lr & rm training

Ernest Cyril de Run & Hiram Ting

Literature Review & Research Methodology

Workshop for Postgraduate Students & Early-stage Researchers

December 06, 2014

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Organized by Sarawak Research Society In collaboration with SEGi College Sarawak

Overview: Things to Consider

In Chapter 2: Literature Review

What has the past studies (by previous researchers in various disciplines ) say about the topic and findings in their areas?

What have the current theories said? What is your stand ? Are you adding a new dimension to the existing theory? Would your study contribute to the local and global context? Critically review the interrelationship among the constructs involved in

the study. Actual definition and operational definition of every construct involved Summary of the chapter

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Overview: Things to Consider (cont.)

In Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Describe your proposed research design and rationale? Quantitative Qualitative or Mixed method? What would be your target population ? What would be the unit of

analysis in the study? What is the method of sampling ? What would be your method of data collection? How you measure

every construct? How you address the issues of measurements and scales?

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Overview: Things to Consider (cont.)

In Chapter 3: Research Methodology (cont.)

Measuring items employed – developed or customized? Any pilot study involved?

How would you clarify validity and reliability of your instruments? What would be your method of statistical analysis for every test of

hypothesis? What is the required assumption for each statistical method? How would you ensure the assumptions are fulfilled? Summary of the chapter.

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Literature Review

What Literature Review Is

Literature review involves the systematic identification, search, and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem.

As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is a piece of discursive (a series of logical discussion) writing style.

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Literature Review (cont.)

What Literature Review Is (cont.)

It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. It's usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the name of a researcher.

For a postgraduate student, literature review should begin when he is thinking about doing a postgraduate study and only end after he submits his revised thesis. For a researcher, it is a life-long process.

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General Reasons for the Review

Literature reviews must demonstrate a thorough understanding of the literature that pertains to your thesis topic.

To synthesise (similar findings, themes, approaches?) and criticise(differences & disagreements re findings, interpretation of relationships and other results, historical changes, contexts, perspectives?).

To show and explain the roots of the theories, concepts or research approaches which underlie your subject area.

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Checklist: Specific Reasons for the Review

To identify what has already been done; To keep current in their field; To have a better idea and bigger picture about the research; to help in

the planning and correcting of what needs to be done; To state clearly gaps in the literature and problem statements; To provide the significance of study and rationale for further research.

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Checklist: Specific Reasons for the Review (cont.)

To identify research strategies and procedures, and also specific effective measurements;

To help avoid mistakes done by earlier researchers and build upon their strengths;

To build research framework and deepen or broaden it with new and emerging knowledge;

To ensure important variables are not left out, and relevant variables are looked into;

To help interpret data and discuss findings from the research.

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Types of Review:

InclusiveIdentify and list all that has been written about the issue. (usually done on a specific journal(s))

Inclusive/EvaluativeExtent the first method to give commentaries about the coverage and contribution to knowledge and the understanding of the topic being researched.

ExploratoryLook for researches available to help in the solving of specific research question or issue.

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Types of Review:

InstrumentalMain focus is related to business issues and the review is used as idea how the research question can be answered. Also to identify the appropriate methodology.

Content AnalysisEvaluates the content of the review. Counting how many times the word “management of change” is mentioned in a review.

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The Three-Pass Approach:

Researchers spend a great deal of time reading research papers. However, this skill is rarely taught, leading to much wasted effort.

The first pass gives you a general idea about the paper. The second pass lets you grasp the paper's content, but not its details. The third pass helps you understand the paper in depth.

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The First Pass:

It is a quick scan to get a bird's-eye view of the paper and should take about 5 to 10 minutes and consists of the following steps: Carefully read the title, abstract, and introduction; Read the section and sub-section headings; Glance any figure of underlying theoretical foundations; Read the conclusions; Glance over the references, mentally ticking on the ones you've

already read.

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The First Pass:

At the end of the first pass, you should be able to answer the five Cs:1. Category: What type of paper is this? 2. Context: Which other papers is it related to? 3. Correctness: Do the assumptions appear to be valid?4. Contributions: What are the paper's main contributions?5. Clarity: Is the paper well written?

Using this information, you may choose to read further or not.

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The Second Pass:

Read the paper with greater care, but ignore details such as proofs. It helps to jot down the key points, or to make comments in the

margins, as you read. After this pass, you should be able to grasp the content of the paper.

You should be able to summarize the main thrust of the paper, with supporting evidence, to someone else.

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The Third Pass:

The key to the third pass is to attempt to virtually re-implement the paper: that is, making the same assumptions as the authors, re-create the work.

By comparing this re-creation with the actual paper, you can easily identify not only a paper's innovations, but also its hidden failings and assumptions.

At the end of this pass, you should be able to reconstruct the entire structure of the paper from memory, as well as be able to identify its strong and weak points. You should also be able to generate ideas for future work.

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Research Methodology

What is Research Design?

Procedures for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and reporting data in research studies.

They are useful, because they help guide the methods decisions that researchers make and,

Set the logic by which they make interpretations at the end of their studies.

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What is Research Design?

First and foremost, do you have the big picture of your research?

It is vitally important to make sure your methodology ties in well with your research objectives, problems, hypotheses and contribution of your study.

Research Methodology (cont.)

Types of Research Designs

QuantitativeDeductive reasoning: Theory > Develop Hypotheses > Collect and

Analyze Data > Accept/Reject Hypotheses Qualitative

Inductive reasoning: Observe Phenomena > Analyze Patterns > Establish relationship > Develop Theory

Mixed-methods

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Quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena.

Qualitative research includes an - array of techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.

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Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (1989) defined mixed method designs as those that include at least one quantitative method (designed to collect numbers) and one qualitative method (designed to collect words), where neither type of method is inherently linked to any particular research paradigm. (p. 255).

Reasons for mixing: triangulation, complementary, development, initiation or expansion.

Level of interaction: independent or interactive. Priority: equal priority, quantitative or qualitative priority. Timing: concurrent, sequential, multiphase combination.

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Research Components:

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A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations and behavior. Example: Table, chair, age, justice, ethics.

A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory building purpose. Constructs are built by combining simpler more concrete concepts especially when it is not directly observable. Example: Exercise, job satisfaction, beauty.

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A variables can be defined as any aspect of a theory that can vary or change as part of the interaction within the theory. In other words, a variable is anything can effect or change the results of a study. Every study has variables as these are needed in order to understand differences.

It includes dependent and independent variables, moderator, mediator, control variables, latent, exogenous and endogenous variables.

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An operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific criteria for testing or measurement. Their characteristics and how they are to be observed must be specified.

The terms proposition and hypothesis both refer to the formulation of a possible answer to a specific scientific question. The main difference between the two is that a hypothesis must be testable, measurable and falsifiable (Popper), while a proposition deals with pure concepts for which no laboratory test is currently available, such as connection between two existing concepts.

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A theory of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts).

A model is defined as a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of the system or the system as a whole.

Theory’s role is explanation, whereas a model’s role is representation.

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Goodness of Measures:

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Goodness of Measures:

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Sampling Concepts

Population (universe) Any complete group of entities that share some common set of

characteristics. Population Element An individual member of a population.

Sample A subset, or some part, of a larger population.

Census An investigation of all the individual elements that make up a

population.

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Sampling Procedures


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Errors Associated with Sampling


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Probability vs Non-probability Sampling

Probability Sampling A sampling technique in which every member of the population has

a known, nonzero probability of selection.

Non-probability Sampling A sampling technique in which units of the sample are selected on

the basis of personal judgment or convenience. The probability of any particular member of the population being

chosen is unknown.


Sampling Techniques

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Factor of Concerns in Choosing Sample Size

Variance (or Heterogeneity) A heterogeneous population has more variance (a larger standard

deviation) which will require a larger sample. A homogeneous population has less variance (a smaller standard

deviation) which permits a smaller sample. Magnitude of Error (Confidence Interval) How precise must the estimate be?

Confidence Level How much error will be tolerated?

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Factor of Concerns in Choosing Sample Size

Purpose of Study Quantitative or qualitative? Exploratory or Explanatory? Probability or non-probability? Generalization or Saturation?

Complexity of Model Number of variables, items and indicators (arrows pointing to

endogenous variable) Types of Analysis Certain analytical methods require minimum sample size.

Power Analysis To assess effect size

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Instrument Design (Data Collection Method)

Types of data: primary and secondary data. Quantitative, qualitative or mixed-methods approach.

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Levels of Measurement

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Levels of Measurement

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Measuring Techniques (e.g. Attitudes)

Ranking: Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in overall performance on the basis of a characteristic or stimulus.

Rating: Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.

Sorting: Require that respondents indicate their attitudes or beliefs by arranging items on the basis of perceived similarity or some other attribute.

Choice: Asking a respondent to choose one alternative from among several alternatives; it is assumed that the chosen alternative is preferred over the others.

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Types of Rating Scales

Dichotomous scale Category scale Likert Scale Semantic differential scale

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Stapel Scale Numerical scale Fixed or constant sum scale Itemized Rating Scales Graphic Rating Scale


Important Consideration regarding Instrument and Measurement

Adopt, adapt or self-developed? The type of respondents you have Number of items (time needed to complete the survey) Positive and negative worded statements Forced scale? Randomized the items or section approach? Translation in cross-culture studies

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Data Analysis

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Types of Analysis1. Parametric (assumption: normal distribution)2. Non-parametric (distribution free)

Number of Variables Involved1. Univariate2. Bivariate3. Multivariate

Types of Software1. Qualitative: ATLAS.ti, Nvivo, Leximancer2. Quantitative: SPSS, AMOS, PLS, Lisrel

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Select the right technique

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Other important consideration and procedures

1. Research ethics.2. Pilot study/pre-test (A MUST)3. The use of enumerators.4. Dealing with various errors.5. English check – clarity, correctness.

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Conclusion

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How literature review and research methodology are assessed by examiners?

THANK YOU

Ernest Cyril de Run, PhD

Professor of Marketing

Email: [email protected]

Hiram Ting, PhD

Research Officer

Email: [email protected]

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lr & rm training

Business

literature review cont

review literature reviews

research approaches

research problem

research objective

sarawak research society

postgraduate study

proposed research design