattegno)

- The use of color charts & the colored Cuisenaire rods- Discovery learning, Physical foci, Problem-solving

approaches to learning

* Teaching (x), Learning (o)

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Community Language Learning (CLL)

< Counseling-Learning theory

Community Language Learning (Curran, 1972)

- Humanistic techniques- Whole-person learning

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Suggestopedia

< Suggestology ( “science … concerned with the systematic study of nonrational and/or nonconcious influences” )

Suggestopedia (or Desuggestopedia)by Georgi Lozanov (1978)

* yoga, centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning* equalitarianism

■ No theory of language? Lexis is central.

■ Theory of language Learning: Suggestion- The teacher’s authority (Placebo …)- Infantilization- Double-planedness- Intonation, rhythm, and concert pseudo-passiveness

http://www.mncast.com/outSearch/mncPlayer.asp?movieID=10024263320070302172243&player=7

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Whole Language

< Language as “Whole”

Whole Language Approachby a group of US educators in 1980s

* Teaching of literacy, language arts* Learning to read and write naturally with a focus on real

communication and reading and writing for pleasure* Language is whole; Integrated 4 language skills in learning

■ Interactional (social) perspective■ Humanism, Constructivism

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Multiple Intelligences

< Human intelligence as having multiple dimensions* A Learner-Based Philosophy

Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner (1993)

* 8 native “intelligences” ?1. Linguistic 2. Logical/mathematical 3. Spatial 4. Musical5. Bodily/kinesthetic 6. Interpersonal 7. Intrapersonal 8. Naturalist

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Neurolinguistic Programming

< How successful communicators achieved their success?

“New Age Humanism”

Neurolinguistic Programming by Grindler & Bandler (mid-1970s)

- An alternative form of therapy (a system of techniques therapists could use)- A training philosophy and set of training teaching techniques- Self –actualization and self-awareness- Modeling

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The Lexical Approach

< The centrality of lexicon; to language structure, second language learning, and language use

The lexical approach- Lexis plays the central role in language teaching and learning.

- collocation- OK! But input à intake directly?Then, How?

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Competency-Based Language Teaching

< Competency-Based Education: An educational movementfocuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning

Competency-Based Language Teaching- The basis for the design of work-related and survival-oriented language teaching programs for adults.

- Expected outcomes and continuous feedback- Thinking skills? Passive citizens?

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Communicative Language Teaching

< The need to focus in LT on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures

- Communicative Competence

Communicative Language Teaching- CLT is a theory of LT that starts from a communicative model of language and language use, and that seeks to translate this into a design for an instructional system, for materials, for teacher and learner roles and behavior, and for classroom activities and techniques.

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Communicative Language Teaching

< The Principles of Communicative Language Teaching

- the emphasis is on real and useful communication;- from knowledge of rules, to a need to communicate;- from rote learning to negotiation of meaning;- from only accuracy to emphasis on fluency; - from the teacher talking to learners talking;- from teacher-centered to learner-centered; - help the learners become more self-reliant and active learners; - help and encourage peer support and feedback; - these activities help language learners become motivated to speak.

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Communicative Language Teaching

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ALM CLT의미보다 구조와 형태 중시 의미 중시

구조 중심 대화의 암기 대화 사용시 의사 소통 기능 중시, 암기 금지

언어 항목은 반드시 맥락화될 필요 없음. 맥락화 기본적 전제

언어학습은 구조, 소리, 혹은 단어 학습 언어 학습은 의사소통 학습

숙달 혹은 과잉학습 추구 효과적인 의사소통 추구

반복 연습이 주요 교수기법 반복 연습은 부수적 활동

원어민 화자와 같은 발음 추구 이해 가능한 발음 추구

문법적 설명 회피학습자의 나이, 흥미 등에 따라 학습자에게 도움이 되는보조 자료 허용

의사소통 활동은 철저한 연습과 훈련의 긴 과정을거친 후에야 가능

의사소통의 시도 학습 초기부터 장려

학습자의 모국어 사용 금지 필요 시 모국어 사용 허용

초기단계에서 번역 금지 학습자들이 필요로 하거나 도움이 될 경우 번역 사용

듣기, 말하기를 완전히 학습하기 전에 읽기, 쓰기보류

원한다면 첫날, 첫 시간부터 읽기, 쓰기 시작

문형을 직접 가르침으로써 대상언어의 언어 체계학습

목표어의 체계는 의사소통 하려는 노력 과정을 통해 가장잘 학습됨

Finnocchiaro & Brumfit (1983): ALM vs CLT

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Communicative Language Teaching

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ALM CLT

언어 능력이 목표 의사소통능력이목표

언어의 다양성을 인정하나 강조하지 않음. 언어의다양성이교재와방법론에서중심개념

단원의 순서는 언어의 복잡성의 원리에 따라 결정학습 순서는 흥미를 유지하는 내용, 기능, 의미 등을고려해결정

교사는 학생을 통제하고 이론에 배치는 모든 것의실행을 금지함

교사는 학생에게 언어를 학습하도록 동기를 줄 수 있는모든방법으로학생을도움

“언어는 습관이다.”따라서 오류는 반드시 막아야 함. 언어는각 개인의시행착오를통하여생성됨

정확성이 주 목표유창성과 용인되는 언어가 주 목표: 정확성은 추상적이아닌맥락에따라판정됨

학생들은 기자재 혹은 통제된 교재를 통해 언어체계와 상호작용함

학생들은 짝 또는 그룹 활동을 통하여 직접 혹은 글로써타인과상호작용

교사는 학생들이 사용할 언어를 명시교사는 학생들이 어떤 언어를 사용할지 정확히 알 수없다.

내재적 동기는 언어의 구조에 대한 관심으로부터 나옴내재적 동기는 언어를 통해서 의사소통 되는 내용에대한관심에서비롯

Communicative Language Teaching

■ 의사소통적 접근방법의 수업 현장에 효율적 적용을 위하여

• 문법적 & 담화적 요소뿐만 아니라 언어의 사회적, 문화적, 화용적 특징들에대한 연구가 지속적으로 진행되고 있다.

• “실제 상황”과 같은 의사소통을 교실 내에서 구현하기 위한 다양한 방법이모색되고 있으며 정확성뿐만 아니라 유창성 향상을 위한 노력도 하고 있다.

• 학습자가 교실 밖의 실제 상황에서도 즉각적인 의사소통을 수행할 수 있는능력을 갖추도록 교실 내에서의 즉각적 학습과제 (tasks) 뿐만 아니라, 제2언어에 대한 평생학습을 촉진시킬 수 있는 방안에 대해 고민하고 있다.

• 학습자 자신의 잠재능력을 최대한 발휘할 수 있도록 학습자의 내적 동기를불러일으키는 요소들을 제2언어 교수 및 학습 활동 속에 포함시키려는 노력이 이뤄지고 있다.

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Communicative Language Teaching

■ Nunan (1991)의 CLT 5가지 특징

• 교실 내에서 목표어로 상호작용을 함으로써 의사소통 방법을 학습한다.• 학습 상황에 진정성(authentic) 있는 교재를 도입한다.• 언어뿐만 아니라 학습과정 자체에 학습자가 관심을 기울일 수 있도록 많은 기회를 제공한다.

• 교실 내 언어학습의 중요한 요소로서 학습자의 개인적 경험을 중요시 한다.• 교실 내 언어학습을 교실 밖 언어 사용과 연결시키도록 노력한다.

4 CLT 적용 시 주의점

• 실제 교수 및 학습에 CLT 원리를 적용하려면, 먼저CLT 원리를 정확히 이해해야할 것이다.

• CLT 특징 중 일부만을 과도하게 사용해서는 안된다. 예를 들어, 실제 상황과 같은 진정성 있는 언어사용을 촉진시킨다는 명목으로 학습자에게 도움이 될 수 있는 통제된 언어 연습과 문법 설명 그리고 기타 분석적 수단의 사용을 전적으로배제해서는 안된다. 해당 교실의 상황을 고려하여 CLT원리들을 적절히 수정•적용해야 할 것이다.

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Communicative Language Teaching

< Communicative competence: coined by Dell Hymes (1967, 1972)CC is that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific context (Brown, 2000)

- Grammatical competence- Sociolinguistic competence- Discourse competence- Strategic competence

• Bachman (1990): Components of language competence (See PLLT, Brown, 2000, pp. 248-250, and p. 5 in this handout.

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Natural Approach (NA)

< Natural Method, Direct Method

Terrell (1977): Procedures + Krashen (1981): Theory of SLA

Krashen & Terrell (1983): Natural Approach

* For beginners’ and intermediate learners’ basic communicative skills- Humanistic psychology, students’ needs centered, lower the affective filter, comfortable atmosphere

- Five hypotheses

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Cooperative Language Learning (CLL)

< Collaborative LearningAn approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities

- Antecedents: peer-tutoring & monitoring- John Dewey: Building cooperation in learning- Learner-centered approach

Cooperative Language Learning

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Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

< Content

The substance of subject matter that we learn or communicate through language- the role of language as a vehicle for learning content- learning the language as a by-product of learning about

real-world content- LAC, Immersion Education, LSP, etc.

Content-Based Instruction

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Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

< TaskThe use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instructionin language teaching* Definition: An activity or goal that is carried out using language,

such as finding a solution to a puzzle, …- Activities which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given

information through some process of thought, and which allows teachersto control and regulate that process (by Prabhu 1987:17)

- Logical development of Communicative Language Learning- Activities that involve real communication are essential for

language learning;- Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful

tasks promote learning

Task-Based Language Teaching26

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Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

● The history of tasks: - Vocational training practices of the 1950s: training design concerns of the military technologies & occupational specialties

● The key assumptions of task-based instruction (Feez, 1998) :- The focus is on process rather than product.- Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning.- Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in theactivities and tasks.

- Activities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.

- Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.- The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the

learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available.

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Summary / The Post-methods era

1. A Brief History of Language Teaching

1.1 Two Principal Influences on Language Teaching Methodology

• Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need.

• They have also reflected changes in theories of the nature of language and of language learning.

1.2 A Brief History of Language Teaching Methods

• Two types of approaches: - Using a language (i.e., speaking and understanding) - Analyzing a language (i.e., learning the grammatical rules)

1) Medieval - Pre-20th-Century2) 20th-Century - Now* Language Teaching as a PROFESSION in the 20c

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■ The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

■ LT Innovations in 19c

- The Gouin Series (Gouin, 1831-1896) → SLT & TPR* Ts & Ls: Writing papers

■ Reform Movement in the end of 19c

- Linguistics: Linguists emphasizes that SPEECH was

the primary form of language → IPA

■ Direct Method → NA

2. Approaches and Methods Era

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Summary / The Post-methods era

2. Approaches and Methods Era* The nature of approaches and methods (Anthony, 1963; Richards & Rodgers, 1986)

1) Approaches in LTŸ Communicative Language Teaching Ÿ The Natural ApproachŸ Whole Language Ÿ Multiple IntelligenceŸ Neurolinguistic Programming Ÿ The lexical approachŸ Competency-Based Language Teaching Ÿ Cooperative Language LearningŸ Content-Based Instruction Ÿ Task-Based Language Teaching

2) Methods in LTŸ Situational Language Teaching Ÿ Audiolingual Method

Ÿ Total Physical Response Ÿ Community Language Learning (Counseling L)

Ÿ The Silent Way Ÿ Suggestopedia

* MALL/ E-Learning/ M—Learning * Revised 7th English Curriculum

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Summary / The Post-methods era

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MALLNow, English Education is Multimedia English Education.

n The potential of computers• The integration of media• Large storage capacity• Random access and rapid retrieval of information• Interactive learning• Individualization• Increased retention• Motivation• Intercultural communication

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Summary / The Post-methods era

n Limitations of computers

• The rich and attractive materials of computers can distract students’ attention and disturb the learning process.

• Misuse

• Overuse

• Technical problems

• Online meaning negotiation does not correspond in all respects with face-to-face negotiation (Smith, 2003)

* However, most limitations could easily be overcome byteachers through proper preparation and training,particularly workshop-based teacher training focused onproviding the teachers with not only technical, butmethodological knowledge and skills with the help ofexperts.

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* Finally, it is entirely up to the teachers to select equipment andprograms appropriately for creating a variety of learningenvironment in the language classroom and attaining the primeobjectives, teaching and learning a foreign languagesuccessfully.

u Tips

w “Computers aren’t very good at teaching by themselves, and softwarewon’t run your lessons for you. You adapt, improve and compensatefor shortcomings in the software with the techniques you adapt.”(Hardisty and Windeatt 1989).

w Think of different ways of using programs.

w It’s not so much the program, more what you do with it: Theimportance of methodology in CALL (Jones, 1986)

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V. Conclusionsè Approaches and methods can be usefully studied and

selectively mastered in order: p.250

è Teachers and teachers in training need to be able to useapproaches and methods flexibly and creatively based ontheir own judgment and experiences

è Looking forward: consider some of factors (pp. 253-4)

è The center of language classroom: teacher & students- Interact with students

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APPENDICES

< Flash card

영어교육의영어교육의 목표목표

< 영어 교육의 목표:

- 영어에 대한 지속적인 흥미와 자신감

- 의사소통 능력의 신장

- 외국문화 이해/우리 문화 새롭게 인식/올바른 가치관 확립

- 외국의 다양한 정보 이해 및 활용 능력 신장

< 효율적인 영어 교수 및 학습 방법:

- 학습자 중심 학습

- 상호작용학습

- 인지적 및 문제 해결 학습

- 개방적 학습 활동: 역할극, 시뮬레이션 등

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언어교수 접근법과 교수법의 본질

< 아직도 전체 내용이, 이해가 팍 안되시나요? 그러면…

4 접근 방법과 교수법의 본질 규명? 왜?- 지금까지의 생성 소멸된 많은 접근 방법과 교수법을 구체적, 체계적으로 기술

- 언어교수 현장에 적절히 성공적으로 적용

4 Approach (접근법), Method (방법), Technique (교수기법)

Ÿ Anthony's model (1963)- Approach: 언어 교수ㆍ학습의 본질을 논하는데 관련된 일련의 가정(이론).

- Method: 선택된 가정을 바탕으로 언어(자료)를 체계적으로 제시 위한 전반적인 계획.

- Technique: 특정 접근법과 교수법을 바탕으로 교실수업에서 실제적으로 구현되는 활동들.

Ÿ Richards and Rodgers' model (2001) Method : 아래 세 단계를 포함하는 상위개념- Approach : 언어와 언어학습의본질에 대한 이론 정의. - Design (교수 설계) : 정의된 이론과 교재, 교수ㆍ학습활동 간의 상호관계를 구체화시킨것. - Procedure (교수 절차) : Approach와 Design으로부터도출된 교수 기법과 실제

교수법 수업 시연

< ALM, TPR, CLL, WL, CLT, TBLT, etc.

• 교 수 법 수업 시연 실례 :

- 한국외국어대학교 주최 전국 중등영어교사수업경연대회 (1-5회 동영상 참조)

• 교 수 법 수업 평가 및 토론: 수업 평가서 참조