longitudinal tracer studies: research methodology of the middle range

Longitudinal Tracer Studies: Longitudinal Tracer Studies: Research Methodology of the Research Methodology of the

Middle RangeMiddle Range

Professor Luiz MoutinhoProfessor Luiz Moutinho

Foundation Chair of MarketingFoundation Chair of Marketing

University of Glasgow, ScotlandUniversity of Glasgow, Scotland

19/04/23 Professor Luiz Moutinho 2

The tracer is a methodological middle-The tracer is a methodological middle-range approach that takes account of range approach that takes account of relevancy and which involves practitioners relevancy and which involves practitioners in the research process. The in the research process. The methodological approach is consistent with methodological approach is consistent with middle-range theory and thinking, and middle-range theory and thinking, and involves skeletal prior theory, tags, a involves skeletal prior theory, tags, a practioner network, and continuous practioner network, and continuous reflexivity. The longitudinal tracer study reflexivity. The longitudinal tracer study can be a useful middle-range solution to can be a useful middle-range solution to help close the researcher-practitioner gap. help close the researcher-practitioner gap.


The longitudinal tracer is The longitudinal tracer is a middle range a middle range methodology for involving methodology for involving practitioners more closely practitioners more closely with the research process.with the research process.


Longitudinal Tracer StudiesLongitudinal Tracer Studies

Tracer studies were used in longitudinal Tracer studies were used in longitudinal research during the 1960s at Imperial research during the 1960s at Imperial College, University of London by Joan College, University of London by Joan Woodward, to explore and to clarify the Woodward, to explore and to clarify the nature of management control systems nature of management control systems (Woodward, 1970a). The tracer approach (Woodward, 1970a). The tracer approach was developed during this work as a was developed during this work as a response to data overload problems, which response to data overload problems, which were largely because the interviews had were largely because the interviews had been focused on too much social science been focused on too much social science theory (Woodward, 1965). Researchers had theory (Woodward, 1965). Researchers had found themselves bogged down by the found themselves bogged down by the broad scope and detail of the collected data.broad scope and detail of the collected data.


Longitudinal Tracer StudiesLongitudinal Tracer Studies

The data were not just difficult to The data were not just difficult to conceptualize, but were also difficult to conceptualize, but were also difficult to translate onto paper as a coherent translate onto paper as a coherent account of what had actually account of what had actually happened. So a more practice-focused happened. So a more practice-focused approach was adopted for later work, approach was adopted for later work, which was based on the ‘actual as which was based on the ‘actual as much as the perceived character of the much as the perceived character of the work of the people interviewed’. work of the people interviewed’. (Woodward, 1970b, p 251).(Woodward, 1970b, p 251).


‘‘[A tracer study involves] the isolation of [A tracer study involves] the isolation of a particular order or batch of products, a particular order or batch of products, central to and representative of the central to and representative of the firm’s … activity, and by following its firm’s … activity, and by following its progress through the planning, progress through the planning, execution and feedback stages of the execution and feedback stages of the control system, observing the way in control system, observing the way in which people become involved in plans, which people become involved in plans, decisions and tasks relating to it. decisions and tasks relating to it. (Kynaston Reeves and Woodward, 1970, (Kynaston Reeves and Woodward, 1970, p 40)’p 40)’


Following the progress of an organizational Following the progress of an organizational phenomenon is what defines quintessentially a phenomenon is what defines quintessentially a longitudinal tracer study. It is the direction of longitudinal tracer study. It is the direction of an observed path of organizational activity an observed path of organizational activity rather than theory that primarily influences the rather than theory that primarily influences the selection of interviews, and which sets the selection of interviews, and which sets the boundaries for the extent of field observations. boundaries for the extent of field observations. The interview questions are centred on the The interview questions are centred on the perceptions of the respondents in terms of the perceptions of the respondents in terms of the jobs they have to perform rather than prior jobs they have to perform rather than prior theory.theory.

Hornby and Symon (1994) discussed the use of Hornby and Symon (1994) discussed the use of “tags”.“tags”.


Tracer studies are a method of identifying Tracer studies are a method of identifying and describing organizational processes and describing organizational processes (such as decision-making and (such as decision-making and communication) across time and communication) across time and stakeholder group by the use of tag(s) . . . stakeholder group by the use of tag(s) . . . [for] following the unfolding process [for] following the unfolding process through the organisation; prompting the through the organisation; prompting the discussion of the process with discussion of the process with organisational members; and identifying organisational members; and identifying further important sources of information. further important sources of information. (Hornby and Symon, 1994, p 167)(Hornby and Symon, 1994, p 167)


A tag enables a researcher to focus more A tag enables a researcher to focus more narrowly on those aspects that are primarily narrowly on those aspects that are primarily centred on the specific element such as a centred on the specific element such as a management objective that an organisation-management objective that an organisation-wide process is there to support. It serves to wide process is there to support. It serves to focus interview data in order to make them focus interview data in order to make them more manageable for transcription and analysis. more manageable for transcription and analysis. It also helps to focus the research task to It also helps to focus the research task to identify relevant documents and the people who identify relevant documents and the people who are important to key events and critical are important to key events and critical activities. However, while a tag is used to activities. However, while a tag is used to identify the participants in the process, Hornby identify the participants in the process, Hornby and Symon argue that the tracer studies are not and Symon argue that the tracer studies are not concerned with analysing in detail the nature of concerned with analysing in detail the nature of the connectedness of the individual, as, for the connectedness of the individual, as, for example, in social network analysis:example, in social network analysis:


[t]racers are concerned with shedding some [t]racers are concerned with shedding some light on the process in which a group of light on the process in which a group of individuals has taken part. This means that individuals has taken part. This means that the focus of the study is not the connections the focus of the study is not the connections between people, but the context within which between people, but the context within which these connections take place in relation to a these connections take place in relation to a given process. Tracers are not about given process. Tracers are not about providing a detailed analysis of relationships, providing a detailed analysis of relationships, but are a means of exploring the attitudes but are a means of exploring the attitudes and ideas of individuals in relation to a and ideas of individuals in relation to a process in which they have all participated in process in which they have all participated in some way. some way. (Hornby and Symon, 1994, p 171).(Hornby and Symon, 1994, p 171).


The use of tags enables the research The use of tags enables the research process to follow a specific and process to follow a specific and uniquely appropriate path. The uniquely appropriate path. The speed of response and the role of a speed of response and the role of a tag as an involving point of focus for tag as an involving point of focus for a respondent during interview help a respondent during interview help to resolve potential problems to resolve potential problems associated with time lapse and associated with time lapse and memory. The tracer approach also memory. The tracer approach also enables researchers to constantly enables researchers to constantly verify prior information.verify prior information.


While the tracer approach places an While the tracer approach places an emphasis on empirical rather than emphasis on empirical rather than theoretically derived data, the role theoretically derived data, the role for pre-determined or prior theory for pre-determined or prior theory remains important. It is used to remains important. It is used to help choose tags as an influence on help choose tags as an influence on the content of questions used for the content of questions used for interview and to provide a interview and to provide a framework for data analysis. It is framework for data analysis. It is the scale of prior theory that the scale of prior theory that matters.matters.


The question is how to The question is how to bridge the researcher-bridge the researcher-practitioner gap. One practitioner gap. One solution is middle range solution is middle range thinking.thinking.


Middle Range ThinkingMiddle Range Thinking

Bacharach (1989) argues that Bacharach (1989) argues that management researchers who seek to management researchers who seek to influence practice are really craft-influence practice are really craft-persons who look for limited or middle persons who look for limited or middle range explanations for organisational range explanations for organisational phenomena. Typically, rigour is to phenomena. Typically, rigour is to some extent compromised for some extent compromised for relevance and the achievement of relevance and the achievement of solvable problems. Weick (1989) solvable problems. Weick (1989) suggests that organisational research suggests that organisational research should:should:


‘‘move toward theories of the middle move toward theories of the middle range . . . Theories [that] are solutions to range . . . Theories [that] are solutions to problems that contain a limited number problems that contain a limited number of assumptions and considerable of assumptions and considerable accuracy and detail in the problem accuracy and detail in the problem specification. The scope of the problem is specification. The scope of the problem is also of manageable size. To look for also of manageable size. To look for theories of the middle range is to theories of the middle range is to prefigure problems in such a way that the prefigure problems in such a way that the number of opportunities to discover number of opportunities to discover solutions is increased without becoming solutions is increased without becoming infinite. (Weick, 1989, p. 521)’infinite. (Weick, 1989, p. 521)’


The idea of middle range The idea of middle range theories originated with the theories originated with the sociologist, Robert Merton sociologist, Robert Merton (1957).(1957).


Worries about theoretical relevance Worries about theoretical relevance in sociology also provided a context in sociology also provided a context for grounded theory (Glaser and for grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). In this approach a Strauss, 1967). In this approach a distinction is made between formal distinction is made between formal and substantive theory, where the and substantive theory, where the latter is wholly generated from data latter is wholly generated from data without reference to formal or prior without reference to formal or prior theory. In fact, theory is more theory. In fact, theory is more pragmatic than most people think.pragmatic than most people think.


One uses a model precisely in order to One uses a model precisely in order to escape from reality into something escape from reality into something more tractable, but nevertheless useful, more tractable, but nevertheless useful, from which is should be possible to from which is should be possible to work back to reality. Rationality work back to reality. Rationality operates not on reality, but on operates not on reality, but on abstractions. What is required is an abstractions. What is required is an abstraction that is good enough; and abstraction that is good enough; and what is good enough depends upon the what is good enough depends upon the problem, or more generally on the stage problem, or more generally on the stage reached in the attempt to solve it. reached in the attempt to solve it. (Loasby, 1976, p 38).(Loasby, 1976, p 38).


More recently, Laughlin More recently, Laughlin (1995, 2004) extends the (1995, 2004) extends the middle range idea to middle range idea to ‘thinking’ rather than ‘thinking’ rather than ‘theory’, by using middle ‘theory’, by using middle range combinations of range combinations of theory, methodology and theory, methodology and change.change.


The notion of skeletal The notion of skeletal generalisations was first raised by generalisations was first raised by Laughlin (1995). This is theory that Laughlin (1995). This is theory that imparts some prior broad imparts some prior broad understanding of the phenomena to understanding of the phenomena to be investigated. It is a particularly be investigated. It is a particularly useful idea for longitudinal tracer useful idea for longitudinal tracer research, which Laughlin conveys research, which Laughlin conveys well in the following:well in the following:


‘‘a methodology which sets ‘skeletal’ a methodology which sets ‘skeletal’ rules for processes of discovery which rules for processes of discovery which still allows for variety and diversity in still allows for variety and diversity in observational practice. [The] design observational practice. [The] design and use of skeletal theories, which and use of skeletal theories, which cannot stand on their own but need cannot stand on their own but need empirical flesh to make them empirical flesh to make them meaningful and complete, is a way to meaningful and complete, is a way to preserve both the strengths of the high preserve both the strengths of the high and low perspectives while avoiding and low perspectives while avoiding their respective weaknesses. their respective weaknesses. (Laughlin, 1995, pp 82-83)’(Laughlin, 1995, pp 82-83)’


In this sense the ‘skeletal’ theory In this sense the ‘skeletal’ theory guides the discovery process but in guides the discovery process but in such a way that can be relative to such a way that can be relative to the ‘fit’ of the detailed ‘flesh’ that is the ‘fit’ of the detailed ‘flesh’ that is being added. This is in marked being added. This is in marked contrast to reliance on ‘complete’ contrast to reliance on ‘complete’ prior theories where the empirical prior theories where the empirical detail is seen only as a way to either detail is seen only as a way to either confirm or falsify the theory. confirm or falsify the theory. (Laughlin, 2004, p. 268)’(Laughlin, 2004, p. 268)’


The tags act as a form of The tags act as a form of non-probability sampling for non-probability sampling for the collection of data.the collection of data.


Because longitudinal tracers Because longitudinal tracers work over an extended time, work over an extended time, it is never certain which it is never certain which direction and which direction and which respondents will become respondents will become involved and remain involved.involved and remain involved.


Reflexivity concerns Reflexivity concerns essentially the influence of essentially the influence of the research on the the research on the researched subject.researched subject.


The Researcher-Practitioner Relevance The Researcher-Practitioner Relevance GapGap

Some of the recent literature makes a Some of the recent literature makes a distinction between Mode 1 and Mode 2 distinction between Mode 1 and Mode 2 research (Gibbons et al. 1994), notably research (Gibbons et al. 1994), notably Tranfield and Starkey (1998). Mode 1 is Tranfield and Starkey (1998). Mode 1 is discipline based and rigorous, while Mode 2 is discipline based and rigorous, while Mode 2 is transdisciplinary and focused on practitioner transdisciplinary and focused on practitioner relevance. Tranfield and Starkey, following relevance. Tranfield and Starkey, following Becher (1989), argue that management Becher (1989), argue that management research has a weak theoretical unity, with a research has a weak theoretical unity, with a low sense of knowledge progression, a lack of low sense of knowledge progression, a lack of disciplinary cohesion and shared purpose for disciplinary cohesion and shared purpose for research, and has a low concentration of research, and has a low concentration of researchers on particular topics (see also researchers on particular topics (see also Whitley, 1984).Whitley, 1984).


The gap can only be bridged by The gap can only be bridged by a position that is high in both a position that is high in both theoretical/methodological theoretical/methodological rigour and practical relevance.rigour and practical relevance.


Hornby and Symon developed more Hornby and Symon developed more specifically the idea for tagging specifically the idea for tagging organizational phenomena. This organizational phenomena. This serves to limit the role for prior serves to limit the role for prior theory and is consistent with middle theory and is consistent with middle range thinking, which suggests a range thinking, which suggests a skeletal approach for prior theory.skeletal approach for prior theory.


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