LOGICAL FALLACIES

Common Mistakes in Weak Arguments

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Definition

Logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning that lead to faulty, illogical statements. They are unreasonable argumentative tactics named for what has gone wrong during the reasoning process.

Most logical fallacies appear to be reasonable statements, but they are in fact attempts to manipulate readers by reaching their emotions instead of their intellects.

Logical fallacies may also make readers think they are using their intellects when really they are being misled.

Why study logical fallacies?

It is important to develop logical fallacy detection skills in your own writing the best way to develop that skill is to find logical fallacies in the media, the web and other publications.

By recognizing the logical fallacies in use all around you, you can make yourself the argumentative equivalent of Ralph Macchio in The Karate Kid

Seven Common Logical Fallacies

Vote for me because I served the district better than any other citizen

It’s engineered in Germany, and you know the German’s make good stuff.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

1. Begging the QuestionThe writer presents something as truth that

has not been proven

• The death penalty must be instituted to discourage violent crime.

• Where is the proof that demonstrates the death penalty discourages violent crime?

• Paranormal phenomena exist because I have had experiences that can only be described as paranormal.

• Just because I categorize my experience as paranormal doesn’t mean that it was, in fact, paranormal.

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What’s the flaw in the logic?

Card Stacking

Selecting evidence that supports your side while ignoring the rest

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All students in the Council Rock School District are rich snobs.

You go to a Council Rock school.You are rich.You are a snob.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

False Premises

When a speaker uses information as a premise for his argument, scrutinize this information. If one part is not true, chances are that the results of the argument are not true either.

“You know the Germans make good stuff.”“You’re going to spend $20 a month on paper

towels anyway.

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What’s the flaw in the logic?

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What’s the flaw in the logic?

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What’s the flaw in the logic?

Glittering Generalities

When speakers use vague or general words or phrases that express an attitude or idea that has popular support.

When a politician uses the terms “freedom” and “democracy” to support whatever issue she has on her agenda, it makes it harder to argue against that issue.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

Every redhead I know is rude; therefore, all

redheads must have bad manners.

False Generalizations The writer bases the argument on insufficient or

unrepresentative evidence.

– When the generalization is drawn from a sample that is too small or select, your conclusion isn’t valid.

– You have owned two poodles and they have both attacked you. You then declare that all poodles are vicious dogs.

He must be a genius because he went to Georgetown University.

When ice-cream sales rise, so does the number of people who drown. Eating ice-cream must somehow cause drowning.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

Non sequitur Non sequitur- (“It doesn’t follow”)- The writer’s

conclusion is not necessarily a logical result of the facts.

– She’s able to run really fast; she must be a great basketball player.

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc- (“After this, therefore because of this”)- The writer mistakes a temporal connection for a causal relationship.

– In the 1960s there was a raging debate over the legalization of marijuana. Detractors argued that marijuana use led to heroin abuse because most users of the hard drug had first smoked marijuana. Proponents of the legalization issue argued then that milk, then, was the real culprit because both marijuana and heroin users had drunk milk as babies.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

Testimonial

When speakers or advertisers use an authority or well-known person to endorse a particular subject or position to gain the listener’s approval.

Michael Jordan’s endorsement of Nike or Hanes does not make them any better than if your uncle Joe endorsed them. Are they quality products or not?

Six Common Propaganda Techniques

What’s the Flaw in the Logic?

Baseball isn’t just a sport, it’s an American way of life!

Transfer

Transfer makes an illogical connection between unrelated items or ideas. Advertisers use this technique so that viewers will associate their products with positive, appealing, or desirable things like: the American flag, a doctor or highly attractive people.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

Bandwagon Appeal The writer tries to validate a point by intimating

that “everyone else believes in this.”

This tactic evades discussion of the issue itself.

Also known as “transfer of virtue”- the sharing of light from someone else’s sparkle (Popular/beautiful/ cool/rich people use/buy/wear brand X; if you use/buy/wear brand X, you too will be popular/beautiful/cool/rich.)

What’s the flaw in the logic?

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Name Calling

When a speaker uses a negative term or view to refer to a group or idea-like calling someone a liar, cheat, flip-flopper, etc. without exploring the evidence or proof or by taking a one sided view in analyzing that evidence.

Loaded Words

Language that evokes strong feelings and attitudes. Loaded words rely heavily on connotation.– Native vs. Savage– Heavy vs. Fat– Slow vs. Stupid– Risk Taker vs. Pioneer– Social Responsibility vs. Socialism

Stereotypes

Preconceived notions about a person based upon his or her membership in a particular group. These are shortcut ways of thinking about an individual. Stereotypes as you know often involve prejudice.

Either – Or / False Dilemma

A false dilemma asserts that a complex situation can have only two possible outcomes and that one of the options is necessary or preferable.

Either go to college or forget about making money.

This falsely implies that a college education is a pre-requisite for financial success.

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What’s the flaw in the logic?

Grading the exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes go more smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

Red Herring The writer introduces an irrelevant point to divert

the readers’ attention from the main issue

The term “red herring” originates from the old tactic used by escaped prisoners, of dragging a smoked herring, a strong-smelling fish, across their trail to confuse tracking dogs by making them follow the wrong scent.

Roommate A is criticizing Roommate B for failing to do the dishes. To escape facing these charges, Roommate B brings up times in the past when Roommate A failed to repay some money he had borrowed.

Fred has written several letters arguing that our school’s attendance policy is unfair, but Fred likes to find fault with every school policy so you shouldn't listen to him.

What’s the flaw in the logic?

Ad hominem argumentsThe writer attacks the opponent’s character rather

than the opponent’s argument.

– Ad hominem literally means “To the man.” The speaker or writer takes the argument to the person rather than to the logic of the person.

– Dr. Bloom can’t be a competent marriage counselor because she’s been divorced.

Ad populum arguments- (“To the people”)

The writer evades the issues by appealing to readers’ emotional reactions to certain subjects.

Use of emotionally charged words “radical,” “fascism,” “liberty,” “patriotic,” to evoke a positive or negative response

Use of images that play upon emotions- flag burning, etc.

Circular thinking The writer presents a second half that merely

restates what is implied in the first.

There aren’t enough parking spaces for students on campus because there are too many cars.

The argument provides a dead end; the writer is chasing his/her tail.

Circular thinking The writer presents a second half that merely

restates what is implied in the first.

There aren’t enough parking spaces for students on campus because there are too many cars.

The argument provides a dead end; the writer is chasing his/her tail.

Hypostatization The writer uses an abstract concept as if it

were a concrete reality.

Be cautious of use of “History has always taught us…” or “Research shows…” or “Studies have shown…”

These statements imply that history or science has only one voice or one opinion.

Instead, quote a respected historian or scientist, or qualify your statement by using terms such as “many” or “some”.

Bandwagon Appeal The writer tries to validate a point by intimating

that “everyone else believes in this.”

This tactic evades discussion of the issue itself.

Also known as “transfer of virtue”- the sharing of light from someone else’s sparkle (Popular/beautiful/ cool/rich people use/buy/wear brand X; if you use/buy/wear brand X, you too will be popular/beautiful/cool/rich.)

Straw man argument

The writer selects the opposition’s weakest or most insignificant point to argue against, to divert the readers’ attention from the real issues.a. The writer picks out a trivial or irrelevant argument against his own position and easily knocks it down.

b. Nixon’s 1952 “Checkers Speech”

Quick Fix The writer leans too heavily on catchy

phrases or empty slogans.

When guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns.

Coke is the “real thing.”

So how do I find fallacies in my own writing?

Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you're defending. What parts of the argument would now seem fishy to you? What parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to strengthening those parts.

List your main points; under each one, list the evidence you have for it. Seeing your claims and evidence laid out this way may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a particular claim, or it may help you look more critically at the evidence you're using.

Learn which types of fallacies you're especially prone to, and be careful to check for them in your work. Some writers make lots of appeals to authority; others are more likely to rely on weak analogies or set up straw men. Read over some of your old papers to see if there's a particular kind of fallacy you need to watch out for.

Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones. Claims that use sweeping words like "all," "no," "none," "every," "always," "never," "no one," and "everyone" are sometimes appropriate—but they require a lot more proof than less-sweeping claims that use words like "some," "many," "few," "sometimes," "usually," and so forth.

Double check your characterizations of others, especially your opponents, to be sure they are accurate and fair.