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M E M O R Y
DR. JAMES M. ALO, RN, MAN, MAPsycho., Ph.D.
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MEMORY is the processes by which information is
encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli.
The process of acquiring information
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THE PROCESS 1. first stage we must change the information
so that we may put the memory into the encoding process.
2. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that we maintain information over
periods of time. 3. Finally, the retrieval.
This is the retrieval of information that we have stored.
We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to
the type of information.
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THREE MAIN STAGES IN THE FORMATION AND RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY:
Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and
combining of received information) Storage (creation of a permanent
record of the encoded information) Retrieval, recall or recollection
(calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity)
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TYPES & LEVELS OF MEMORY Sensory memory: referring to the
information we receive through the senses Short term memory: is the storage
mechanism that temporarily holds current or recent information for immediate or short term use.
Long term memory: is relatively permanent and practically unlimited in terms of its storage capacity
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DIFFERENCES OF STM & LTM Short term Memory: Limited
capacity . Limited
duration . Limited storage . Forgetting occur
by decay or displacement .
Long Term Memory : Unlimited
capacity Very long
duration Permanent subjected to
distortion or replacement .
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SENSORY MEMORY Corresponds approximately to the
initial 200–500 milliseconds after an item is perceived.
The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a second of Example of sensory memory:
observation Memorization
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TYPES OF SENSORY MEMORIES Iconic memory
briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration.
Echoic memory briefly stores sounds which has been
perceived for a small duration.
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SHORT-TERM MEMORY allows recall for a period of several
seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited rely mostly on an acoustic code for
storing information, lesser extent a visual code.
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SHORT-TERM MEMORY is supported by transient patterns of
neuronal communication dependent on regions of the frontal lobe
(especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe.
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LONG-TERM MEMORIES are maintained by more stable and
permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain.
The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, Without the hippocampus, new memories
are unable to be stored into long-term memory
regulated by DNA methylation
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MODELS OF MEMORY Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968)
Aka (Multi-Store Model)
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Multi-Store Modelis believed to be actually made up
of multiple subcomponents, such as: episodic andprocedural memory.
proposes that rehearsal is the only mechanism by which information eventually reaches long-term storage
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WORKING MEMORY MODEL BADDELEY AND HITCH, 1974
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Consist of three basic stores: 1. central executive
Act as attention Channels information
2. phonological loop stores auditory information by
silently rehearsing sounds or words3.visuo-spatial sketchpad.
stores visual and spatial information.
In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer
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EPISODIC BUFFER dedicated to linking information across
domains to form integrated units of visual,spatial, verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of
a story or a movie scene). assumed to have links to long-term
memory and semantical meaning.
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TYPES OF MEMORY 1. Recognition memory tasks require
individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulussuch as a picture or a word
2. Recall memory tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For example, individuals might be asked
to produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say a list of words they have heard before.
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CLASSIFICATION BY INFORMATION TYPE 1. Declarative memory
requires conscious recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information.
It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
2. Procedural memoryAka “implicit memory”
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DECLARATIVE MEMORY semantic memory, which concerns facts
taken independent of context episodic memory which concerns
information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place.
Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory.
Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience.
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PROCEDURRAL MEMORY Aka. implicit memory is primarily employed in learning motor
skills involved in motor learning depends on
the cerebellum and basal ganglia
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TOPOGRAPHIC MEMORY is the ability to orient oneself in space,
to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places
The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory
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FLASHBULB MEMORIES are clear episodic memories of unique
and highly emotional event. Remembering where you were or what you were doing when you first heard the news President Kennedy’s assassination or about
9/11
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CLASSIFICATION BY TEMPORAL DIRECTION Retrospective memory
as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory.
Prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or
remembering to remember. Time-based prospective memories
are triggered by a time-cue.can be further broken down into event- and
time-based prospective remembering.
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TECHNIQUES USED TO ASSESS INFANTS’ RECOGNITION MEMORY
Visual paired comparison procedure (relies on habituation): infants are first presented with pairs of
visual stimuli Operant conditioning technique:
infants are placed in a crib and a ribbon that is connected to a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet
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TECHNIQUES USED TO ASSESS INFANTS’ RECALL MEMORY
Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter shows infants a unique
sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push a button on a box) and then, after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions.
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the deferred imitation
technique; the difference is that infants are allowed to imitate the actions before the delay
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TECHNIQUES USED TO ASSESS OLDER CHILDREN AND ADULTS' MEMORY Paired associate learning - when one
learns to associate one specific word with another.
Free recall - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember.
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Detection Paradigm- Individuals are shown a number of objects and colors samples, during a certain period of time.
Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list.
Detection Paradigm- Individuals are shown a number of objects and colors samples, during a certain period of time.
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PHYSIOLOGY
Brain areas involved in the neuro-anatomy of memory such as:• Hippocampus
• Spatial learning and declarative learning
• Amygdala• Emotional
memory• striatum• mammillary bodies
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COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY
Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as • Retention• Reactivation• reconstruction of the experience-independent internal
representation
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internal representation = implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes.
engram or memory traces
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NEURONAL CIRCUITS Encoding
working memoryepisodic memory synaptic transmission long-term potentiation
Working memorymedial temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area
strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex
Consolidation and reconsolidationShort-term memory (STM)
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MEMORY IN INFANCY
6 months oldcould not encode, retain, and retrieve
information.only recall one step of a two-step sequenceneed approximately six exposures in order
to be able to remember it. 14-month-olds
can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once.
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MEMORY AND AGING
Memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005).
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DISORDERS Amnesia = memory loss Parkinson's disease Alzheimer disease = neurological d’r
affecting memory/cognition Hyperthymesia = affects
autobiographical memory Korsakoff's syndrome = amnesic
confabulatory syndrome tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Anomic aphasia = temporary failure of word retrieval
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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MEMORY Influence of odors and emotions
Interference from previous knowledge
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MEASURING MEMORY Recall: to recall means to supply or reproduce facts or information.
Recognition: is usually superior to recall. E.g. multiple-choice test because you recognize correct answer.
Relearning: is typically the most sensitive measure of memory. It may seem that learning algebra, history, or a foreign language is wasted if you don't use the knowledge immediately
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IMPROVING MEMORY Knowledge of results: learning proceeds best
when feedback, that allows you to check your progress.
Recitation: recitation means summarizing aloud while you are learning.
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Selection: if you boil down the paragraphs in most textbooks to one or two important terms or ideas, your memory will be more manageable.
Rehearsal: the more you rehearse as you read, the better you will remember it.
Cues the best memory cues (stimuli that aid retrieval) are those that were present during encoding.
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Whole versus part learning: Generally, it is better to practice whole packages of information rather than smaller parts.
Organization: simple reordering or organizing can be helpful.
Serial position whenever you must learn something in order, be aware of the serial position effect.
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Spaced practice: to keep boredom and fatigue to a minimum, try alternating short study sessions with brief rest period.
Over learning: after you have learned material well enough to remember it once without error, you should continue studying.
Extend how long you remember: when you are learning new information, test yourself repeatedly.
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Hunger: People who are hungry almost always score lower on memory tests.
Sleep: remember that sleeping after study reduces interference.
Review : if you have spaced your practice and overlearned, reviewing shortly before an exam help to remember details.
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REASONS OF FORGETTING
Encoding Failure
Decay
Cue-dependent forgetting
Interference
Repression
Suppression
Amnesia
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TO REVIEW: Encoding - transforming incoming information into a
usable form state-dependent learning - fact that a bodily state that
exists during learning can be a strong cue Elaborative rehearsal – concentrates on the meaning of
information you want to remember
proactive interference -The tendency for prior learning to inhibit recall of later learning
Echo - Things that are briefly heard in the sensory register. Recognition – Implicit memory – memories outside of conscious
awareness. Icon - image that persists for about one-half second after
being seen. Hippocampus - part of the brain that functions as a
"switching station" between the STM and LTM.
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Limitless - storage capacity of long-term memory. Psychologists have concluded that long-term
memories fall into the following two categories - procedural memory and fact memory.
Decay theories of memory loss seem to be most appropriate for: short-term memory and sensory memory.
sensory memory - first step in placing information into memory storage.
semantic memory - general knowledge section of the intelligence test for adults
Storage - process of holding information Working memory is associated with short term
memory
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REFERENCES: Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology: the Science of Behaviour.
Pearson. Sperling, G (1963). "A Model for Visual Memory Tasks".
http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/5/1/19.short#cited-by 5 (1): 19–31.
Cowan, N. (2001). "The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24: 97–185.
Miller, G.A.(1956), The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97..
Conrad, R. (1964). "Acoustic Confusions in Immediate Memory". British Journal of Psychology 55: 75–84.
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THANK YOU