living on the land: change among the inuit of baffin island

title: LivingOntheLand:ChangeAmongtheInuitofBaffinIsland

author: Matthiasson,JohnS.publisher: BroadviewPress

isbn10|asin: 092114993Xprintisbn13: 9780921149934ebookisbn13: 9780585305615

language: Englishsubject Inuit--Nunavut--BaffinIsland.

publicationdate: 1992lcc: E99.E7M4521992ebddc: 973.04971

subject: Inuit--Nunavut--BaffinIsland.

LivingOntheLandNorthernBaffinInuitRespondtoChange

JohnS.Matthiasson

©1992BroadviewPressReprinted1996

Allrightsreserved.Theuseofanypartofthispublicationreproduced,transmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise,orstoredinaretrievalsystem,withoutpriorwrittenconsentofthepublisherorinthecaseofphotocopying,alicencefromCANCOPY(CanadianCopyrightLicensingAgency)6AdelaideStreetEast,Suite900,Toronto,OntarioM5CIH6isaninfringementofthecopyrightlaw.

CanadianCataloguinginPublicationData

Matthiasson,JohnStephen,1936LivingontheLand:ChangeamongtheInuitofBaffinIsland

ISBN0-921149-93-X

I.Inuit-NorthwestTerritories-BaffinIslandI.Title

E&.M381992971.9503C92-094869-3

BroadviewPressPostOfficeBox1243,Peterborough,Ontario,CanadaK9J7H5

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BroadviewPressgratefullyacknowledgesthesupportoftheCanadaCouncil,theOntarioArtsCouncil,theOntarioPublishingCentre,andtheMinistryofCanadianHeritage

PRINTEDINCANADA

TableofContents

Acknowledgements 7

Preface 9

BecomingLikeanInuit? 12

AWhalingWeWillGo 24

Pre-contactPeriod 25

TheWhalingPeriod 27

BecomingCanadians 35

ATradingPostBecomesASettlement 41

TheComingoftheBay 41

AKillingBringsthePoliceandaDetachment 42

TheComingoftheChurch 50

CampLifeintheContact-TraditionalPeriod 54

AullativikinSummerandWinter 56

Contact-TraditionalEconomics 69

SexualRolesandDivisionofLabour 72

CareandTrainingoftheYoung 78

HuntingPatternsandTerritoriality 83

Leadership 85

ContactwiththeSettlement 86

TheComingoftheBureaucrats 91

TheEuro-CanadianCommunityanditsDivisions 92

TheMittimatalikmiut 108

RelationsBetweenTununermiutandEuro-Canadians 113

AChangingPoliticalParadigm,andtheImpactofNewStatuses

118

TheEmergenceofaNewGenerationofLeaders 125

TheSettlementTenYearsLater 130

AHomeintheSettlement 134

ThePoliticalScene 153

Epilogue 158

ChangesinIdentityandPolitics 158

TheEmergenceofaNewPoliticalParadigm 161

ALargerMatrixInuitAmongOtherAboriginals 164

ThePresent 167

WorksCited 170

AcknowledgementsTheoriginalfieldworkwhichIcarriedoutinPondInletwassupportedbytheSocialScienceResearchCouncilofNewYork,NewYork.SupportforthewritingupoffieldnoteswaslaterprovidedbytheNationalInstituteofMentalHealth,Washington,D.C.Tenyearslater,agrantfromtheNorthemStudiesCommitteeoftheUniversityofManitobaallowedmetoreturntoPondInlet.Iamgratefulforallthreetangibleexpressionsofassistance.Withoutthem,therewouldhavebeennostudy,andanythingImighthaveknownabouttheofBaffinIslandwouldhavebeengleanedfromreadingthebooksofotherauthorsnotpersonalexperience.

IhaveaspecialdebtIwishtorecognize,andthatistoPerttiJ.Pelto,nowoftheUniversityofConnecticut.Bertencouragedmeto'gonorth',whenIhadoriginallyplannedtoheadoffforIndiaformydoctoralresearch.WhileIwasinthefield,heleftComellfortheUniversityofMinnesota,butkeptinregularcontactwithme,tellingmeinletterstokeepmyspiritsup,tohave"dialogueswithmyself",inordertokeepmyanthropologicalperspectivewhenmyletterstohimsuggestedthatIwastooinvolvedinlivingasanInukandforgettingwhyIwasthereinthefirstplace,andcontinuedtotreatmeas'hisstudent.'Iamdeeplyappreciativeofhissupport,andacknowledgeithere.

IalsowishtopayhomagetothehelpofVictorW.Turner,wholeftussosadlyandprematurelyjustafewyearsago.Victorguidedmeinmydissertationwriting,andthustothefirstpublicexpressionofmyexperienceof'livingontheland,'andwhateverofanthropologicalvalueIhadretrievedfromit.

IhavenotusedrealnamesfortheKadlunaofPondInletofeither

periodinthebook.PerhapstheywillnotbeoffendedifIexpressmycollectivethankstothemhere.BobPilot,Rev.HowardBracewellandJimHainingassistedmeduringthefirsttrip.BillandGwenBerrygavemeopportunitiestobatheandenjoycuisineofmyownculturewhenIaccompaniedthehuntersintothesettlementontradingexpeditions,andencouragedmetowritethisbook.

Mostimportantly,IacknowledgeinhumilitytheassistanceoftheTununermiut,andinparticular,thefamilyofReverendJimmyMuckpah,whoinvitedayounganthropologistandoutsiderintotheirlives,andsharedthemwithhim.Atthetimeofmyfirstfieldwork,ElijahErklooandPaulKoolerk,bothfromPondInlet,werelivinginOttawa.TheyassistedmeinthetranslationofquestionnairedatafromInuktituttoEnglish,andIthankthemfortheirdiligenceinthatendeavor.OtherTununermiut,andespeciallytheAullativikmiut,arementionedbynameinthetext,andIhopetheyrealizemyindebtednesstothem.

VeraGardnerdeservesaspecialnoteofthanksforhercontinuedsupportduringthelaststagesofwritingandre-writing.

ToeveryoneatBroadviewPresswhoworkedonthepublicationofthebook,andDonLepan,itspresident,inparticular,atipofthehat.

Idedicatethisbooktomychildren;Steve,astudentofphilosophywhohelpedhisfatherunderstandFoucaultandotherwriters,bi-cyclist,travellerandoutdoorsperson,andNancy,whoamongherothervirtues,isagoodmothertohergirlsandallowsmegrand-fatherlyindulgencesofthem.

DEPARTMENTOFANTHROPOLOGYUNIVERSITYOFMANITOBAMAY29,1992

PrefaceTheInuitoftheCanadianArctic,onceknowntooutsidersastheEskimo,createdculturalformsthathavefascinatedreaderssincetheywerefirstdescribedinprint.Schoolchildrenfromaroundtheworldknowabouttheromanticpeoplewholivedinigloosandhuntedseamammalsforfood.Unfortunately,whileaccurateinpart,thisimageoftheInuit,or"people,"hasoftenbeenromanticizedandsohasignoredalargerreality.Untilrecently,Inuitmenandwomenlabouredthroughaharddailyexistenceinwhatisperhapsthemostdemandingenvironmentonthefaceoftheearth.Ontheirown,though,theyandtheirancestorshavesurvivedthroughseveralcenturies,andcreatedrichlyrewardinglife-styles.Thoselife-styleswentthroughaseriesofchangesovertime,asrevealedinthearchaeologicalrecord.

ChangeofadifferenttypewasimposedontheInuitwhentheirlandsandthewatersadjacenttothemwerediscoveredbyEuropeans.Firstcametheexplorers,insearchofthefabledNorthwestPassage,soonfollowedbythewhalers,whointeractedeconomicallyandsociallywiththeInuittheyencounteredbutalwaysreturnedwiththeircatchtotheportsfromwhencetheycame.

Later,outsiderscametoInuitcountrytostay.Thesewerethemissionaries,traders,andpolice.Asthepeopleworkedatcreatingmeanstohandletheseintrusions,theysuddenlyfoundthemselvespartofanewnation-statethenationofCanada.Forsomedecades,CanadiansshowedlittleinterestinthepeoplewhoresidedintheArcticregions.Thisbegantochangewhen,foravarietyofreasons,theGovernmentofCanadainitiatedprogramsofdirectedchangethatencouragedtheInuittomoveofftheland.TheimplicationsoftheseprogramsweredrasticanalmosttotalchangeinInuitlife-style.

Today,mostInuitliveinsettlementsandhamlets,someofwhichhavetakenonurbanattributes.Ifmenhunt,theydosoonweekendsorduringvacations.Theyworkatwagelabour,andthewomencookonelectricstovesanddothefamilywashinginelectricwashingmachines.Theirchildrenattendschoolandintheirspare

timelistentorockandwesternmusiconexpensivestereoequipmentorwatchvideosonVCRs.However,thesecontemporaryInuit,livingwhatappearstobeasouthernlife-style,areonlyafewdecadesawayfromlife"ontheland,"and,moreimportantly,theyhavenotgivenuptheiremotionaltieswithit.

IhadarareopportunitytoparticipateinthelifeofasmallpopulationofInuitlivingonnorthernBaffinIslandinthehighArcticduringatimewhentherumblingsofgovernment-sponsoredchangeswerestillonlymurmurs.ThesearetheTununermiut,themajorityofwhomwerestilllivingonthelandinsmallhuntingcamps,scatteredaroundthesettlementofPondInlet.

AdecadelaterIreturnedtoPondInlettoexaminethechangesthenewfederalprogramshadwroughtandtheresponsesoftheTununermiuttothosechanges.Iwaswelcomedbackbymyfriends,withwhomIhadmaintainedcontactintheinterveningyears,andoneinvitedmetostayinhisnewthree-bedroomhome.

Ihaveinseveralscholarlyarticlesattemptedtodescribethosechangesandthemannerinwhichthepeoplehandledthem.Butitseemedthattherewasmoretobesaid:afewyearsagothedaughterofJimmyMuckpah,whoisacentralfigureinthisnarrative,visitedmeinWinnipeg.SuzyisnowateacherinanArcticcommunity.ItalkedwithheroneeveningaboutthecamplifeintowhichshehadbeenbornduringthetimeIwaslivingwithherfamily,butofwhichshehadonlydimmemories.ThephotographsIshowedherofthatlifeseemedtointrigueher,andshewassoonshoweringmewithabarrageofquestions.Lifeonthelandwasasalientoherasitwouldbetotheaveragesouthernteenager.

Suzy'svisitpromptedmetowriteareflectiveandextendedpiecedescribingtheTununermiutcamplifethatdisappearedshortlyafterIencounteredit,andtheimpactoftheintrusivefederalgovernment

programsthatledtoitsdemise.ThisnarrativeistheresultIcallitapersonalizedethnography.

Evenmorepersonally,IhavebeenmovedtowritethisbecauseIhaveanadopteddaughter,Nancy,whoisanInukbybirth.Herworldispartlydefinedbyourfamilylife,butforherthereistheInuitheritageaswell.Nancy'sdaughters,CrystalandCindy,knowabouttheInuitexperienceonlythroughschoolbooks.Forthem,Iwanttoprovideanalternativerepresentation.

Finally,myson,Steve,grewupwithanoldersisterwhosephysicalappearancediffersfromhis.Heshouldknowsomethingaboutherculturalpast.

Andso,Iwrotethisformychildrenandgrandchildren,andforSuzy,whobecameaclosefriendofNancy.

ThestoryisasmuchabouttheanthropologistwhocametoliveamongtheTununermiutasitisaboutthepeoplethemselves,andsoitincludesanextendeddescriptionofmyentriesintothesetting.Still,Ihavetriedtoensurethatwhatfollowsisaccurate.Ihopethatitwillfindaplaceinanthropologycoursesintheacademy,butwillalsohaveanaudiencebeyondthatonethatincludestheInuit.

Ihaveusedtheanthropologicallensesthatmydisciplinegivesmetointerpreteventsandprocessesandwhatformeweretheremarkablewaysinwhichthepeoplehavecopedwiththem.Ihaveincludedalengthydepictionoflifeinthecampsbeforethemovetothesettlement,thewayoflifethatwasdisruptedbytheimplementationofthefederalpolicy.Ialsotracesomeoftheinfluencesofthewhalers,becausethewaterssurroundingnorthernBaffinIslandwereworkedintenselybywhalers,andthewhalingperiodinCanadianArctichistoryhasoftenbeenneglected.

However,thefocusisontheresponsesoftheTununermiuttoimposedchange,whichresponseswere,inmyopinion,trulyremarkable.Iacknowledgehere,in,Ihope,truehumility,myprofounddebttomyfriendsandteacherstheTununermiutofPondInlet;andIlookforwardtohearingwhetherthestoryrecountedhereringstrueforthem.

BecomingLikeanInuit?Lateinthesummerof1963IsteppedfromanaircraftthathadlandedontheairstripinResoluteBay,NorthwestTerritories,acombinedRoyalCanadianForcesandDepartmentofTransportbaselocatedonCornwallisIslandintheCanadianhighArctic.Itwasrainingheavily;thewoolsuitIworewassoakedthroughbeforeIsetfootintotheshackinwhichIwastostayforthenextfewdays,waitingforanavailableaircrafttotakemeonthenextlegofmyjourneytoPondInlet,asmallsettlementonnorthernBaffinIsland.Mybunkmatesintheshackwerepilots,aircraftmaintenancemen,andaradiodispatcher,allassociatedwithanoilexplorationcompanybasedinasouthernCanadiancity.AtthetimeIwasadoctoralstudentinanthropologyatCornellUniversityonmywaytoPondInlettocollectinformationonaspectsofthelifeoftheTununermiutInuittobeusedasthebasisformydissertation.Aftersecuringtransportationtothesettlement,Iwastoremainthereforthenextthirteenmonths.Statedbriefly,mymaintaskwastodescribetraditionalpatternsofsocialcontrol,andtheinfluenceonthemofaRoyalCanadianMountedPolicedetachmentinPondInlet.DuringmystayintheareaIdidmakesomeobservationsrelatingtotheseconcerns,butIalsodidoneotherthingthat,inretrospect,maybeofmoreimportance:Iparticipatedinawayoflifeforwhichthedeathknellhadalreadybeentolled.

Tenyearslater,inthesummerof1973,IonceagainsteppedfromanaircraftinResoluteBay.Insteadofashack,IfoundquartersinthefairlyrecentlyconstructedAirhotel.OnceagainIwaitedforanavailableaircrafttotakemetoPondInlet,thistimeonareturntripofcombinednostalgiaandanthropologicalcomparison.Iwassoontobecomeawareofthenumerouschangesthathadoccurredinthehigh

Arcticintheinterveningdecade.

WhenIfirstarrivedinPondInlet,onthenortheasterntipofBaffinIsland,IhadplannedtospendayearworkingwithInuitinformantsandobservingday-to-dayInuitlife.Beforeleavingforthe''field"IhadbeenledtobelievethattherewereseveralbilingualInuitinthearea,andthatitwouldbeaneasymattertohire

oneormoreasinterpreters.IwasuncertainofwhereIwouldfindaccommodation,butcertainthatsomethingwouldshowup.Nooneinthesettlementknewofmyimpendingarrival,althoughIwasequippedwithanExplorer'sandScientist'slicenseproperlysignedbytheappropriateofficialsinOttawaabureaucraticprerequisiteforresearchintheNorthwestTerritories.Intheearly1960sflightstoandfromisolatedsettlementssuchasPondInletwereinfrequentandirregular.ThebushpilotwhobroughtmefromResoluteBaytoPondInlethadnevermadethetripbefore,buthehadagoodsetofmapsandstrongfaithinhisabilitytofollowthem.ThecommandingofficeroftheResoluteRCAFbasecamealongfortheride,havingprovidedme,agraduatestudentonalimitedbudget,withfreemealsatthebaseduringmystayinResolute.WeapproachedPondInletfrombehindthehighhillthatformsalongridgebehindit,andlandedonarelativelysmoothstripofland.Afterclimbingfromtheaircraftanddumpingmyluggageontheground,wewalkedoverthehillanddownintothesettlementproperwhereweidentifiedtheRCMPpostandknockedonthedooroftheattachedresidence.Thecorporalwhoanswereduswasstartledbutquicklyrecoveredhiscomposure,invitedusintohishome,andofferedallacupoftea.Nooneinthesettlementhadheardtheapproachingaircraftorseenitland.

Beforetheaircraftdepartedagain,thecorporalaskedtoseemylicenseandinspecteditcarefully,particularlyinlightofmystatedresearchconcernwithlegalchangeandtheinfluenceoftheRCMPpresenceonthelocalInuit.Findingthelicenseinorder,heimmediatelybegantolookforaccommodationforme,andeventuallyarrangedatemporarystayinavacantteacherageuntilsomethingmorepermanentcouldbelocated.(Teachersinnortherncommunitiescommonly"gosouth"insummerstoattenduniversitysummerschoolprograms.)ItwaswithafeelingofgreatsatisfactionthatIunrolledmysleepingbagthatevening,madeapotofcoffee,andreflectedon

thefactthatIhadarrivedIwasfinally"inthefield."

AsImentionedearlier,mypurposeinmakingthetrektoPondInletwastoobserveanddescribefactorsrelatedtowhatIcalledlegalacculturation,orthetransitionfromtraditionalInuitformsofsocialcontroltoarelianceonCanadianlawenforcementofficersandanobservanceoffederalandterritoriallaws.InowrealizethatIhadbeenextremelynaïve.Forexample,IhadthoughtthatIcouldcarryoutmyfieldoperationswhilecomfortablyensconcedinthesettlement.IhadneglectedtofindoutbeforemydeparturethatmostoftheInuitofthePondInletarealived,notinthe

settlement,butinsmallcampslocatedfromeighttoonehundredandfiftymilesfromit.Inmostcasestheywerefull-timehuntersandliving,asnorthernerssay,"ontheland."ItsoonbecameapparenttomethatifIlivedinthesettlementIwouldnothavemuchopportunitytorecordthetypesofinformationinwhichIwasinterested.ItalsobecamequicklyapparentthatifIwastodomyinterviewingIwouldhavetolearntheInuitlanguage,Inuktitut,for,despitewhatIhadbeentoldinthesouth,therewerenofullybilingualInuitinthearea.ManyoftheEuro-CanadiansinthesettlementwerefluentintheInuitlanguage,buttheyhadtheirownjobstodoandhadnotimetoactasinterpretersforanitinerantgraduatestudentinanthropology.

DuringmyfirstdaysinPondInletIdidwhatmostanthropologistsdowhorealizethatthelanguageproblemisgoingtobestickierthananticipated.Iwalkedaboutthesettlement(or,moreaccurately,sinceitconsistedinthemainofalonglineofbuildingsstrungoutalongthecoast,walkedbackandforth),tryingtoformimpressionsanddecidehowintheworldIwasgoingtobeginmyresearch.Everyoneinthesettlementseemedtohavesomethingtodoexceptme,butIdidgainimpressions,drawmaps,andreadagreatmanymysterynovelsthatIhadborrowedfromtheHudson'sBayCompanytrader.

Inthesummerof1963PondInletwasonthethresholdofaseriesoftransitionsthatweretoalteritpermanently,andthatwouldactascatalystsforothermodificationsofthecommunityandthepeople,modificationsthathavecontinuedintothe1990s.Butthesechangeshadnotyetoccurred,andIwasabletoviewaCanadianArcticsettlementthatwasinmanywaystypicalduringthelate1950sandearly1960s.ManyobservershaveclaimedforPondInletthedistinctionofbeingthemostattractivelysituatedsettlementinnorthernCanada.IhaveonlyheardthisclaimdisputedbythosewithanattachmenttoPangnirtung,butsinceIhavenotvisitedPangnirtungmyselfIcastmyvotewiththosewhoglorifyPondInlet,foritis

indeedbeautifullysituated.TwentymilesacrossEclipseSoundarethefrozenglacialriversandmajesticsnowcappedmountainsofBylotIsland,risingashighassixthousandfeetoutofthewaterandlookingfromadistancelikealongmulticolouredcombstandingonitsback.Ashortwalkoverthehillsthatcreateabackdropforthesettlementfindsonesurroundedbymountainlandscapesonallsides,withrollingvistasoftundraintheimmediaterangeofvision.

Situatedatlatitude72°44'andlongitude78°00',PondInletisoneofthemostnorthernInuitsettlementsinCanada,andin-

SummercampofAullativikmiut,1963

deed,oneofthemostnorthernsitesofhumanhabitationintheworld.Traditionallyrichinfishandseal,thewatersthatitfaceshavelongprovidedaneconomicbasefortheInuitpeoplethemselves,andmorerecentlyforthetraderswhocreatedthebasisforastable,permanentsettlement.In1963thefirstimpressionthevisitortoPondInletreceivedwasofarowofbuildingshousingthevariousagencieswithestablishedcontingentsinthecommunity.TheseweretheRCMP,whichmaintainedatwo-mandetachment(withonlytheonecorporalresidentatthetime),theHudson'sBayCompany(HBC)tradingpost,AnglicanandRomanCatholicmissions,andafledglingDepartmentofNorthernAffairs(DNA)contingentcomprisinganareaadministrator,amechanic,andtwoschoolteachers,alongwiththeirfamilies.Eachgroupinghaditsownclusterofbuildings,andtheDNA,whichhadonlyrecentlyenteredthecommunitybutwasrapidlytakingoveritsadministration,hadbeenforcedtobreaknewgroundattheextremenorthernedgeneartheglacialcreekthatprovidedthecommunitywatersupplyinsummermonths.Theirbuildingswerestillsurroundedbymudandbrokentundra,unlikethegrass-coveredgroundsoftheolderandmoreestablishedagencies.

AfewInuitlivedinthesettlementmainlyagedwidowsandfamiliesemployedbyEuro-Canadianagencies

1butmostlivedon

thelandandvisitedthesettlementeverymonthorsototradesealskinsandfoxfursforsuchitemsasflour,tea,sugar,andcloth.Therewereseveraloutlyingcampsin1963,whichIwilldescribeingreaterdetailinalaterchapter.AsIacquaintedmyselfwiththesettlementduringmyfirstfewdaysthere,IrealizedthatIwouldhavetoarrangetoliveforatleastafewmonthsinoneormoreofthesecampsifIwastoachieveanyofmyresearchaims.Alongwithotherfactorssuchasthelanguagebarrier,therewasonefurtherproblemwithstayinginthesettlement:asharpsocialgapexistedbetweenEuro-CanadiansandtheInuit.Therewasverylittleinteractionbetweenthetwo,andbyremainingthereIwouldinadvertentlybutalsounavoidablyidentifymyselfwiththeEuro-Canadianside;mycontactswiththeInuitwouldbesharplycircumscribed,ifnotnon-existent.So,beforeIhadbeeninPondInletforaweek,Ibegantoexplorewaystoestablishmyselfinacamp.

Ofcourse,notknowingawordoftheInuitlanguage,Inuktitut,Ihadnomeansofcommunicatingwith"landpeople"whentheywereinthesettlementotherthantoexchangeasmilewhenIcameacrossthem.OnceagainRCMPcorporalRobertPilotcametomyassistance.Iexplainedmypredicamenttohimandheagreedtotryandfindacampfamilythatwouldbewillingtotakemeinasahoarder.AlllandpeoplevisitedtheRCMPquarterswheninthesettlement,andafteraboutaweekCorporalPilotcalledmeintohisofficetotellmethatJimmyMuckpah,ayoungmanfromacampmid-distancefromPondInlet,waspreparedtoconsiderhavingmemoveinwithhimandhisfamily.Ameetingwasarrangedbetweenthetwoofus,inwhichBobPilotactedasinterpreter,anditwasdecidedthatIwouldaccompanyBobonhispatrolofthecampsthefollowingweekandbedroppedoffatAullativik,thecampthatwastobecomemyhomeforthenextninemonths.

IhadborrowedanInuitparkafromtheDepartmentofNorthern

AffairsstoresinOttawa,butitdidn'tfitIamoversixfeettallandduringmybriefstayinResoluteBayIhadbeeninformed,withgreatglee,thatitwasactuallyawoman'sparka.InanyeventIsoonrealizedthatitwasinsufficienttokeepmythinsouthernbloodwarm,andthebootsIhadpurchasedbeforeleavingthesouthwerelessthanadequateforextendedperiodsoutofdoorsunlessIkeptmyfeetinperpetualmotion.Consequently,IwasmiserableduringthetriptoAullativikandspentmostofthetimehuddledinanopenspacebehindthesmallcabintryingtokeepwarm.Theothermenwerestandingoutside,andIfeltIshoulddothesame.WevisitedseveralothercampsonthewayandarrivedatthesummercampoftheAullativikmiutlateinthe

Preparationsforadayofhunting.

afternoonofourseconddayout.IhaddinnerwithBobinhistentandthen,havingdecided,onBob'sadvice,tomakethebreakwiththeoutsideworldasquicklyaspossible,spentthenightinthetentofJimmyMuckpah.Thatfirsteveningandthedaythatfollowedwerenoteasyforme,norformyInuithostsIwilldescribetheminsomedetaillaterbutforbetterorworse,IwastobeaguestofJimmyandhisfamilyformostofthenextninemonths.

AlthoughheandIwerethesameage,Jimmywouldrefertomeashisson,andindeedhetookseriouslythetaskoftrainingmeinInuitmaleskills,ashewoulddowithhisrealsonwhenhewasoldenough.Ihadnotbeensurehowbesttocharacterizemyreasonsforwantingtoliveinacamp,andnothavinganycommandoftheInuitlanguage,IhadaskedCorporalPilottoexplaintoJimmythatIsimplywantedtolearntobelikeanInuitandtolivelikethem.Itseemedtoodifficulttoexplainmyinterestinlegalacculturation.TodayIwouldbemorehonestaboutmyresearchgoals,regardlessoflinguisticorconceptualdifficulties,butaseventsdevelopedduringmystaywiththeAullativikmiut,thereasonsgivenatthetimeturnedouttobenotfarfromthetruth.BeforelongIfoundmyselfbecomingincreasingly

neglectfulofmyresearchaimsandcollectionofthedatathatwouldenablemetoaccomplishthem,andinsteadspendingmostofmytimeattempting

Atagootung,matriarchofAullativik

tomastertheskillstowhichIwasbeingdailyexposed.Twoweeksaftermyarrival,whenthepeoplemovedbacktotheirwintercampatAullativikonCurryIsland,desiretolearntobehaveasanInuitadultmalewasintensified.Whilethemenmadethetripintheirmotor-drivencanoesandothersmallcraft,Iwasforcedtotravelwiththewomenandchildreninthelargebulkywhale-boat,acruelblowtomymaleego.

BeforemanyweekshadpassedIbegantofeelapartofcamplifeandthecampcommunity.Therewerefivehouseholds,andsoonIwasvisitingfreelyinallofthem.Afewoftheyoungerchildrenhadatfirstbeenfrightenedbyme,butbeforelongtheyseemedtoacceptme.Iammistrustfulofanthropologicalcolleagueswhospeakofbeing"adopted"bythepeoplewithwhomtheywork,andIwascertainlynotadoptedbyJimmyandhisfamily,formyphysicalsize,colouring,andlinguisticbackgroundmarkedmeasineradicablydifferent.ButIwasaccepted,oratleasttolerated,andbeforelongIfeltapartofmysurroundings.IntimeIlostthestatusofstrangerandalien.

Theperiodofinitialadjustmentwasgreatlyfacilitatedbythekindness

andhospitalitythatJimmy,hisfamily,andtheotherAullativikmiutextendedtome,butitwasbynomeanseasy.ThemealIateinBob'stentmyfirsteveninginthecampwastobemylast

"southern"mealforsometimetocome.Afterthelongandcoldboattripwerelishedtheheartystewmadefromcannedvegetablesandfrozenbeef;aswesataboutafterwardssippingonmugsofcoffee,BobsuggestedthatIspendmyfirstnightwithJimmy'sfamilyintheirtent.Iagreed;whilehemadethenecessaryarrangements,IlookedatJimmy'ssmallcanvastentandexperiencedmyfirstrealfeelingsoftrepidation.Hangingfromtheguide-ropeswerestripsofrawfish,whichIassumedmightbethemealforthenextday(itturnedoutthatIwascorrect).LaterintheeveningIbroughtmysleepingbagsovertothetentandlaidthemdown,oneinsideoftheother,attheedgeofthecloththathadbeenspreadoutonthefrozenground.Ididnotsleepwellthatnight;Iwasveryconsciousofbeinganintruderinsomeoneelse'sbed,aswesleptsidebysidewiththetwoadultInuitononeside,thetwochildreninthemiddle,andmyselfattheotherside.

ThefollowingmorningIsharedsomebannockandteawiththefamily,thenwentovertowatchBobpackuphisgearforthetriptothenextcamponhisitinerary.Ithenstoodaloneontheshoreandpensivelyobservedthempullaway.Afewyardsout,Bobturnedbacktomeandcalled,"Seeyouinacoupleofmonths.Takecareofyourself!"Ididn'tmissthenoteofhumourinhisvoice,andasIstoodthereIrealizedthat"acoupleofmonths"wasaccurate.TheAullativikmiuthadonlyrecentlybeenintothesettlementtotrade,andwouldnotbereturningforatleastanothersixweeks,perhapslonger.Bob'slastcalltomewastobethelastEnglishIwouldhear,otherthanmyownvoice,forsometimetocome.Ihavetoadmitthatawaveofapprehensionandevenoffearsweptoverme;Ihaveneverfeltsoisolatedandalonebeforeorsince.NowIwastrulyinthefield.

BeforeleavingthesettlementIhadpurchasedmaterialsforaparka,andduringthenextseveraldaysJimmy'swife,Elisapee,workeddiligentlyatmakingoneforme.Ittookhersometime,becauseshehadnevermadeonesolarge,andshehadtopullitapartandbegin

overagainmorethanonce.Iwastallerthantheothermenbyseveralinches,butwasalsoconsiderablyoverweightatthetime.DuringthenextfewmonthsIwouldlosefortypoundsfromrunningbesidedogsledsandexistingonadietalmostentirelyofmeat,butinitiallytheparkahadtobewideenoughtogirdmyexcessivegirth.Iwasgratefulwhentheparkawascompletedandshehadtimetobeginmakingmeapairofsealskinbootsandduffleclothsocks.Shehadthesameproblemofsizewiththeboots.OneoftheotherwomenagreedtoknitamulticolouredInuitcapforme,withalongtasselthatwouldhangoutsidetheparkahood

infront,keepingthefurtrimclosetomyface.Itkepttheheadfromfallingforward.Whenallofmynewclothingwascompleted,it,longwithacast-offpitofoverpantsthatBobPilothadgivenme,allowedmetowalkaboutthecampinsomecomfort.

EarlierIwrotethatBob'sstewwastobemylastsouthernmealforawhile.Imightnothavewaitedsolong,sinceIhadpurchasedfoodsuppliesinthesettlement.ButIgavemycachetoJimmysothathisfamilymightsharethemwithme,andonmyfirstdayinthecamphegavethemallawaytotheotherfamilies.ThiswasmyfirstexampleoftraditionalInuitsharingpractices,anditsexpressiononthatoccasionmeantthatIwastolearntoeatlandfoodmorequicklythanIhadanticipated.AtfirstIwasonlygivenbannockandpiecesofheartandliverfromseals,sometimesrawandothertimescooked,andoccasionallyfish.Thepeoplewereawarethatsouthernersveryoftenrefusetoeatsealmeat,andiftheydoacceptit,restrictthemselvestoliverorheart,neitherofwhichhasquitethestrongtasteofothercuts.Isoontiredoftheorgancuts,sosomeofthefirstwordsIlearnedintheInuktitutlanguagewerethoseforothercutsofmeat.

ThroughoutmystaywiththeAullativikmiutIwasasourceofconcerntomyhostsalthoughlesssoasItoughenedupphysicallyandlearnedtraditionalskillsbuttheywereparticularlyworriedaboutmeduringmysecondweekincamp.Possiblybecauseofthediet,orthestressofadaptingtothecold,Ibecameseriouslyill.Unabletoeat,Ilayinmysleepingbagfordays,onlyrousingmyselfforanoccasionalmugofhottea.AlloftheInuitwereextremelysolicitous,andIthinkthatJimmywasespeciallyworriedabouthowhewouldexplainmydeathtotheRCMP.Intimemystrengthandappetitereturned,withtheillnesshavingforgedanewbondbetweenmeandJimmy.Thefollowingweekayoungchildbecameill,runningahighfeverandcausingdistresstohisparents.Onceagain,thecampmemberscollectivelyshowedtheirconcernforthediscomfortofanindividual.

Itwassuggested,morebygesturethanbywords,thatImightbeabletohelphim,buttherewasnothingIfeltIcoulddo,althoughIdesperatelywishedthatIcould.Thefirstnightallofthewomencrowdedtogetherintheboy'sfamily'stent,maintainingavigilwiththemother,whilethemenstayedawakeplayingcardsinanothertent.Bymorningthefeverhadbroken,andsoonthechildwasupandaboutplayingwithhisfriends.

SomecasualobservershaveclaimedthattheInuitareapeopledevoidofnormalemotions,whodonotexpressgriefattheirownorothers'misfortunes.Iwasquicklydisabusedofthisstereotype

bytheprecedingtwoexamplesofanxietyandconcernoverindividualsuffering.IntimeIlearnedtoviewtheInuitasastoicpeopletheexigenciesoftheirenvironmenthadmadethemsobutthesetwoexamplesamongothersdemonstratedtometheirdepthsoffeelingforothers.Therewasnognashingofteethoropendisplayofemotion,buttheconcernwasalwaysapparent,inother,moresubtleways.

Overtime,ofcourse,thebasicproblemsIencounteredonenteringthefieldwerelargelyovercome,andIbecamesomethingofafixtureinthecamp.Ibecameimmersed,asmuchaspossible,initsdailylife,butnotbeforeIhadpassedthroughallofthestagesofcultureshock,withthefluctuatingemotionscharacteristicofit.ThereweretimeswhenIwasalmostoverwhelmedbyparanoia,feelingthatIwasanobjectofridiculeforeveryonefromtheheadmantothesmallestchild.AtthosetimestheveryutteranceofthewordKadluna,whichistheall-embracingtermforeveryonewhoisnotanInuk,wouldplungemeintodespair,forIwouldbeconvincedthatIwasbeinglaughedatordisparaged.TherewerealsomomentswhenIfeltagreatsenseofcontentmentandpeace,suchasintheearlymorningswhentheothermembersofthehouseholdandIwouldlieunderoursleepingrobes(or,inmycase,mysleepingbag),drinkingteabrewedoveraprimusstoveandmunchingonbannock.

Mymomentsofparanoiamayhavehadsomebasisinfact,forIknowthatmypresencestretchedtothelimitsthetoleranceoftheAullativikmiut,buttheywerealwaysgentlehosts,andtheyandIsomehowaccommodatedourselvestooneanotherandweatheredthenextninemonths.ThereweremanyskillsIhadtomasterbeforeIcouldtrulybesaidtohaveparticipatedinInuitmalelife,andsomeofthemIneverdidbecomeproficientin.Aftersomemonthshadpassed,themenbegantorefertomeasInoongwa,whichmeant,theytoldme,thatIhadbecomeapersonwhowas"intheimageofanInuk."IdoubtthatIhaveeverbeenasflatteredbyanythinginmylife,exceptforthe

time,notlongafter,whentheytoldmethatIwasnowanInukmyself.(Ineverwas,ofcourse,andnevercouldbe,butIwasimmenselydelighted.)ThelatteroccurredwhenJimmyandIwerevisitinganearbycampwhileonahuntingtrip,andourhostessbegantowashamugformeaswepreparedtohavetea.Jimmytoldhernottobother,andlaterexplainedtomethathehaddonesobecauseIwasanInuk,andsothenicetiesofKadlunabehaviourwerenotnecessary.ThedaythatJimmyfirstaskedmetotakehisdogteamandgooutontheicetoseeaboutthestatusofhissealnets,IfeltlikeanInuk,as

Ididonthefirsteveningwhen,afteralongdayoftravelling,themenwentintothenewlybuiltsnowhousetodrinkteaandleftmeoutsidetofeedthedogs.Iknewthattheynolongerwereworriedaboutmysurvivalintheirworld.

IfinditdifficulttowriteabouttheTununermiutandtheirwayoflifeinadetached,objectivemanner,forasmuchaspossible,thatwayoflifebecamemyownforthebetterpartofayear.ItriedtodosoinarticlesIhavepublishedinanthropologicaljournals,butIhavealwaysfeltasenseofunrealityintheattempt.Ibecameadifferentpersonduringthoseninemonths.Ithasbeensaidthatthefirstmajorfieldtripforananthropologistissimilartotheexperienceofgoingthroughdepthpsychoanalysis.Thiswastrueofme,formyvisionsofmyownpersonhoodandthesocialworldsinwhichIexistwerechangedirreversibly.Oneleavesthefieldwithanalteredperspectiveonthehumanconditionand,often,apermanentlymodifiedpersonality.Weanthropologistsareevenasaffectedbyourfieldworkasareourinformantsandthosewhoreadourwritings,andperhapsevenmoreso.

Ialsobelieveverystronglythatthewritingsoftheanthropologistcanneverbedivorcedfromtheanthropologisthim-orherself.Thethoughtsandfeelingsofanthropologistsarethefiltersthroughwhichtheirobservationsaretransformedintodata,andsoforme,the''anthropologistasvariable"isperhapsthemostcriticalpartoftheequationthatbeginsonentryintothefieldandculminatesinjournalarticles,amonograph,orwhatevertypeofpublication.Thepersonalresponsesoftheanthropologistdeservetobemorethananecdotesrecountedyearafteryeartoclassesofundergraduates.Ihavealwaysfeltasenseofartificialityinmymore"professional"writingsontheInuit,inwhichIhaveattemptedtokeepmyselfoutofthepicture.Iwillnotattempttodosohere,andifthislackstheseemingrigourofapurelyprofessionalpieceofwriting,itwillhopefullyhavemore

humanitytoit.ThematerialofthefollowingchapterspresentstheperceptionsofJohnMatthiassonattwodifferentperiodsofhislife,anditisinfluencedbyallofhisprejudices,preferencesandvalues,andinadequacies.Ihopethatitalsohassomeanthropologicalvalue.

AfterspendingninemonthswiththeAullativikmiut,IreturnedtoPondInletforseveralmonths,withintermittentperiodsbeingspentinothercampsandthreeweeksinlatespringbackinAullativik.ThirteenmonthsaftermyarrivalwiththebushpilotandtheRCAFofficer,Ileftforthesouth.

Inthesummerof1973,tenyearslater,IreturnedtoPondInlet.Thecampswerenomore;Aullativikwasnothingbutacluster

ofdecayinghouses.AlloftheTununermiutInuithadmovedfromthecampsintothesettlement.OnthisvisitIwasnotconcernedspecificallywithlegalchange;Iwantedtodocumentsomeoftheeventsthathadoccurredduringtheinterveningdecade.JimmyMuckpahhadbecomeanordainedAnglicanminister,withamissionpostofhisowninEskimoPointonthewestcoastofHudsonBay.Manyoftheyoungmenworkedonoilrigs.Inaprofoundsense,awayoflifehaddisappeared,andtheoldmenwhohadbeencampbossestoldmethattheygrievedatitspassing.InthefollowingchaptersIattempt,frommyownperspective,todocumentsomeofthechangesthattookplace,thehistoricalfactorsthatprecededthem,andsomeoftheirconsequencesfortheTununermiut,myfriendsandteachers.

Note

1IthasbecomefairlystandardpracticeinwritingsontheCanadianInuittorefertonon-InuitbythetermwhichtheInuitthemselvesuseforsuchpeople:kabloona,kabluna,kapluna,kadluna,orsomeothervariation,dependingonwhichorthographyoneuses(Vallee,1962).IprefertoemploythetermcoinedbyJohnHonigmann,"Euro-Canadian"(Honigmann&Honigmann,1965),whichisamoreaccuratedescriptionofcontactagentsinArcticCanada,atleastduringthe1960s.Thatis,inthecontact-traditionalperiodthemajorexemplarsofnon-Inuitbehaviour,values,andinstitutionstotheInuitwerenotCanadiansbutHBCemployeesrecruitedinScotland,AnglicanmissionariesfromEngland,andRomanCatholicpriestsfromBelgiumandFrance.Morerecently,largenumbersofEuropeanimmigrantshavefoundemploymentinArcticsettlementsasteachers,mechanics,andbureaucrats.WeshouldalsorememberthatitwasScottishwhalers,notCanadiansorAmericans,whointroducedthewhalingindustryandallofitsacculturativeeffectstothePondInlet

area.Ithinkthesefactsareimportantinunderstandingthesocio-psychologicaldynamicsofTununermiutacculturation.TheEuropeaninfluencehasalwaysbeenaspotentastheCanadian,althoughthissituationischangingtoday.Forthesereasons,then,Iwilluse"Euro-Canadian"throughouttheremainderofthetext.

AWhalingWeWillGoIwilllaterdescribeinsomedetailthelife-styleoftheTununermiutwholivedincamps,andspecificallythedailyroutinesofthepeopleofAullativik.WeshallencountertheEuro-CanadianswholivedinPondInletduringtheearly1960s,andwillexaminetheeffectsoftheirpresenceonTununermiutlife.HelmandDamas(1963),inaninfluentialarticle,havecharacterizedInuitcamplifeofthatperiodas"contact-traditional."Thetermisappropriate,foralthoughmanyfeaturesoftraditionalInuitsocietyandculturewerestillevidentincamps,theInuitresidentswereirrevocablyenmeshedwithEuro-Canadianinstitutions.

ThreemaintentaclesofEuro-CanadiansocietyhadreachedintotheArcticandcreatedthecontact-traditionalperiodfortheTununermiutandotherInuitacrossArcticCanada.TheseweretheHudsonBayCompany,theRoyalCanadianMountedPolice,andChristianmissionarymovements.TheInuithadindeedbecomedependentonallthree;buttheyhadalsopreservedaseparateculturalidentityandexistence,andtoaconsiderableextenttheyhadbeenencouragedtodosobythesoutherners.TheHBCwantedfoxpeltsandsealskins,andonlybyhuntingcouldtheInuitprovidethem.TheRCMPdidnotwanttoseetheInuitbecomedependentonwelfare,ortohavearisingcrimerate(intermsofCanadiandefinitionsofcrime),andsoencouragedthemtoliveawayfromthesettlements.RomanCatholicandAnglicanmissionariesfearedsecularizationandmoralcorruptionstemmingfromsettlementlife,withitsattendantgreatercontactwithoutsiders.Itwasintheinterestofallthreeagencies,therefore,tokeepthepeoplelivingout"ontheland"inthecamps.Nevertheless,duringthecontact-traditionalperiodtheTununermiutdidnotlivefullyastheirancestorshaddone.Instead,theytradedtheirfursforfoodstuffs,

cloth,canvas,tobacco,andothersundries.Theyobserved,insofarastheyunderstoodthem,federalandterritoriallaws,andinparticular,thegameordinances.Finally,althoughtheycontinuedtopractisebothshamanismandanimism,whichIdiscussinalaterchapter,theyhadbecomedevoutChristians.

WhenIfirstvisitedtheTununermiut,thecontact-traditionalperiodwasinitslaststage,andsoonthepeopleweretoenterwhatIhaveelsewheretermedthe"periodofcentralization."Therewouldbeamassmigrationfromthecampstothesettlement.Thepeoplewouldcomeundertheinfluenceofplannedchangedirectedbygovernmentpoliciesandcarriedoutbyfederalandterritorialcivilservants.Theconsequencesofthatchange,orwhatIcall"interventionacculturation"werenotpreciselywhattheplannersanticipated,buttheywereprofoundandirreversible.FewhumanpopulationshaveeverexperiencedsuchdramaticsocialandculturaldisruptioninonegenerationasdidtheTununermiutInuitinthe1960sand1970s.WhathappenedtothemwassimilartotransformationsexperiencedbyInuitacrosstheCanadianArctic,astheyallenteredtheperiodofcentralization.ButthesewerenotthefirsteffectstheTununermiutweretoencounterasaresultofcontactwithoutsiders.

Althoughmyprimaryconcernhereiswiththetransitionfromthecontact-traditionaltothecentralizationperiods,itisimportanttobrieflyexaminesomeoftheculturalhistoryoftheTununermiutthemselves,andtheacculturationprocessesthatinfluencedthemastheymovedfromatraditionalwayoflifetocontact-traditional.

Pre-ContactPeriod

TheInuitoftheCanadianArcticwerenomadicpeoplewhotravelledacrossthetundrainsearchoffood.Inmostregionstheydidnotbegintocentretheirmovementsonspecificareasuntiltheestablishmentoftradingposts,onwhichtheyquicklybecameeconomicallydependentfortradegoods.MostInuit,then,shiftedthenucleusoftheirhuntingactivitiestotheenvironsofthenearesttradingpost,andthepostwasusuallyestablishedatacoastallocationeasilyaccessibletosupplyships.TheTununermiut,however,hadlivedinandaroundwhatwastobecomethesettlementofPondInletlongbeforeanyEuropeansor

Euro-Canadiansbeganusingthesameareafortheirownexploitativepurposes.Ithadbeentheirtraditionalhuntingandresidentialarea,overwhichtheyhadroamedfreely,ashadpopulationsbeforethem.AccordingtothedeanofArcticanthropology,DiamondJenness,"AthousandyearshavepassedsincePondInletwelcomeditsfirstinhabitants,oratleastthefirstofwhomwehaveanyrecord"(Jenness,1936:14).

Inearlypre-contacttimes,whentheArcticlandsthatweretobecomeCanadaweretheexclusiveterritoryoftheInuit,small

bandshadlivedandroamedontheislandsnorthofBaffinIsland,atthenortheasttipofwhichPondInletislocated,butbythetimetheEuropeanshipsbeganworkingthesewaters,theTununermiutwereprobablythemostnortherlypeoplesoftheNorthAmericanArctic(Jenness,1936:20).ThereisevidencethatsomeoftheearliestInuitcoloniststothePondInletregionlivedatleastbrieflyonthesandyshoreofButtonPointonBylotIsland,twentyorsomilesacrossEclipseSoundfromthesiteofthepresentsettlement.JennessclaimedthattheinhabitantsofButtonPointwanderedinsearchofgameasfarnorthastheeasternshoresofSmithSound,andeventoLakeHazen,somefivehundredmilesfromtheNorthPole.Thereisnoconclusiveevidenceastotheeventualfateofthesepeople,butarchaeologicalreconstructionshowsthattheywerebeforelongreplacedbyanewpopulationofcolonistsfromthewest.Theoriginalinhabitantsmayhavemovedon,orbeenabsorbedorevenannihilatedbytheirsuccessors.

SomeparticipantsinthissecondwavecontinuedpastBaffinIslandandthesiteofwhatisnowPondInletthroughthenorthernislandstoGreenland.TheywerelaterjoinedbywavesofmigrantswhohadprobablysojournedonnorthernBaffin.ThosewhofirstarrivedinGreenlandtravelledsouthalongthewesternshoreofthatmassiveice-cappedisland,andintimetheyencounteredtheNorsesettlementsthathadbeenfoundedinsouthernGreenlandbyErictheRedandhisfollowersafterhisexilefromIceland(Jenness,1936:20).

AthirdperiodofInuitpossessionofthePondInletregionoccurredinthefourteenthcentury,andonceagain,somerepresentativesmadetheirwayonwardtoGreenland,settlingalongthenorthwesterncoast.Othersremainedbehind.Thesebecametheancestorsofthepresent-dayTununermiut;itwastheirdescendantswhometthefirstEuropeanexplorationpartiesandwhalingcrewstoarriveinthearea.TheconnectionsbetweenTununermiutandGreenlanderswastobeformed

again,butnotuntilthetwentiethcentury.

PondInletanditsenvirons,then,hadexperiencedalonghistoryofhumanhabitationbeforethefirstcontactwithoutsiders,ornon-Inuitpeoples.Thiscontactwouldintimeusherinthecontact-traditionalperiodandultimatelytheperiodofcentralization,whichrangthedeathknellforthatwayoflife.

TheWhalingPeriod

Missionaries,police,andtraderscreatedthefoundationforthecontact-traditionalperiodfortheTununermiut,butbythetimetheformerarrivedonnorthernBaffinIslandtheInuithadalreadyhadconsiderableexperiencewithnon-Inuitoutsiders.ThecontactcamenotviasouthernCanadians,althoughtheyhadsomecontactwiththeseduringthenineteenthcentury,butratherwithwhalersfromtheBritishIsles.ThewaterssurroundingPondInletwererichinwhalelife,andtheareabecameawinteringspotforwhalingcrews.IbelievethatthereisaculturalpatternofresponsetonewexperiencethatInuitemploy,andthatitwasusedintheircontactwiththewhalers.Thepatternisessentiallyoneof"watchandwait."ItseemstomethatInuitwillnotcommitthemselvesquicklyorinafacilemanner.Theylookatanewsituation,andthenwithdrawtoconsideritandallofitsimplications.Onthenextencounter,theywillhavegainedexperiencefromthefirst,andwillusethis.WhatIamsuggestingisthatthewayinwhichtheTununermiutrespondedtomissionaries,police,traders,and,later,governmentofficialsandcivilservantsmayhavebeenlargelydeterminedbytheirearlierexposuretowhalers,andsothoseearlierexperiencesareworthyofatleastbriefattention.

Bythetimethewhalingindustryreacheditspeak,theTununermiuthadbecomecitizensofCanada.ThisoccurredthroughaseriesofparliamentaryelectionsthathadanadministrativeeffectontheInuitoftheCanadianArctic,butlittlerealimpact.OnJune22,1869,theCanadianParliamentpassedanactprovidingfortemporarygovernmentofwhathadbeenknownasRupert'sLandandtheNorth-westernTerritorybythegovernmentofthenewnation.Asaconsequence,allInuitbecame,atleastnominally,citizensofCanada.However,notuntilthefollowingyear,onJune23,1870,didtheParliamentofGreatBritainpasstheRupert'slandAct,placing

Rupert'sLandandtheNorth-westernTerritoryunderthepermanentjurisdictionofCanada,andsofullyadmittingthemintothethree-yearoldunion(Flanagan,1963:3).

Untilthattimetheregion,whichwouldnowbeknownastheNorthwestTerritories,hadbeenapossessionoftheHudson'sBayCompany.In1880,theremainingBritishlandsintheArcticarchipelagowereaddedtothem(Lesage,1955:5).Infact,however,thetransferwasinessencenothingmorethanaformalityfortheInuitpeopleswholivedwithintheterritories,andwouldremainsuchfortheremainderofthenineteenthcentury.Twofederalgovernmentexpeditionsweresentnorthin18851886and1897tostudy

Huntersbreakingcamp.

navigationconditionsinHudsonStrait,buttheyseemtohavehadlittleifanyinfluenceontheInuitwhoencounteredthem.CertainlytheadministrativeandjurisdictionalchangesofthenineteenthcenturyhadnosignificantimpactontheTununermiut,whowerebusycreatingeconomicandotherrelationshipswithwhalersfromScotland.

DuringthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcenturythewhalingindustrybecameamajoreconomicenterpriseinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,althoughperhapslesssoinCanada.Differentpartsofthemassiveseamammal'scarcasswereusedtomeetavarietyofconsumerdemands,suchastheboneforthemanufactureofstaysforwomen'scorsetsandgowns.ThevalueofwhalesissuggestedinastatementbyCaptainA.P.LowoftheD.G.S.Neptune,whichanchorednearwhatwastobecomethesettlementofPondInletin1903:

Severalspeciesofwhalearefoundinthewatersofthenorthernice-ladenseas,butthereisonlyoneprize,knownamongstothernamesastheGreenlandwhale,RightwhaleandBowheadwhale,andscientificallycalledBalaenaMysticetus.Fromitsmouthisobtainedthepreciouswhale-bone.Anaveragewhalecarriesnearlyatonofthismaterial,whichat

presentisworth

about$15,000aton,withthepricerisingfromyeartoyear.Theprincipalusersofthewhale-bonearetostiffenthebodicesofthebetter-madegowns,andtoweaveintoexpensivesilkfabrics.Thewealthoftheworldisincreasingandthesupplyofwhalesisdecreasing;noidea,therefore,canbeformedofthevalueofwhale-boneinthefuture,asnogoodsubstitutehasbeendiscovered.Anadultfemalewillfurnishblubbersufficientfornearlythirtytonsofoil,whileamalewillsupplyabouttwentytons.Thevalueofoilisalsoontheincrease,andmaybetakenatabout$100perton.Thus,thetotalvalueofalargewhalevariesfrom$15,000to$20,000.(Low,1906:249)

ItissmallwonderthatmencouldbefoundintheScottishandAmericanportswhowerewillingtospendmonthsorevenayearatatimelivingonsmallshipsintheArcticwatersinpursuitofwhales,andotherswerepreparedtofinancesuchtrips.Forthefirsttime,anon-renewableArcticresourcewasbeingexploited,asCaptainLowanticipated,almosttothepointofextinction.

ThewhalershadaconsiderableamountofinfluenceontheInuitwhomtheyencounteredontheirexpeditions.Thisinfluencewasprimarilyeconomicinnaturebutextendedbeyondtheeconomicsphere.SouthoftheTununermiut,inHudsonStrait,therewasintensivecontactbetweenbothScottishandAmericanwhalersandlocalInuit,withtheInuitoftenbeingemployedbythecrews.ItwasnotuncommonforseveralInuitfamiliestobetakenonboardanAmericanshipinearlysummer,forexample,andtoremainaboarduntiltheshipleftforhomeinOctober.TheInuitemployeeshuntedbothwhaleandwalrus,skinnedcarcasses,andpreparedwalrushides.Theywerepaidintradegoodssuchasironimplements,tobacco,andcloth,onwhichitemstheysoonbecamedependent.FarthernorththewaterswereexploitedmoreactivelybytheScottishthantheAmericancrews,however,andsinceScottishcaptainstendedtorelyalmostexclusivelyontheirowncrewstoperformvirtuallyallduties,nativeeconomicdependencyonoutsiderswasnotasintense.Itwas

ScottishshipsthatworkedthewaternearPondInletandtheTununermiut.

Nevertheless,theinteractionbetweentheBaffinBaywhalersandtheInuittheyencountered,includingtheTununermiut,wasquiteintensiveandundoubtablyhadalastingimpactonthelatter.Thecaptainsofmanyshipsmadewhat,inretrospect,wereremarkablyaccurateandobjectivedescriptionsofInuitcultureandsocialarrangements,recordingtheirobservationsinpersonaldiariesandshiplogs.TheCanadianInuithavealongstandingreputationas

beingkeenobservers,andalthoughtheyhadnomeanstorecordtheirobservationsonpaper,itismostlikelythattheymadecorrespondinglypenetratingobservationsofthewhalers.Personally,IawaitthedaywhentheInuitbegintodotheirownethnography,fortheyseemtohaveaculturalflairforit.Notonlyaretheytypicallygoodatobservation,buttheyalsotendtobereflectiveandanalyticabouttheirobservations.Thesetalentsmaybeproductsoflongexperienceashunters,andacoupleofcenturiesofcontactwithpuzzlingandoftenfrustratingoutsiders.IalsobelievethattheseobservationalskillsareanimportantpartoftheexplanationofInuitrepresentationalart,inbothcarvingsandsilk-screenproductions.Inotherwords,IamsuggestingthatthesetalentsmightbelostwithinanewgenerationthathasnotbeensocializedtoahuntingwayofFife,andthattakesthepresenceofoutsidersforgranted.Inanyevent,Ibelievethatearlycontactwithwhalers,andInuitperceptionsofthemandtheirbehaviour,wasimportantintheformationoflaterresponsestooutsiders.

TheearliestrecordedcontactbetweennorthernBaffinIslandInuitandoutsidersoccurredin1823,whenAdmiralWilliamE.ParrycastanchornearwhatisnowthesettlementofIgloolik,severalhundredmilessouthofPondInlet(ParrylatervisitedthePondInletarea).Atthetimeofthispre-whalerencounter,giftsofironandneedleswerepresentedtotheIglulingmiut,alongwithotheritems.OneagedwomanfromPondInlet,whohadbeenvisitinginthearea,laterrecalledtheeventwithtypicalInuithumourandpragmatism."Whenthewhiteman'sboatarrivedatIglulik,theEskimosreceivedbiscuitsandtobacco;howtheywouldmakethebiscuitsskiponthewaterandmakethemrollontheground.Asforthetobacco,theydidnotlikeitsodor...sotheysimplythrewitaway"(Mary-Rouselliere,1957:14).Ifthebiscuitswerepilotbiscuits,whichtheyprobablywere,theInuitfoundabetteruseforthemthantryingtoeattheincrediblyleaden

concoctions.Itisunfortunatethattheinitialaversiontotobaccodidnotbecomeapartoftheirculturalinventory,forinlateryearsInuitacrossArcticCanadaweretosufferfromvirtualepidemicsoftuberculosisand,intime,lungcancer,surelylinkedtoheavysmoking.

Itwasnotuntiltheearly1860sthatthewhalingcrewsbegantoworktheverynorthernwatersandthatcontactwasoflongerduration,butmypointisthatbythetimeidlewhalersarrived,theTununermiuthadalreadyhadsomeexperiencewiththeoutsideworldanditsalienways.Theyhadhadtimetoreflectonitandthepeoplewhobroughtknowledgeofit,andonwaysinwhichtheywouldrelatetoanynewcomerswhomightfollowParryand

otherearlyexplorers.Weshallneverknow,ofcourse,howtheseearlierencountersinfluencedlaterones,andsowecanonlyspeculate,buttheywereimportant.

WhatwedoknowisthatwhenthewhalingindustrymovedintothenorthernwaterssurroundingBaffinIsland,itdidsowithafigurativevengeance,andcastanindeliblemarkonthepeopleoftheregion.EveniftheScottishwhalingcaptainstendedtousetheirowncrewsmorethandidtheirAmericancounterparts,theydidhirelocalInuitfordifferenttasks,tradedwiththem,andgavecrewsshoreleavetomixwiththem.

Thewhalingindustrypeakedatabouttheturnofthecentury.In1903,atitszenith,CaptainJamesA.MutchofthewhalerAlbert,fromDundee,Scotland,couldrecordinhislogthathehadencounteredfourothershipsbetweenPondInletandClydeRiver,afairlyshortstretchalongthenorth-easterncoastofBaffinIsland,andhadreceivedwordofanotherthathadbeenlostnearMelvilleBay(Mutch,1906:487).Bythattime,itwillberecalled,theInuithadbeentitularcitizensofCanadaforseveraldecades,butwerefarmoreinfluencedbyScottishwhalersthanbythenewCanada.CanadianlawwasnotenforcedinthehighArctic,andInuitcontinuedtoliveoutsideofitandaccordingtoacustomaryInuitcode.AnexampleoftheeffectofthechangeinlegalstatusisrevealedinpartinanotherofCaptainMarch'slogentries.

WhenclosetoQivitungatCapeHooper,afewEskimoscameoff...besidesthese,withtheirwivesandfamilies,afewwereclosetoPadli.IaskedthoseintheboattocomewithmetoPondsBay;buttheywereafraidofthePondsBayEskimos,asthereweresomanymurdersupthere.(Mutch,1906:485)

JimmyMuckpahoncetoldmethestoryofthosesamemurders.Wewerepassinganoutcropnearourcamponedaywhenhepointedtoit

andsaidthata"verybadman"hadlivedtheremanyyearsbefore,andhadbeguntokillallofthepeoplewholivedwithhim.AccordingtoJimmy,thesurvivorspickeduptheirbelongingsandmovedtoIgloolikforaperiodoftime.Wedonothaveaccuratestatistics,butwhatevidencewehavefromearlyArcticethnographicaccounts,aswellasthoseofevenearlierobserversasMutch,suggeststhathomicidewasfairlycommonamongtheInuit.Itwasoftenprovokedbycompetitionoverwomen,butinthecaseJimmyrecountedtomethemurdererwassurelyinsane.Inanyevent,by1903CanadianlawhadnotreacheduptothehighArctic.

Duringthewhalingperiod,however,theTununermiutwerebeinginfluencedbyotherinstitutionsofthealiensocietiesthathadsentintrudersintotheirterritories,eveniftheirnewlegalandpoliticalstatusmeantlittletothem.Thereisevidence,forexample,thattheywerequicktocometogripswiththecapitalisticethicpractisedbythewhalerswithwhomtheyhadcontact.Muchtotheconsternationofthewhalers,asthefollowingquotationillustrates,theInuitbecameshrewdbargainerswhowereunwillingtobeeconomicallyexploited.Perhapstherewasanaboriginaleconomicbasefortheirdealingswithoutsiders,butthatisdifficulttodetermine.

TherealPondsBayEskimohadbeencomingandgoingallwinter,tradingafox-skinwhentheyhadone,butalwayswantingnearlythehomevalueforitorforanythingtheymightbring.Theyhadanideathatseal-skinswereworthmorethantentimeswhattheyweresoldforontheLondonMarket;andthiswithoutanyexpense,andtheskinsalmostalldestroyedintheflensing.Whentheyleftthefat,therewaslittletopayortradefor;this,however,theycouldnotdo,astheyrequireditallforusethroughthewinter.Whenabear-skinwasbrought,thoughitwassmall,atelescopeoragunwasaskedforit.Theyaremuchlikethosewhosaid,'Ifoneneverasks,onenevergets.'Theyallchargedwellfortheirgoods,andhadbeenaccustomedtogettingfullvalueforseal-skinsorforanyotherskinstheyevertookonboardthewhalerswhentheywerethere(Mutch,1906:488).

ManyobserversofrecentCanadianArctichistoryhavesuggestedthattheInuithavebeeneconomicallyexploitedbyoutsiders,fromwhalersthroughtofreetradersandtheHudsonBayCompany.CaptainMutch'sstatementstronglyimpliesthatifexploitationdidoccur,itdidnothappentonaiveaboriginalpeopleswhodidnotunderstandthenatureofaneconomictransaction.

TheintroductionofriflesthatismentionedbyMutchwastohavelong-termeconomicandecologicalconsequencesfortheTununermiutandtheirenvironment.Foronething,itmadethemincreasingly

dependentonoutsidersforsuppliesofammunition,whichobviouslyhadtobereplenishedregularly.Also,theuseofriflesmadepossiblelargerandmorepredictable,orregularized,kills,whichinturnensuredmoreplentifulmeat.Thismeantthatforthefirsttime,perhaps,thepeoplehadasurplusoffood,asmenkilledmoreanimalsthanwereneededforthesurvivaloftheirfamilies.Excessmeatwasusedtofeedthedogs.Traditionally,only

smalldogteamsofone,two,orthreeanimalshadbeenkept,butitwasnowpossibletomaintainlargerteams.Thishadtwoeffects,thefirstofwhichwastoallowhunterstoextendtheirindividualhuntingterritories.Largerteamsmeantthatgreaterdistancescouldbecoveredonthehunt.Theothereffectwasthatdogsbegantobeconsideredastatussymbol;thelargerhisteam,thehigherthestatusofahunter.This,Ibelieve,createdatypeofviciouscycleinwhichmoremeatwasneededtofeedthedogs,andsothedependencyonammunitionwasreinforced.Ofcourseagreaternumberofkillingshadaneffectonthesealandcariboupopulations.

AsImentionedearlier,theincreasingpatternsofmutualrelationshipsbetweenTununermiutandwhalerswerenotlimitedtotheeconomicrealmalone,butextendedintootherareasoflife.CrewswereregularlygivenshoreleavewhenshipswereinthevicinityofInuitbands,whethertheshipswereScottishorAmerican.AsIhypothesizedbefore,theInuitmusthavemadetheirtypicallykeenobservationsofthemen,anditislikelythatmanyInuitwomenexchangedsexualfavoursforitemsofhardware,tobacco,foodstuffs,withInuitmalesoftenactingas''brokers."Itislikelythatnotallsuchencounterswereconsensual,though;whileitcannotbedocumented,itwasprobablyatthetimesoftheseshoreleavesthatInuitwomenfirstexperiencedsexualassault(beingphysicallyandforciblytakenbyEuropeanorCanadianmaleswithouttheconsentofeitherthemselvesortheirspouses).

Topassfromthesavagetothesublime,Inuitwereofteninvitedonboardshipstoattendreligiousservices,andwhilethismusthavebeentheirfirstintroductiontoChristianity,itisunlikelythattheyhadmuchunderstandingofitsformorcontent.ThecaptainsoftheshipsthatwinteredinArcticwaterswouldinvitelocalInuittoparticipatewiththeircrewsinfestivecelebrationssuchasChristmas.

TheTununermiut,althoughincontactwiththeScots,whowerelessinclinedthantheirAmericancounterpartstoemployInuitworkers,neverthelessdidprovideservicesforthewhalersandhadclosecontactwiththem.BytheendofthenineteenthcenturytherehadbeencontactnotonlywithwhalersworkingthewatersaroundPondInletorwinteringthereinitsrelativelyprotectedenvironment,butalsowithwhalingstationsasfarawayasRepulseBay.OccasionallytheTununermiutwouldcarrymailbetweengeographicallywidelyseparatedwhalingstations(Low,1906:58).Thegrowingexposuretoalienculturalpracticesandinstitutionsinevitablytookonintellectualandsocialqualitiesaswellasthestrictlyeconomic.

TraditionalhealingamongtheTununermiut,aswithotherInuit,wascarriedoutbyshamans.Thewhalersprovidedthefirstnon-traditionalmedicalservicesforthepeopleofthePondInletarea,althoughonanintermittentbasis.Therearenumerousmentionsinships'logsofsickorinjuredInuitbeingtakenonboardformedicalattention,andofshipdoctorsgoingashoretoadministertreatment.Insomeemergencysituations,thedoctorstravelledlongdistancestoprovideassistance.CaptainLow,whenhevisitedPondInletin1903,describedlargewhale-boatsgoingfromshoretoshipfriedwithInuitsufferingfromwhathediagnosedasaformoftyphoid-pneumonia.

Thewhalingindustry,then,andthemenwhoworkedtheshipsthatservicedit,hadapermanentimpactonthelivesoftheTununermiutofPondInlet,andtheeasternArcticInuitingeneral.ItwasthewhalerswhogavetheseInuittheirfirstsystematiclookataworld-viewandculturalpracticesthatwouldimpingeontheirownlivesfromthattimeon.Theirlaterrelationswithrepresentativesofthatalienworldwereprobablydeterminedinnosmallwaybytheimpressionsgainedandtherelationshipsformedduringthewhalingperiod.IbelievethatArctichistoriansandanthropologistshavenotpaidenoughattentiontothatperiodintheireffortstounderstandtheInuit'slaterstrategiesforcopingwithchange.Onereasonforthis,ofcourse,hasbeenapaucityofinformation,andperhapsamistrustoftheinformationthatisavailable.Thewhalerswereexploitersofaresource,andnotobserversofresponsestotheirownpresenceamongtheInuit.TheirrecordeddescriptionsofInuitwererelativelystatic,bywhichImeanthattheydescribedthemasiftheyweremuseumpiecescaughtbyastillcamera.Althoughtherewassomeattemptatobjectivity,theintellectualclimateofEuropeandCanadaatthetimewassuchthattherewaslittleunderstandingofthenatureofculturesandculturalvariation,andracistthinkingwasprevalent.Bothwerereflectedintheimpressionisticrecordsofthecaptainsofshipsandthefewcasually

keptdiariesthatsurvive.Nevertheless,itisaworthwhileexercisetoworkthroughthedocuments,manyofwhichareavailableintheNationalArchivesinOttawa.ThisperiodofInuitcontactwiththeoutsideworldistooimportanttobeforgotten.

WhateverinfluencethewhalershadontheeasternInuit,theirpresencewasalwaysperipatetic.WhiletheyoftenwinteredinareassuchasthataroundPondInlet,populatedwithnomadicInuit,theydidnotestablishanypermanentsettlements.TheInuitwatchedthemcomeandgoovertheseasons.

BecomingCanadiansThesocialandculturalchangesthatoccurredamongtheTununermiutinthesecondhalfofthiscenturywereproductsoftheCanadianfederalgovernment.AlthoughtheclaimingoftheArcticislandsforCanadahadlittleinitialimpactontheInuit,bythetimetheperiodwithwhichwearemostconcernedarrived,therehadbeenconsiderablegovernmentalinvolvementwiththem.Thewhalingindustrypeakedattheturnofthecenturyandthenbeganarapidwaning.Fromaboutthattime,outsideinfluencesontheTununermiutandotherInuitofthehighArcticweretocomefromCanadaratherthanScotlandortheUnitedStates.Thisinfluence,initiallysporadic,wouldsoonbecomecontinualandyear-round.

ThebeginningoftheTununermiut'syear-roundcontactwithsouthernCanadianscameaboutthroughasetofalmostaccidentalcircumstances.Thecooper(barrelmaker)ofaScottishwhalingshipreportedonhisreturnhomein1892thatplacergoldwasabundantinthePondInletarea,andthatitwasregularlyusedbytheInuitasatradeitem(Anonymous,unpublishedarticle).Onlearningoftherumour,notwishingtolosethisresourcetoforeigninterests,theCanadiangovernmentcommissionedCaptainJosephBerniertotravelnorthtoinvestigateit.CaptainBernierandhisship,theMinnieMaud,weretobecomelegendsineasternArctichistory.Bernierfoundnobasisfortherumour,but,beingsomethingofanentrepreneur,whilehewasanchoredatthesitethatwastobecomePondInletheestablishedapermanenttradingpost,thefirstinthearea.Inspiteofhisreportdenyingtherumour,likemostrumoursthisonewasslowtodie,andthelureofgoldcontinuedtocaptivatepeopleinthesouth.Soonafter,Bernier'stradingpostwaspurchasedbytheArcticGoldExplorationCompany,whichhaddualinterestsinfurtradingandgold

exploration.Fromtheestablishmentofthepostonward,theTununermiutweretohavecontinuousyear-roundexposuretoCanadianinfluences.Theoutsidershadcometostayonceandforall.

In1906,inasenseasaharbingertomorecontemporarycon-

cerns,theGovernmentofCanadabecameconcernedwiththeactivitiesofforeignshipsinCanadianArcticwaters.Thegovernmentobjected,nottothepresenceoftheseships,buttothefactthattheywerenotpayingcustomsduties.Inanyevent,asaresultthefederalgovernmentdecidedtoplayamoreactiveroleintheadministrationofitsnorthernterritories.Onthebasisofanorder-in-councilof1906,CaptainBernierwasonceagaincommissionedtoleadanexpeditionintotheArcticregions,thistimewithabroadermandate.HisordersweretotourtheeasternArcticzonesclaimedbyCanadawiththepurposeof"assertingCanadiansovereigntyinthearcticregionswhichareterritoryofthisDominionbyrightofcessionmadetoCanadabytheImperialGovernment"(Bernier,1909:intro.n.p).Thiswastrulyahistoricvoyage,whichlaidthebasisforallcontemporaryclaimstoCanadiansovereigntyinitseasternArcticlandsandwaters,andtotheresourcesfoundwithinthem.

Bernier'svoyagewasnotthebeginningofCanadianpoliticalinvolvementinitsArcticregions,however,butrathertheculminationofseveralpreviousdevelopmentsinareasotherthantheeastern.EarlierthegovernmenthaddecidedtoestablishpermanentstationsinmoresouthernpartsofitsArcticterritoriesfor,inparticular,thecollectionofcustomsfromAmericanwhalersand,moregenerally,toadministerandenforceCanadianlawamongthenativepeoples.InthehighArctic,though,whalershadcontinuedtohuntwithoutpayingcustomduties.Fartherwest,severalNorthWestMountedPoliceoutpostshadbeenestablishedinthemoreheavilypopulatedregionsofthatterritory,buttheyhadhadlittleeffectontheactivitiesofthewhalersworkinghigheasternwaters,oronthelocalInuit.In1903,threeyearsbeforeBernier'sexpedition,SuperintendentJ.D.Moodie,whohadbeenappointedactingcommissionerofthestilllargelyunorganizedNorthwestTerritories,sailednorthwithCaptainLowontheC.G.S.Neptunetotrytosetthesemattersstraight.

SuperintendentMoodie'sordershadbeentoimpressuponbothInuitandnon-InuitresidentsandinterlopersthattheynowresidedonCanadiansoil,andwerethereforesubjecttoCanadianlaws.HewasnottointroduceCanadianlawenforcementharshly,butpersuadethepeoplewithwhomhecameintocontactoftheirreciprocalobligationstoCanadaandCanadiansociety,ofwhichtheywere,inatleastaformalsense,nowapart(VanNorman,1951:111).

ItisextremelyunlikelythatthevoyageoftheNeptunehadmuchimpactontheconsciousnessorbehaviouroftheInuitencountered

ontheexpedition.Ihavebeenunabletodiscoverwhatmethodswereusedtocommunicatetheirnewstatustothepeople.Interpretersmusthavebeenusedtoovercomethelinguisticbarrier;buttheInuit,uponhearingthattheywerenowpartofanalienandtothemprobablyincomprehensiblepoliticalstructure,would,Iwouldguess,havelistenedpolitelyandthenfieldtheepisodeasonemoreexampleofthestrangewaysoftheincreasinglyprevalentintrudersintheirlands.TheInuithadtheirowntechniquesfordealingwithsocialdisorder,theirowndefinitionsofwhatconstitutedsociallyunacceptablebehaviour,and,howeverflexibleandindeedunstructureditmayhaveappearedtobetooutsiders,theirownformofpoliticalorganization.MyinformantsofsixtyyearslaterstillhaddifficultycomprehendingtheideaofCanadaasavastnationwithitspoliticalheadquartersinOttawa.HowmuchmoredifficultitmusthavebeenfortheirfathersandgrandfatherswhoencounteredSuperintendentMoodieandhispoliticalandlegalmessages.Theywentrightonbehavingastheyhaddoneforcenturies,unmindfulofwhetherornottheywereinviolationofCanadianlaws,whateverthosemayhavebeen,anddecreasingly,whalersfromScotlandcontinuedtohuntintheeasternArcticwaters.

(Onthistopicofinsularity,Iamremindedofthereactionofmyinformantsin1964totheassassinationofJohnF.Kennedy.BychanceIheardaradiobroadcastfromDallasdescribingthetragedy.Itriedtoexplaintothepeoplearoundmewhathadhappened,buttheyhadconsiderabledifficultyunderstandingthepositionandpowerofapresident.SomewantedtoknowifWashington,DC,wasasettlementlikePondInlet.Inanothercase,inresponsestoanitemonaquestionnaireadministeredtoalladultsinthearealaterthatyearanddesignedtorevealperceptionsofCanadianlawandgovernment,themajoritywereunabletolistthreeCanadianlawsotherthangameordinances.)

Itwastheserealitiesthatprobablyledtothe1906order-in-council

directingCaptainBerniertoattempttobringthenorthernregionsofCanadaunderdirectgovernmentsupervisionandtoreinforceCanadiansovereignty.Onhisexpeditionofreclamation,BernierhadextensivecontactwiththeTununermiut.HehadnosoonerlaidanchoroutsideAlbertHarbour,eighteenmilesnortheastofthepresentsettlementofPondInlet,thanhesentoutnoticestoallwhalersoperatingintheareainformingthemofanewlawrequiringthemtoobtainwhalinglicensestoworkinCanadianwaters.OnAugust21,1906,heclaimedBylotIsland,locatedapproximatelytwentymilesfromPondInlet,forCanadaanderected

acairnwiththeCanadianflagrootedinitstop.

BernierhadplannedtowinterinArcticBay,somedistancetothewestofPondInlet,butfindingnopeopleinthearea,returnedtoAlbertHarbour,claimingseveralotherislandsforCanadawhileintransit.Duringthewinterthatfollowedtherewasconsiderableinteractionbetweentheship'screwandtheTununermiut,who,foronething,heardalienmusicforperhapsthefirsttimewhentheship'sgramophonewasplayedforthem.AccordingtoBernier,theywere"amazedandamusedatthismusic."(Bernier,1909:34)Manyregularlyattendedreligiousservicesaboardship,andonChristmasDayabout120acceptedaninvitationtoaChristmasmealofCanadiancuisine.Earlier,onNovember9,whentheCanadianflaghadbeenhoistedatPondInletandformalpossessiontakenofBaffinIsland,CaptainBernierhaddeliveredaspeechinwhichhetoldtheassembledInuitthattheywereCanadiancitizensandwereexpectedtoliveinpeacewithoneanotherandtoobeyCanadianlaws.FollowingtheChristmasdinnerheaddressedthemagain,"tellingthemthattheywereCanadiansandwouldbetreatedassuchaslongastheywoulddowhatwasright"(Bernier,1909:39).

HeseemstohavebeenreasonablyconfidentthatthepresenceofhiscrewwashavingasalutaryeffectontheTununermiut.AfteranothershipboardcelebrationheldonNewYear'sDayherecordedthefollowingcomments:

TheusualSundayservicewasheld...quiteanumberofEskimoswerepresent.Duringthedaywereceivedthevisitsofmanynatives,whocametowishusthecomplimentsoftheseason;weentertainedthemsuitablyfortheoccasion.Theyseemtobemoreassuredthantheywerewhenwefirstcameintotheharbour,andtheydonotavoidussomuchastheydidthen.Ourwayoflivinghasevidentlyservedasagoodexampletothem,astheyarenotsowildandhavebetterconductallaround.(Bernier,1909)

Bernierseemedtobelieve,then,thathehadestablishedagoodrelationshipwiththelocalInuit.Hekeptdetailednotesinhisjournaloftheireconomicinvolvementwithtradersandotheroutsiders,andthepatternsofreciprocityestablishedbetweenthetwopopulations.Henotes,forexample,thattheInuittradedfurs,freshmeat,andnarwhaltuskswithbothwhalersandtradersfortea,molasses,biscuits,sugar,tobacco,matches,knives,cookingutensils,ammunition,andclothing.Thesewerenotbeadsor"wampum,"buttradeitemsthattheInuitusedintheirdailylivesinpractical

Qamaniqstruggleswithhisdogs,Aullativik,1963.

and,intheinstancesofsugarandtobacco,unfortunateways.OneobviousconsequenceoftheseexchangeswasthemodificationofthetraditionalInuitdietarypatterns.Forthefirsttime,carbohydrateintheformofrawsugarwaspartoftheregularInuitdiet.Thischangewastohavelong-rangeeffectsonthemorbidityofthepeople.Icanrecallawakeningeachmorning,whenIlivedwithafamilyonthelandin1964,towatchmyInuithostsindulgeincupsoftea,eachsweetenedbyseveralspoonsfulofsugarifitwasavailable,andfreshlyrolledcigarettes,beforeclimbingoutoftheirsleepingrobes.ThepatternIwitnessedhaditsrootsinthewhalingperiodahalfcenturyandmoreearlier.(TheteawasnotwhatonewouldbeservedintheEmpressHotelinVictoria.AsitcontinuedtobeanexpensivefooditemuntiltheTununermiutmovedintothesettlement,tealeaveswereusedoverandoveragain.Eachmorning,andatteabreaksduringtheday,ahandfuloffreshleaveswouldbetossedintoabeat-upkettletorevivethethicklayerofwhiteleavesthatcoateditsbottom.Theproductwasblack,pungent,and,whatwasmostimportantonteabreakswhileonthetrail,hot.)Tobacco,whetherinplugformintheearlydaysor,laterascigarettes,mustcertainlyhavecontributedtothehighincidenceof

tuberculosisamongCanadianInuitinthiscentury.

CaptainBernier'sadmonitionsabouttheobservanceofCana-

dianlawmayhavehadsometemporaryeffectonthebehaviouroftheTununermiut,fortheonlyseriouscrimebroughttohisattentionduringtheyearspentatAlbertHarbourwasashootingincident.AlocalInuitcalledSniderwasshotbyafellowhunterwhilebothwereoutonahuntingtrip.Sniderdiedshortlyaftertheincident,andBernierconsideredholdinganinquest,which,hadittakenplace,wouldhavebeenthefirstcourtproceedinginthehigheasternArctic.However,hedecidedagainst,apparentlybecausetheaccusedwasseriouslyillforseveralmonthsaftertheincident,andSnider,althoughaskedbeforehisdeathifhewishedtodoso,declinedtoplaceachargeagainsttheman.Thisis,incidentally,oneofseveralinstancesinwhichCaptainBernierdemonstratedcompassionfortheInuit,andsomeappreciationoftheirtraditionaltechniquesfordealingwithdisputesbetweenindividuals.

ThehistoricvoyageoftheC.G.S.ArcticinsomerespectsportendedtheendofthewhalingperiodintheeasternArctic.TheactivitiesofforeignandCanadianwhalersalikehadnowcomeundergovernmentregulation,andthismayhaveinhibitedtheiractivities,butmoreimportantly,theindustryhadcrested.TheIndustrialRevolutionhadprovidedcheapsubstitutesforwhalebyproductssuchasoil,andwomen'sclothingstyleshadchanged,withwhale-bonecorsetsnolongerconsiderednecessaryundergarments.IntheearlyyearsofthiscenturythelastwhalingshipswinterednearPondInlet,andsooneventhesedisappeared.Itisanopenquestionhowlongthewhalepopulationscouldhavesustainedtheintensehuntingthathadtakenplaceduringthezenithoftheindustry.

Duringthefirsttwodecadesofthiscentury,therefore,theTununermiutwereformallycitizensofCanadaandhadalreadyexperiencedseveraldecadesofeconomic,social,andintellectualinvolvementwiththeoutsideworld.Theywereeconomicallydependentupontradegoodsthathadbecomestandardfareintheir

dietandacentralpartoftheirhuntingtechnology.TheseneedsweremetbythetradingpostoriginallyestablishedbyJosephBernierandbyoccasionalfreetraderswhowouldspendayearorsotryingtoamasstheirpersonalfortunesbytradingforfursandskins.Ontheotherhand,withtheabsenceofthewhalerstheTununermiutwereonceagainfreetofollowtheirownpursuitsandtoliveafairlytraditionalwayoflife,whichtheyproceededtodo.Buttheinfluenceofthewhalingperiodwasindelible,and,asIhaveargued,theconsequencesofmoreintensifiedandprolongedcontactswiththeoutsideworldwerebaseduponthatinfluence.

ATradingPostBecomesaSettlementAsidefromtheBernierexpeditionof1906,thefirsttwodecadesofthiscenturywitnessedlittledirectgovernmentactionorinvolvementinthecentralandeasternArctic.Bernierhimselfmadeseveralotherexpeditionstovariousareas,claimingnewlandsforCanadaandreassertingCanadiansovereignty,butingeneralthiswasadormantperiodinthehistoryofhighArcticcolonialism.TheNorthwestTerritoriescontinuedtobeadministeredbytheRoyalNorth-WestMountedPolice,withthecomptrolleroftheforceactingasterritorialcommissioner.Newpolicedepartmentswereestablishedinseveralsettlements,buttheywerespreadoutfromoneanother.Itwasnotuntiladramaticsetofeventsoccurredinthe1920sthatadetachmentwasplacedinPondInlet.

TheComingoftheBay

Possiblybecauseofrumoursofoildeposits,andingeneralanincreasedsouthernCanadianinterestinnorthernresourcessuchasoil,in1920thedeputyministeroftheDepartmentoftheInteriorwasappointedcommissioneroftheNorthwestTerritories(Flanagan,1963:37).Fromthenontheconceptof"northerndevelopment"begantobecomeareality,andfederalinterestintheArcticgraduallyextendedbeyondmerepolicingofit.1920wasalsotheyearinwhichtheArcticGoldExplorationCompanyinPondInletwassoldtotheHudsonBayCompany.

"TheBay,"asthecompanycametobeknownthroughouttheArctic,hadtakenoverpostsoperatedbyfreetradersinseveralembryonicsettlements.ItbeganitsoperationinPondInletin1921,whenthecompanyshipBaychimobroughtmaterialstostockandamantostaffthenewpost.WiththisdevelopmentPondInletenteredanewphase

initshistory;therewasnowpresentinthetinysettlementthefirstofthefouragenciesthatweretoshapeitsfutureforseveraldecadestocome.Theotherspolice,missionaries,andfederalcivilservantswouldarrivelater.Asmentionedearlier,thetraderswhomanagedtheHBCpostwerenotinterested

inchangingthelifestylesofthelocalInuit,buttheirpresencenonethelesshadunintendedconsequences.Theywantedfoxfursandsealskins,andtoobtainthemprovidedthetradegoodsonwhichtheTununermiuthadbecomedependent,butitwasintheirowninteresttokeepthepeople"ontheland,"maintainingafairlytraditionallifestylewithhuntingasitseconomicbase.

OnemajoreffectofatradingpostinPondInletwastoaltertheresidentialandnomadicpatternsoftheInuit,andthiseffectwasacceleratedbytheHBC.TheTununermiutbegantosettleinsemi-sedentarycampsinordertobenearthepost,andincreasinglytohuntinaradiusaroundit.Also,forthefirsttime,afewindividualsfoundregularwageemployment.Itwascompanypracticetohireatleastonefamilytoworkatthetradingpost.Menwouldhuntformeatforthetrader'sdogteam,packskins,andclerkinthepostitself.Womenwouldworkashousekeepersforthetradersand,insomeinstances,providesexualservices.(Oneofmykeyinformantsin1964wastheoffspringofaliaisonbetweenhismotherandatrader,andhisownwifehadborneachildwhile,beforehermarriage,workingasahousekeeperattheHBCpost.)Ihavetheimpression,althoughIcannotverifyit,thatintheearlydaysofthetradingpostmenwerehirednotsomuchfortheirskillorindustryasfortheattractivenessoftheirwives.Inanyevent,theexperienceoffull-timeemploymentbythetraderswasanewonefortheInuit.

AKillingBringsthePoliceandaDetachment

ThroughoutandfollowingWorldWarI,althoughtheCanadianArcticregionswereundertheformaladministrationoftheDepartmentoftheInterior,theimplementationofthatadministrationwaslargelycarriedoutinthefieldbytheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice(Lesage,1955:3).Thenumberofpolicedetachmentsincreased,andanannualpatrolbyshipwasinitiated.InthehigheasternArcticinparticular,the

residentRCMPofficeractedasthelinkbetweentheInuitandtheDepartmentoftheInteriorofficesinOttawa.Theroleofthepoliceasadministratorsinthisregionwastobesignificant,andtocontinueforseveraldecades.In1923,twoyearsaftertheHBCtookoverthetradingpost,thefirstpolicedetachmentwasestablishedinPondInlet.

Thatdetachmentmighthavebeenestablishedevenlater,wereitnotforasequenceofquitedramaticeventsinthepost-contacthistoryoftheTununermiut.Becauseofthefascinatingnatureoftheseevents(andalsobecauseofmyownoriginalresearchinterests

RCMPdetatchment.PondInlet,1963.

inthelegalacculturationoftheTununermiut),Iwilltrytoreconstructtheminsomedetail.Thesearetheeventsthatsurroundedthewell-knownbutpoorlydocumented''Janescase."

VisitorstoPondInlet,iftheytakethetimetowalkalongthebeachoutsideofthesettlement,maycomeacrossasmallwoodencrossmarkingagrave(ifitstillstands).ThegraveisthatofRobertJanes,aNewfoundlanderandfreetrader.Itwasthemannerinwhichhedied,andeventsfollowingit,thatprecipitatedtheestablishmentofanRCMPdetachmentatPondInlet.

JaneshadbeenasecondofficeronanexpeditionmadebyJosephBernierin1910,whichhadvisitedPondInlet.AfewyearslaterJanesdecidedtoreturntothisareaandattempttomakehisfortuneasafreetrader.HeenlistedthefinancialbackingofseveralsilentpartnersinNewfoundland.SeveralaccountsofwhathappenedtoJanesarefoundinhistoriesoftheRCMPandlocalhistoriesofPondInlet,buttherearediscrepanciesamongthese;thefollowingismyattempttodistinguishfactfromfiction.ThestoryhastakenonlegendarystatusinmodernArcticfolklore.

JaneshadleftawifebehindinNewfoundland,butonhisreturntoPondInlethetookupresidencewithanInuitwomananarrangementthat,asmentionedearlier,wasbynomeansunusualintheearlydaysofcontactbetweenInuitandoutsiders.Thefact

thatthewomanalreadyhadahusbanddidnotseemtobotherJanes.TherearesuggestionsinhisdiarythathehadlittlerespectfortheInuit,buthewasabletoovercomethisprejudiceenoughtocreatewhatwereforhimlucrativetradingrelationshipswiththem.Duringhisfirstyearheamassedalargecollectionoffurs,andfeltthathisventurehadbeenfinanciallysuccessful.

Originally,hehadplannedtoreturnattheendofthatyearonboardtheAlbert,whichwouldbebringingsuppliesnorthforthePondInlettradingpost.Shortlybeforetheshipwastoarrive,hegavewhatremainedofhistradegoodstoseverallocalInuit,sincetheyhadnomorefurstotradeanditwouldhavebeenexpensivetotakethegoodsbackwithhim.

WhentheAlbertarrived,thecaptainrefusedtotakehimaboard.ItisunclearwhetherthiswasbecauseofadisputeJaneshadwithHenryTokeMunn,managerofthetradingpost,withwhomJaneshadnotbeenonfriendlyterms,orbecauseofanargumentwiththecaptainaboutthecostofhispassage.Inanyevent,Janeswasforcedtochangehisplans.

Ihavetheimpression,fromreadingJanes'diary,thathehadspentmostofthepreviousyearlivingonthelandandtravellingwiththeInuit.Perhapsthestressofthissortoflife,withitsisolationfromhisownculturalmoorings,combinedwiththatcreatedbyhisdisputeoverhispassagesouth,causedhimtobecometemporarilymentallyunbalanced.Hewasforcedtoremainforasecondyear,andhisalreadynegativefeelingstowardstheInuitseemedtoassumeanoutrighthostilecast.Hisbehaviourtowardsthembecameabusive.

Janes'feelingstowardtheInuitfinallyerupted:heattackedanoldermanwithaknife,cuttinghisclothesbutnotinjuringhimseriously.Themanwasthefather-in-lawofthewomanwithwhomJaneshadbeenliving;accordingtoWilfredCaron,aclerkatthetradingpost,

thesonhadbeenangryaboutbeingcuckoldedbutwasafraidofJanes,sohisfatherhadconfrontedtheNewfoundlander.AndsoJaneshadviolatedtwobasiclegalnormsoftraditionalInuitsociety:unjustifiedattackonanotherperson,andhavingsexualrelationswithaman'swifewithouthispermission.Either,undercustomarylaw,mighthaveledtoasocietalresponse,fortheybothconstitutedthreatstothepublicgoodandtosocialorder.Aretaliativekillingoftheoffenderwouldhavebeenasociallyapprovedexecution.

Janeshad,then,becomeathreattotheTununermiut.Intime,hewouldthreatenthemopenlyandintentionally.Whenhehadgivenawayhisremainingtradegoods,whileawaitingthearrivalof

theAlbert,theyhadbeenacceptedbytherecipientsasgifts.GenerosityandthesharingoflargessewereprobablythefoundationsoftraditionalInuitethics.Actsofgenerositydidnotnecessarilycarrywiththemtherighttodemandreciprocityatafuturedate.Believingthathewouldbeleavingtheareashortly,Janeshadnotmadeanydemandsthatthe"gifts"berepaidinthefuturewithfursandskins,andthebeneficiariesofhisgiftsdidnotfeelunderanyobligationtohim.

Duringthesecondyearofhisstay,ortheyearofhisexile,havingnothinglefttotradehimself,heapproachedthoseInuitwhohadbeenrecipientsofhisbenevolencetheyearbeforeandaskedforskinsandfurswithoutpayment,claimingthathehadearlierextendedcredittothem.Hislogicwasnotacceptabletothem,andhishostilebehaviourtowardsthemhadalienatedthem.Instead,theytoldhimthattheywouldreceivefullpaymentfortheirskinsateitherCapeFullertonorthetradingpostatPondInlet,andintendedtotakethemtooneortheother.Theyneededgoodssuchasflour,tea,andammunition,andsoweregoingtotaketheirbusinesstowheretheycouldacquirethem.

TheestrangedrelationsbetweenJanesandtheTununermiutwereconducivetoadramaticconfrontation,andthelastentryinJanes'diarydescribestheonethatdeveloped.

LightN.E.windfineandclear.Allnativeshuntingtoday,fewgotseals.Twopaidmeforgoodsdeliveredlastyear,andotherfellowwhomIinterviewedtoldmehehadnofoxesbutItoldhimIknowbetterandhehadbetterpayupifnotIwouldshoothisandtheotherdogsassureasthesunrises,andIwilltoo.Iguesstheywillpayuplaterandsavetrouble.Ihavegivenmyselfalotoftroublebyissuingthesefellowscredit.Itisabadpolicyinthisland.(NationalArchivesofCanada,Ottawa)

TheentrywasdatedSaturday,March14,1920,andheprobablydiedthefollowingdayorsoonafter.Ifhehadbeenadangertothesocial

orderbefore,hebecameevenmoreofonebyhisthreats.ThedogsoftheTununermiuthadtakenonnewimportancesincethewhalingdays,bothasstatussymbolsandascontributorstohuntingsuccess.Mencompetedwithoneanotherusingtheirteams.Also,theywerebeginningtoenterthecontact-traditionalperiod,characterizedbyamoresedentarylifeinfairlypermanentcampslocatedwithincommutingdistanceofthetradingpostatPondInlet.Withdiminishedgameresourcesintheimmediatearea,

Hunterprepareshissled.Aullativik,1963.

broughtaboutbyhuntingwithriflesratherthanharpoons,andtheneedforlargersuppliesofmeattofeedtheirdogs,menhuntedfartherandfartherafield.Forthis,largeteamswereanecessity.Athreattotheirdogswastobetakenseriously.ItispossiblethattheTununermiutfearedthatafterJaneshadkilledthedogs,hemightthenbegintokillthem.

Whenthelastentryinhisdiarywasrecorded,JaneshadbeencampingatCapeCrawford,nearthepresentsettlementofArcticBay.HewastryingtoreachChesterfieldInlet,fromwherehehopedtofindtransportationsouth.AccordingtotestimonygivenbylocalInuitatthetrial,onMarch15orsoonafterJanes'assistantwenthunting,takingwithhimJanes'ownrifle.SeveralInuitfamilieswerecampednearby,amongthemtheyoungmanwhosewifewaslivingwithJanes,alongwithtwoofhisclosefriends.ItwasclaimedatthetrialthatseveralmeetingswereheldtodeterminehowtodealwiththethreatsJaneshadmade.Thefinalconclusionwasthatheshouldbeexecuted.Sincethehusband,Nookudlah,wastheonemostwrongedbyJanes,hewasappointedexecutioner.

Whilehisassistantwasaway,andhewaswithoutarifletodefendhimself,JaneswascalledfromhistentbyoneofNookudlah'sfriends,andwhenhesteppedoutsideNookudlahfiredthreeshotsathim.Possiblyoutoffearofactuallykillinganoutsider,

howeverjustified,Nookudlahonlywoundedhim.LaterthatdayNookudlahattackedJanesagain,andJanesdiedasaresultofhiswounds.

Atthetimeoftheseevents,theTununermiuthadbeenundertheformaljurisdictionofCanadianlawforoverfiftyyears.Theextentoftheirawarenessofitisthat,afterkillingJanes,Nookudlahburiedhisbodyunderacairnofrocks,collectedhisbelongings,anddeliveredthemtoWilfredCaronatthePondInlettradingpost.HeexplainedtoCaronwhathehaddone,andwhathadprovokedhisactions.Itisdoubtfulthathewasinanyrespect"turninghimselfin"toarepresentativeofthesocietyoftheoutsiders.Rather,itseemsthathewasmerelyprovidinganexplanationforasequenceofeventsthat,whileregrettable,hadterminatedinanecessaryandwhollyjustifiedexecutionunderInuitcustomarylaw.

Caronapparentlyacceptedtheexplanationandletthematterdrop.Nothingfurtherdevelopedinthecaseuntilseveralmonthslater,whenJanes'wifebackinNewfoundland,withthesupportofhisparents,decidedtoinitiateanenquiryintothewhereaboutsofherhusbandandrequestedaninvestigationbytheRCMP.Inresponsetothatrequestandjournalisticpressure,CommissionerA.BowenPerryinstructedSergeantAlfredHerbertJoytoproceedtoPondInletwiththedualdirectivesofuncoveringthefateofJanesandestablishinganRCMPdetachmentatPondInlet.TheformalinstructionsgivenSergeantJoyarerevealingofthemultitudeofactivitiesperformedbypoliceintheCanadianArcticofthetime:

AdetachmentistobeestablishedatPondInlet,BaffinIsland,andyouhavebeenselectedtotakechargeofit.YouhavebeenappointedajusticeofthepeaceintheNorthwestTerritories,inwhichBaffinIslandissituated,acoroner,aspecialofficerofthecustoms,andapostmasterofapostofficelocatedatPondInlet.YourgeneraldutyistoenforcelawandorderinallthedistricttributarytoPondInlet,andtheauthoritygivenyou

asjusticeofthepeaceandcoronerwillenableyoutodealwithmostcaseswhichmayariseofaninfractionofthelaw.

Asaspecialofficerofthecustoms,itwillbeyourdutytoenforcethecustomslawsandcarryoutthedetailedinstructionsissuedyoubytheCustomsDepartment.AspostmasteratPondInlet,itwillbeyourdutytocarryonthesedutiesinaccordancewiththepostofficeregulations.

YourspecialattentionisdirectedtoanallegedmurderofaMr.Janes,byanEskimo,andyouaredirectedtomakea

thoroughenquiryintothismurder,andtakesuchstepsasarerequiredtobringtheguiltypartiestojustice.Shouldyoufindthatthereisaprimafaciecaseagainstanypersonorpersons,itwillbeyourduty,ifitisclearlyestablished,totaketheaccusedintocustodyandholdhimpendinginstructionsfromheadquarters.

ArrangementsaremadeforyourboardandlodgingwiththeHudson'sBayCompanypostatPondInlet.AlthoughyouareindebtedtotheHudson'sBayCompanyforyourtransportationandboardandlodging,andmanyothernecessaryrequirements,stillyoumustbearinmindthatyouareaservantoftheGovernment,andmustdealwithalltradingcompaniesexactlyonanequalfooting.

Irelyonyourgoodjudgementandpreviousexperiencetocarryoutyourimportantdutieswithcredittoyourselfandtothesatisfactionofheadquarters.

[signed]A.BowenPerry,Commissioner

(ReportoftheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice,1922:2021)

SergeantJoyarrivedatPondInletonAugust30,1921,aboardtheHBCsupplyshipBaychimo.OnDecember7heleftforCapeCrawford,andafortnightlater,onexhumingJanes'body,found"twobulletholesandincontestableevidencethatthedeceasedhadcometohisendbyviolence"(OfficialRCMPreportquotedinSteele,n.d.:228).AftertransportingthedecomposedremainsbacktoPondInlet,adistanceofsometwohundredmiles,hecalledforacoroner'sinquest.Threetradersperformedjurydutyattheinquest.OnFebruary11theyreturnedaverdictofmurderagainstNookudlah,andruledthattwoothermenwereaccompliceswhohadaidedandabettedhim.

WhenthisjudgementwascommunicatedtoRCMPheadquartersinOttawa,theauthoritiesdecidedtomakeanexampleofthecase.Arrangementsweremadetoconductafull-scaleformaltrialinPondInlet.InJuly1923theC.G.S.ArcticleftMontrealforthenorthern

settlementcarryingJudgeL.A.Rivert;LeopoldTellier,whowastoactasdefensecounsel;F.X.Biron,aclerkofthecourt;InspectorC.E.WilcoxoftheRCMP;andseveralnon-commissionedofficersandconstables.TheyarrivedatPondInletonAugust21,andfourdayslaterthecourtopenedatthenewlyestablishedpolicedetachment.AjuryhadbeenselectedfrommembersofthecrewoftheArctic.SeveralInuitattended.Thefinaldispositionfound

Nookudlahguiltyofmanslaughter,andhewassentencedtotenyears'imprisonmentinStonyMountainpenitentiaryinManitoba.Thesecondman,Oo-roo-re-ung-nak(ashisnamewasspelledinthetrialproceedings),wasalsoconvictedofmanslaughter,butonthebasisofarecommendationforclemencyhewassentencedtotwoyears'hardlabour,tobeservedinPondInlet.Thethirdman,Ah-tee-tah,wasacquitted(AnnualReportoftheRCMP,1924:33).Iamnotcertain,butIbelievethatNookudlahwasthefirstInuittobesentencedtoaCanadianfederalpenitentiary.

ItseemsthatthecourttriedtoviewthecaseinthelightofthefactthattheInuitoftheareahadhadlittleformalexperiencewithCanadianlaw,butalso,themembersofthecourtsoughttomakealastingimpression.InspectorWilcox'sfinalreport,whichIquoteatlengthbecauseIconsiderittobeanextremelyinterestingandrevealingstatementofthetime,indicatesthatthecourtwassatisfiedthatbothaimshadbeenaccomplished.

ThistrialwasconductedthroughoutstrictlyinaccordancewiththeRulesandRegulationsoftheforce,andwithallthedecorumofaSupremeCourtincivilization.

ThecounselforthedefenceinhispleafortheaccusedpointedouttheweaknessoftheevidenceagainstAh-tee-tah,andurgedthathebedischarged.HepleadedthatthelifeoftheEskimos,theirignoranceofthelawsofcivilization,andtheprovocationgiventhembyJanesandbetakenintoconsiderationbythejuryinarrivingattheirverdict.

...ThecounselfortheCrownpressedforaconvictionofthethreeaccused,andstatedthatincivilizationhewouldaskforaverdictofmurder,buttakingintoconsiderationtheignoranceoftheprisoners,heonlyaskedforaverdictofmanslaughter.Heinformedthejurythattheycould,iftheydesired,recommendtheaccusedtotheclemencyofthecourt.

...Itwasapparentthatthetrialhadbeenaseverestrainontheaccused,

fortheylookedquiteunwellatthetermination.Theeffectsofthesentence,Ibelieve,willhaveamorebeneficialeffectthanasentenceofdeath.TheprisonerNookudlahwasledawayimmediatelyafterthesentencewaspassed,totheship,throughagazingcrowdofhisownpeople,withoutbeinggivenachancetocommunicatewithanyofthem.ItishardlypossiblethatanativewiththeprestigethatNookudlahmusthavehadwiththeotherEskimosatthetimehekilledJanescouldhavebeensubjectedtogreaterhumiliationthantobeledawaydirectlyundertheeyesofnotlessthanonehundred

ofhisrelativesandfriends.

Aftertheterminationofthetrial,thejudgeaddressedtheentireEskimopopulationoutsidethedetachment,tellingwhattheyhadtoexpectfromtherepresentativesoftheGovernment,thattheycouldexpectkindnessandprotectionfromthepoliceiftheybehavedwell,butiftheycommittedanycrime,theycouldexpecttobepunished.Theyallimmediatelyafterwardsjoinedinthreegenerouscheersforthejudge.

(ReportofInspectorC.E.Wilcox,quotedinReportoftheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice,1924:3334)

NookudlahwastoserveonlypartofhissentenceatStonyMountain.HisreleasecameaboutafterapleaforclemencywasmadeonhisbehalfbyCaptainJosephBernier,whohadlearnedthattheprisonerwassufferingfromacutetuberculosis.Seriouslyill,NookudlahreturnedtoPondInlet,wherehediedonDecember5,1925.HeandhiscomradeswererememberedbytheolderTununermiutinthe1960s,andreferredtoasstrong,ablemen,whohadactuallyassistedSergeantJoywhenhewasbringingthemintostandtrialbyhuntingforhimandkeepinghimaliveduringaseverestorm.WithconsiderableprideoneinformanttoldmethatAh-tee-tahwashisgrandfather.ThestoryofthekillinganditsaftermathspreadquicklythroughtheinformalcommunicationnetworksintheeasternArctic,butmyimpressionhasbeenthatitwasinterpretedintraditionalInuitterms,andthatlittleblamewasattachedtothethreemeninvolved.Ithadbeen,forthem,ajustexecution.

EvenwithoutthelegendaryJanescase,however,PondInletwasdestinedtohaveitsownpermanentRCMPdetachmentbecauseofitsstrategicpositiononthenortherntipofBaffinIsland,locatedapproximatelyhalfwaybetweenthesettlementsofArcticBayandClydeRiver.Itwasestablishedin1922andinitiallystaffedbySergeantJoy,acorporal,andtwoconstables.PondInletnowhadtwoofthethreeagenciesthatdominatedalmostallCanadianArctic

settlementsbeforetheintrusionoftheDepartmentofNorthernAffairsdecadeslater,anditwassoontoreceivethethird.

TheComingoftheChurch

ThefirstactivesuggestionthatamissionshouldbeestablishedatPondInlet,andthattheTununermiutmightbeinneedofChris-

tianinfluence,camefromatrader.AlthoughhewasaProtestanthimself,earliereffortstointerestmembersofhisowndenominationhadfailed,andsoheturnedtoRomanCatholics.HehadmetthefamedMonseigneurTurquetialwhilebothwerepassengersontheHBCshipNascopie,andhadlaterwrittentohimtosuggestthat"onlyreligioncouldmaketheEskimosgoodhunters,menofaction,andhonestenoughtopaytheirdebts"(Morice,1943:173).HisrequesttotheMonseigneurthatamissionbeestablishedinPondInlet,madein1923,receivedanenthusiasticreply,butnotuntil1927didpreparationsbegin.InSeptember1929,FatherPrimeGirardarrivedatPondInlet,accompaniedbyFatherÉtienneBazin.TheyweretobuildtheSacredHeartMissionandtoprovidetheTununermiutwiththeChristianmessage.Thecommentsofthetrader,whichinitiatedthisdevelopment,wereprobablytypicaloftheattitudesofoutsiderstowardstheInuitduringthatperiod.Fortunately,theywerecounterbalancedbytheattitudesofindividualssuchasJosephBernierandWilfredCaron.ThethoughtthattheInuithadto"become"goodhuntersandmenofactionisludicrousintheextreme.Iftheydidnot"paytheirdebts"itwaslikelybecausetradersoftenextendedcredittothem,and,asinthecaseofJanesandhisextratradegoods,creditwasinterpretedintraditionalterms.CertainlythetradersdidlittletoexplainthefundamentalsofacasheconomytotheInuit.

Thiswas,ofcourse,notthefirstencountertheTununermiuthadhadwithChristianity,for,aswehaveseen,decadesbeforetheyhadattendedchurchservicesonboardwhalingandexplorationships.Also,in1927,twoyearsbeforethemissionwasestablished,twoconvertedInuitfromChesterfieldInlethadmigratedtothePondInletarea.Itislikelythatmembersofthesefamiliesdidsomeproselytizingontheirown,andactedaslaymissionaries.Toanticipatealaterdiscussion:convertedInuitusuallyacceptedChristianitywithconsiderablezeal,andwiththeenthusiasmofthenewconvertoftenworkedtobring

othersovertotheirnewbeliefs.Inanyevent,in1929twenty-twoInuitlivingnearPondInletwerebaptizedintotheRomanCatholicfaith,andeightofthesewereadmittedtotheirfirstcommunion(Morice,1943:174).

DuringthissameperiodtheAnglicanchurchwasgraduallyextendingitsinfluenceintothenorthandnortheastregionsoftheArctic,andin1929theReverendHaroldDuncanestablishedthefirstAnglicanmissioninPondInlet.IbelievethatplanstoopentheCatholicmissionwereafootbeforesimilaronesweremadebyAnglicans,butitissignificantthatbothmissionsopenedtheirdoorsinthesameyear.Eversince,PondInlethashadtwomissions

representingthetwomajormissionarymovementsintheCanadianArctic.Rivalrybetweenthetwowaslongacharacteristicofthesettlementandonoccasioneruptedintoopendisplaysofhostility,buttodaythereisanamicablerelationshipbetweenthetwomissions.Statistically,theAnglicansseemtohavewonthelongbattleforthesoulsoftheTununermiut,themajorityofwhomareaffiliatedwithit.

By1930,then,PondInlethadforbetterorworseacquiredallofthecomponentsofthetriadthatwastobecomethestructuralbaseforalmostallCanadianArcticsettlements.Forthenexttwodecadesitwouldremainafairlystableandstaticcommunity,andtheTununermiutwouldsettleintothecontact-traditionallife-style,livinginsemi-permanentcampslocatedwithincommutingdistanceofthesettlement.Theywouldexperienceincreasingdependencyonandinvolvementintheinstitutionsoftheoutsideworld,whilealsoretainingmanycharacteristicsofthesocialandculturalworldsoftheirforefathers.

OnDecember16,1953,however,achangeoccurredintheadministrationofthesettlement,onethatwastohaveadramaticeffectonthepeoplestilllivingontheland,aswellasonthesettlementitself.ThefederalgovernmentestablishedtheDepartmentofNorthernAffairsandNationalResources(DNANR)(Flanagan,1963:69),whichwastotakeovertheoperationsoftheDepartmentoftheInteriorintheNorthwestTerritories.From1953on,thegovernmentwouldbefarmoreinvolvedinnorthernresourcedevelopmentandintheadministrationofthenativepeoplesoftheterritories,bothIndianandInuit.

Duringthewinterof195556,sixNorthernServiceOfficers(NSOs)wereappointedto"coordinatefieldactivitiesandsupervisedevelopmentinvariousremoteareas"(Flanagan,1963).Theyweretoworkinthefield,andwouldautomaticallybecometheseniorranking

civilservantsinanysettlementstowhichtheyweresent.Untilthattime,thatstatushadbeenreservedforRCMPofficers.

ThefirstNSOwasstationedinPondInletin1959,andin1960aschoolwasbuiltinthesettlement.ItwastobestaffedbyDNANRteachers,andthefollowingMarchthefirstteacherarrived.ThefederaldayschoolinPondInletwasofficiallyopenedonMarch21,1961;tenTununermiutthenhadtocontendnotonlywithEuro-Canadianpolice,missionaries,traders,andadministration,butalsowithformalEuro-Canadianeducation.

By1961,thestructureofthepermanentsettlementofPondInlethadbeenformed.Twoyearslater,IfirstarrivedinPondInlet.Myattentionwasprimarilydirectedatcamplife,butIalso

spenttimelivinginthesettlement,orvisitingitregularlywhileIlivedontheland.Itwasafascinatingtimeforanyoneinterestedinthedynamicsofinter-agencyco-operationandconflict,forthenewDNANRoperationhadshakenupthesettlementinseveralways,ifonlybyitsincreasingmassivenessinrelationshiptothesmalleragenciesoftheestablishedtriad.Itwasinmanyrespectsperceivedasathreatbythetraders,missionaries,andpolice.Weshallreturntothesettlementandtothesouthernagenciesthatmaintainedoutpostsinitlater,afterlookingatcamplifeoftheearly1960s.Itwasawayoflifethatwassoontodisappear,andthepolicyandproceduresoftheDNANRwerelargelyresponsible.

CampLifeintheContact-TraditionalPeriodDuringmyfirstyearofresidencewiththem,approximately280TununermiutlivedinthevicinityofPondInlet.EversinceCaptainBernierestablishedthefirsttradingpost,afewhadlivedinthesettlementitself,andthatnumberhadincreasedovertimeasthesettlementgrew,butwhenIfirstencounteredtheTununermiutthevastmajoritystilllivedontheland.These''land"peoplewerethehuntersandtheirfamilieswhoinhabitedsevencampsrangingindistancefromeighttomorethanahundredmilesfromPondInlet.

Thecamppeopleweretraditionalistsinmanyrespects,stilldependentonhuntingformostoftheirfood,speakingInuktitutintheirhomes,maintainingafairlyconventionalInuitfamilystructure,and,Iamconvinced,believingthattheywerelivingmuchasInuithadlivedforcenturies.Inpsychologicalidentity,theywereinfactInuit.Butatthesametime,theirlife-stylewasnotthatoftheirancestors,andthiswastruenotonlybecauseoftechnologicalchange.True,theyhadoutboard-motor-poweredboatsinsteadofkayaksandusedriflesratherthanharpoons,buttheyalsoatebannockasastapleandattendedChristianchurchservicesalmosteverySundaymorning.Theywere,then,firmlyentrenchedinthecontact-traditionalperioddescribedearlier.However,asItriedtoillustrateinthelastchapter,theprocessleadingtothisperiodhadbeenslowandgradual,occurringoveratimespanofonehundredyearsormore,anditdidnottotallyobliterateallfeaturesofthetraditionalculture.

TheTununermiutof196364hadincorporated,onaselectivebasis,elementsofthealienculturetowhichtheyhadincreasinglybeenexposed,buttoalargeextentthishadbeendonepragmatically.Isuggestthatitwaspreciselybecausetheycontinuedtoliveontheland,andindeedhadbeenencouragedtodosobythetraders,police,

andmissionaries,thattheywereabletoretainsomeconsciouscontroloverthedegreetowhichtheywereinfluenced

Table1:InuithouseholdsinPondInlet,NWT,andSurroundingCamps,1963Camp HouseholdsNallua............................ 4Qaurnak.......................... 6Aullativik......................... 5Quimivvik......................... 5Illukisaat.......................... 3Ippiarjuk.......................... 5Igarguak.......................... 13PondInlet......................... 15Total............................. 56

bythealienforms.AsImentionedearlier,thetraderswantedtheirfursandsoencouragedahuntingeconomy.Thepolicebelievedthatifpeoplewerekeptonthelandtheywouldbelesslikelytofallpreytoalcoholanditsattendantantisocialandillegalbehaviour.Thepolicewerealso,untiltheDNANRarrived,responsiblefordolingoutwelfare,andtheyassumedthatcontinuedrelianceonahuntingeconomywoulddeterdependenceonwelfare.Themissionaries,accordingtoseveralwithwhomIheldinterviews,fearedthatwithinthesettlementtheTununermiutwouldbeinfluencedbysecularization,withaconcomitantincreaseinimmoralityandadoptionofnon-Christianbehaviourpatterns.Duringthisperiod,theTununermiutthemselvesvaluedcamplife,andwithfewexceptionswerenotdrawntothesettlementotherthanfortradingandoccasionalvisiting.

So,theTununermiutofthatperioddidliveinafairlytraditionalway,evenwiththeborrowedtechnology:theyrespectedtraditionalpatternsofhospitalityandsharing,spoketheirownlanguagealmostexclusively,andingeneralidentifiedpsychologicallyasInuit.Mostofthemlivedintheoutlyingcamps.

Primarilyasameansofgivingmenadequateterritoryforsuccessful

hunting,thenumberoffamiliesineachcampwasquitesmall,averagingsixhouseholdseachandwithlargedistancesseparatingthem.By"household"Imeanseparateresidencesthathousedanuclearfamily(orahusbandandwifeandunmarriedchildren),oranelderlycouple,or,insomeinstances,awidowor

widowerwithorwithoutunmarriedchildren(SeeTable1).Inafewcasesagedparentslivedwiththeirmarriedchildren,butmorecommonlytheyeitherhadtheirownresidencesorhadmovedintothesettlementwheretheyhadbeengivengovernment-subsidizedhousing.Iftheylivedaloneincamps,theywereprovidedforbytheirmarriedsonsorsons-in-law.

InAullativik,thecampinwhichIlivedformostofthatfirstyear,therewerefivehouseholds,allconnectedwithoneanotherthroughtiesofkinship.ManyofthestatementsImakeinthischapterarereallygeneralizationsbaseduponwhatIobservedduringtheninemonthsIlivedwiththeAullativikmiut.However,Ialsospentshortperiodsoftimeinothercamps,eitheronvisitswhenaccompanyingAullativikmiutonhuntingtrips,oronexcursionsofmyown.ThelatterweremadeonlyafterIhadlearnedtohandleadogteamfairlyproficientlyandwithsomemeasureofconfidence.

AullativikinSummerandWinter

Thehighdegreeofmobilitybetweencampsinthe1960sgivesmesomeassurancethatmygeneralizationsareethnographicallyvalid,andthatAullativikwaswellwithintheparametersoftypicalcampstructure.Visitingbetweencamps,despitethedistancesbetweenthem,wasaregularevent,althoughmostcommonlydonebymenoutonhuntingexpeditions,withoutthecompanyofspousesandyoungchildren.Also,eventhoughresidenceinaparticularcampwasusually,ifnotalways,contingentupontheindividualfamily'shavingtiesofkinshipwithatleastonefamilyalreadyresidentinit,peopledidmovebackandforthbetweencamps.ThisinpartreflectedthetraditionalInuitpatternofseasonalfissionandfusion.OnecouldbeaQimivvikmiutoneyearandanAullativikmiutthenext.Someofthepeoplefrom"my"campspentthespringmonthsinothercampsoroutontheirown,andonefamilywhohadbeenlivinginthesettlement

joinedus.Alongwiththisfluidity,however,therewasafairdegreeofresidentialstabilityduringthecontact-traditionalperiod.

Unfortunately,mydatadonotpermitmetoventureclaimsaboutthefissionandfusionprocessespractisedinthatperiod.IdohaveconfidencethatAullativikwastypicalofotherTununermiutcamps,andthatthecampsthatsurroundedPondInletin196364wereprobablysimilarinmostrespectstoInuitcampsacrossArcticCanada.Butforpresentpurposes,theimportant

Familycoveringwinterhousewithsummertent.Aullativik,1963.

pointisthatthelifeofthecontact-traditionalcampwasonesharedbymostTununermiut,anditisthatlifewhichwassoabruptlydislodgedinthelatterpartofthe1960s.

Duringthecontact-traditionalperiodtheAullativikmiut,likeotherTununermiut,maintainedtwocamps,oneforsummerandtheotherforwinter,andtheywerebothstrategicallyplaced.WhenIfirstarrivedtostaywiththem,theywerestilllivinginthesummercamp,buttwoweekslaterwemovedtoAullativik,thewintercamponCurryIsland.Itwasnestledinfrontofalong,highhillandprotectedfromwinterwindsbytallmountainsoneithersideandbythejaggedcliffsofBaffinIsland,whichwereonlyamileorsoacrossthewater.Thesummercampwasbeingusedforthefirsttime,andwhenwelefttwoweeksaftermyarrival,itwouldbeabandonedpermanently.Itwasagoodlocationforthementogooffonhuntingtrips,andatfirstglanceseemedtobeprotectedbyhighrocks,butthewindsthatdroveacrossitfromEclipseSound,ontowhichitfaced,wereunbearableforthewomenandchildren.Also,thefreshwatersupplyprovidedbyasmallglacialstreamwastotallyinadequateforthefamilieslivingthere.IdidnothaveproperArcticclothingatthetime,andwasto

spendthetwoweeksatthatcampshivering,sickattimesfromthenewdiettowhichIwasadjusting,andextremelymiserable.Thewaterqualitymayhave

beenafactoraswell.Morethanonce,asIalsofeltthefrustrationsofbeingamonolingualEnglishspeakerlivingamongmonolingualspeakersofInuktitut,IwonderedinmysolitarywalkswhateverhadpossessedmetowanttodofieldworkinanInuitcamponnorthernBaffinIsland.Oneconsolationwasthattherewerenodogspresent,soonecoulddefecatebehindrockswithouthavingtocarryaclubtofendthemoff.TheyhadbeenleftonCurryIsland,wheretheywereperiodicallyfedbythemenofthecamp.

Ialsoexperiencedasenseofhumiliationwhenwefinally,andearlierthanwasnormal,brokecampandmovedtoAullativik.Themenmadethetripintheirsmall,outboard-drivenboatsandcanoes,whileIwasescortedinthelargewhaleboatwiththewomenandchildren.Thisexperiencewasnotonlyhumiliating,butmorepositively,taughtmemyfirstlessoninArctichumility.ImayhavebeenneartoearningadoctorateatanIvyLeagueuniversity,butinthatenvironment,andinanInuitcamp,allofmyknowledgeandexperiencewereoflittlevaluetome,andtheInuitmalesrecognizedthis.IhadaskedJimmyMuckpahtoteachmetoliveasanInuit,andhewastakingthattaskseriously.Iwasbeginningmylifeamongthepeoplewiththestatusofachild,andIsoonlearnedhowappropriatethatwas.Themenusuallystoodupwhilerunningtheirboats,withahandonthethrottleofthe"kicker,"asoutboardmotorswerecalled,andthedramaticeffectofthesemenastheirboatsbouncedonthewavesaccentuatedthecontrastwithmyownposition,huddlingforwarmthinaboatfilledwithwomenandchildren.AnythoughtsIhaddevelopedofmyselfasanadultmaleofthe1960swereputtoaharshtestonthedayofthemovetoAullativik.

WhentheAullativikmiuthadabandonedtheirwintercampthepreviousspring,individualhouseholdshadgoneoffinseparatedirectionsforafewweeks,takingadvantageofthegoodhunting,beforeregroupingatthesummercamp.Therewerefivetentsinthat

summercampinthesummerof1963,justastherewerefivehousesatAullativik.Becauseofthecontinualhighwindsthatbuffetedthearea,thetentswerelaidoutinrelationshiptooneanotherinawaythatprovidedmaximumprotection,ratherthaninanorderlymannersidebysidealongthewaterfront,aswasthemoretypicalpatternforaTununermiutcamp.

Thetentswereofwhitecanvasandhadbeenmadebythewomenofthehouseholds.Withineachtent,caribouhidescoveredtherearhalf,withonefacingdownandtheotherreversed,hairsfacingup,anarrangementthatmadebestuseoftheexcellentinsulatingqualitiesofcaribouhideeachhairistubular,andretains

warmth.Thehides,inturn,werecoveredwitheitheraclothorablanket.Thiswasthesleepingarea.Allmembersofafamilysleptsidebyside,withparentsatonesideandbesidethemtheyoungestchild,attimesaninfant.Theotherchildrensleptontheothersideinstepladderfashion,allwiththeirfeettotherearofthetentandheadspointedtotheentranceand,hadthetentsbeenlaidoutinaconventionalpattern,thesea.Heatinthetentwasprovidedbythesoapstonekudlik,aheavy,half-moon-shaped,shallowbowlinwhichmeltedsealfatwasburned.Themosswickhadtobetendedhourly,andalwayswentoutsoonafterthewomanofthehouseholdhadgonetosleepatnight.Otherwarmthcamefromthebodyheatoftheoccupants.IwasneverwarminthedayduringthetwoweeksIlivedinJimmyMuckpah'stentbeforewemovedtoAullativik,butthen,mybodychemistryhadnotyetadaptedtotheconstantjust-above-freezingtemperatures.Atnight,Isleptbesidethechildrenintwosleepingbags,oneinsidetheother,andwoulddreadthemornings.TheInuitsleptunderblanketsthathadbeenpurchasedattheHBCpostinPondInlet,andquiltsmadebythewomen.Eachofthefamiliesownedatleastoneprimusstove,butbecauseofthecostofcoaloilthesewereusedonlyforcooking,andeventhenonlyinfrequently.Themenwouldtakethemalongonhuntingtripstomaketea.Insomeofthetentsstoodafour-foot-hightripodfromwhichwouldbesuspendedthepaninwhichbannockwasprepared.

Asmentionedbefore,whenIarrivedatthecampthedogsoftheAullativikmiutwerebeingkeptacrosstheinletonCurryIsland,butwhendogswerepresentinacamptheyusuallyhuddledaroundthetentoftheirowners,growlingmenacinglyatpassers-byand,wheneverIwasabout,standingreadytofollowmewhenIwentbehindrockstoseetobodilyfunctions.Thehalf-wilddogswerealmostalwayshungry,andwouldeathumanfecesalongwithanythingelsetheycouldfind.Sealskinsinvariousstagesof

preparationwereusuallyseenaroundtents,eitherstrungtightacrossdryingframesorslungoverguideropes.Afterthemenhadcutthehideoffasealcarcass,itbecamethewomen'sresponsibility.Afterflensingitofthefat,theystrungitontoawoodenframe,whereitwouldremainforseveraldaysuntiltheoilshadseepedoutofit,tobescrapedoffbythewomen.TheTununermiutdidnotanning,sotheskinswerenowrolledupreadytobetakentomarket.Occasionallythecaribousleepingrobeswouldbehangingoutsidehousestoairdry,ifinfantsorsmallchildrenhadaccidentallyurinatedonthem.

Alongtheshorelinewouldbefoundacoupleofsealcarcasses

WintercampofAullativikmiut,1963.

strippedofmeat,drumsfilledwithgasolinefortheoutboards,theboatsofhuntershomefromthehunt,andperhapsafishnetlaidoutonthegroundforrepairs,butotherwisethegroundaroundthetentswasbare.DuringthatperiodtheTununermiuthadfewmaterialpossessions,andmostofwhattheydidhavecouldbekeptintheirtents.(AninventoryofitemsIfoundinAullativikmiuthomeswillbegivenlater.)Ingeneral,exceptforthearrangementofthetents,thesceneIhavedescribedwasverysimilartowhatwastobefoundatthewintercamp,otherthanforsleds,whichhadbeenleftthatsummeronCurryIslandwiththedogs.

BecausethewintercampofAullativikwastheoppositeofthesummercampof1963intermsofprovidingprotectionfromtheelements,housesintheformerwerestretchedoutinarowalongthewaterfrontinconventionalTununermiutfashion.WhenTununermiutreturnedfromtheirsummercampstheywouldnormallycontinuetoliveintentsforaweekortwowhilemakingnecessaryrepairstotheirhouses.Inthesummerof1963theAullativikmiuthadoriginallyplannedtoabandonAullativik,whichhadbeenusedforapproximatelyfortyyears,andtolocateatanewwinterspot,butlater

changedtheirmindsandreturnedforonelastyear.Idon'tknowhowmuchmyownpresence,andtheirconcernformywell-being,influencedthischangeinplans,but,in

anyevent,wedidreturntoAullativik,andIwaspleasedthatwedid.Despitetheaccumulateddebrisofdecadesofresidencethatsurroundedthehousesandthewaterfront,thecampwaslocatedinanidyllicsetting.Becauseoftheextensiverepairsneededtoputthehousesinliveablecondition,weremainedinthetentsforseveralweeksthatyear,whilethetemperaturesdroppedlowerandlower.

Whentheinteriorsandexteriorsofthehouseshadbeenrepairedaswellaspossible,giventhemeagresupplyofbuildingmaterials,thepeopletookoccupancy.Arniatsiark,thecampheadmanandoldestmale,livedinonehousewithhiswifeandunmarriedchildren.OnonesideofhishousewasthatofKadloo,thefirstcousinofJimmyMuckpah,whowasthehusbandofoneofArniatsiark'sdaughters.(Thepreviousyear,KadloohadwinteredatIgloolik,wherehiswife'sfamilylived,andhisAullativikhousehadbeenoccupiedbyArniatsiark'syoungestmarriedson.ThesonhadvacatedthecamptotakeupresidenceinPondInlet,wherehehadsecuredajob.)Ontheotherside,andinthecentralbuildinginthecamp,livedAtagootung,Jimmy'swidowedmotherandoneoftheoldestlivingInuitinthearea.Withherlivedheradopteddaughter,agirlinherearlyteens.Theelderlymatriarchoftenpassedhertimeduringmystaybytellingmeobscenestoriesaccompaniedbyadroitmanipulationofstringfiguressheworkedinherarthritichands,andsheoftenteasedmebyinvitingmetolivewithherandherdaughter,sinceshewaswithoutamanofherown.Nexttoherwasthehouseofherson,JimmyMuckpah,andhiswife,Elisapee,thedaughterofArniatsiark.BesidethemwasthehomeofQamanigandhisfamily.

ThewinterhousesatAullativikwerebasicallyvariationsonthetraditionalThulehousesofsodandwhalebonethattheTununermiuthadlivedinuntiltheearlydecadesofthiscentury.TheremainsofafewoldThulehousescouldstillbefoundafewmilesoutsidePondInlet.ThesehadbeenexcavatedbyTherkelMatthiassenandhiscrew

whentheyaccompaniedKnudRasmussenontheFifthThuleExpeditionfromGreenlandtoAlaskainthe1920s.TheAullativikmiuthouseswereone-room,aswerevirtuallyallTununermiuthousesofthe1960s,althoughtherewereafewtwo-andeventhree-roomhousesinacoupleofcamps.IwilldescribethehousesandtheircontentsinsomedetailbothbecauseaccommodationhasalwaysbeenofsuchextremeimportancetotheInuit,andalsobecauseitwillgiveapictureoftheirmaterialacculturationandthewaysinwhichtheymodifiedtraditionalformstoaccommodatenewlyavailablematerials.

Thetypicalfloorplanwasmuchlikethatfoundinthesummertents,withsomeelaborations.Thesleepingareadominatedtheinterior,oftentakingupmorethanhalfofthefloorspace.Ineachhousealowentrancefacedoutontothewater,withasmall,squarewindowaboveit.Inearliertimesthewindow,whichwastheonlyoneinthehouse,wouldhavebeencoveredwithdriedanimalintestines.In1963itwascoveredwithplasticthathadbeencutfromwhat,innorthernjargon,wereeuphemisticallycalled"honeybags";infacttheyweredisposabletoiletreceptaclesusedinEuro-Canadianhomesinthesettlement.Theseprovided,then,theonlysourceofexteriorlightinthehouses.(Ihadhaddifficultysleepinginthewhitetentsinthesummercamps,withthetwenty-fourhoursofsunlightthatfloodedthehighArcticinmid-summer,buthadnotroubleinthedarkinteriorsofthehousesofAullativik.)Thewallswerepaperedoverwitholdnewspapersandmagazinesfoundingarbagebagsinthesettlement.

Thebuildingsthemselveswereconstructedofsodandscraplumber,andcoveredwiththesummertent,ortupic.Withinamonthorsoaftertheyhadbeenoccupied,camphousesbegantoaccumulateacoverofdriftingsnow,andbeforewinterhadprogressedfartheywereprotectedbyseveralfeetofwhiteinsulation.Dogswouldthenmovefromthefrontofthehousestotheroofstosoakupconductedheat,andtheinteriorswouldreverberateasanimalsjoinednightlyinadiscordantchorusofhowling.Tununermiutdogscouldnotbark,ageneticreflection,Iassumed,ofwolfancestry.

Intime,whensnowconditionswererightfortheconstructionofhouses,roundentryhallsmadeofsnowblockswerebuiltontothefrontsofhouses.Thesewereusedtostoremeatandhuntingequipmentsuchasrifles.InfrontofthecentralhouseinAullativikthatyearastorageunitwasbuilttobeusedbyallhouseholdsinthecamp.Thisopen-toppedsnow-blockstructurewasusedtostoremeatandfish,andwastheonlyoneofitskindthatIsawinanyofthe

camps.

IgainedsomesmallpersonalinsightintotherealitiesofasubsistenceeconomywhenayoungdogthatIhadbefriendeddevelopeddistemperduringthewinterandhadtobeshot.Hisbodywasplacedonarimoftheicehouse,andthereitremainedinfullpublicviewuntilsomemonthslater,whenoneofthewomendecidedtoskinitandusethehairforparkatrim.Theideathatithadbeenapettome,andthatImightbesomewhatsentimentalaboutit,washighlyalientothepeople.Ontheotherhand,theysawinthecorpseapracticaluseofwhichIhadnotbeenaware.

TheTununermiuthousesdidnothavethehighsleepingplatformsfoundamongsomeotherInuit,buttherewereraisedareasinthem.Insideeachhousewasakindofcut-outeffect,withslightlyraisedwoodenplatformsoneithersideandanelevatedsleepingplatformacrosstherear.Onanormalday,ifhuntinghadbeengood,onereachedthecentreofthehomebysteppingoveroraroundasealcarcass.Inmostofthehousestheleftside,asviewedbysomeoneenteringatthefrontdoor,wasthedomesticorkitchenarea.Thiswasthedomainofthewomanofthehousehold.Ontheraisedplatformwerefoundthekudlik,usedforheatingandcooking,andthewoman'ssmokingmaterials,suchasacanoftobaccoandcigarettepapers.Anyotherpersonalpossessionsofthewomanofthehousewouldalsobekeptinthisarea.Whenotherwomencametovisither,theywouldusuallysitbesideheronthesleepingplatform.

Theraisedareaontherightwasthedomainofthemaleofthehouseandhismalefriends.There,menwouldsitanddiscussearlierhunts,anticipatefutureones,orsimplyexchangegossip.SilenceinsocialsettingswasnotfearedbytheTununermiut,andeithermenorwomenmightsittogetherforhours,smokinganddrinkingtea,withneverawordexchanged.Assomeonewhohadbeensocializedinamuchmorefranticsocialmilieu,IneededtimetolearntobecomfortableinvisitinganInuithomeandsharingacupoftea,thenleavinghavingexchangedonlyacursorygreetingwithmyhost.Intime,Ilearnedtovaluethisverysaneuseofsilence.

Themalesideofthehousewaswherethehusbandwouldrepairhishuntingandfishingequipment,andcarve,ifhehadthetalent.(TheTununermiutmenofthatperiodknewthattherewasalwaysamarketfortheirsoapstonecarvings,butmencarvedonlywhenhuntinghadbeenpoorandtheyneededcashtopurchasefoodorothercommoditiesatthetradingpostinPondInlet.)Atcampchurchservices,heldtwiceeverySundayineachcamp,theseparatedomains

ofthetwosexeswererespected,withwomensittingonthesleepingplatformnearthewoman'sside,menontheirplatform,andchildreninthemiddle.

ThebasichouseplanIhavedescribedwasfoundinallfiveoftheAullativikhouseswhenwemovedintotheminearlyfall1963.Duringthewinter,however,Qamaniq'swasstrikinglychangedwhenhebuiltwoodenbedsandtablesfromscraplumberfoundinthesettlement.Iwasnevercompletelyclearastowhyhemadethesechanges,butIdoregardthemasevidenceofhisinnovativenessandcreativequalities.Later,whenheandhisfamilymadethe

transitiontosedentarylifeinPondInlet,thesequalitiesservedhimwellashebecamealocalentrepreneur.IamconvincedthathewasnotattemptingtoemulateEuro-Canadianhomesspecifically,butinsteadmerelysawtheinnovationsaswaysofexpressinghisindividuality.Abornleader,hetooksatisfactionfromdoingthingsthatsuggestedthathemarchedtoadifferentdrummer.

MostTununermiutoftheearly1960shadfewmaterialpossessions.(ExceptionswerethosewhohadsecuredwageemploymentwithEuro-CanadianagenciesinPondInlet.)SomeofthebasicitemsofmaterialculturefoundinAullativikhomeswouldalsohavebeenfoundinpre-contacthouses,suchasthekudlik,whichwasthewoman'sresponsibility,andtheulu,ahalf-moonshapedwoman'sknife.Insomehomesaharpoonmightbeproppedupagainstawallorstuckintothesnowintheentryarea,butinmostcasestheywouldbesimplemetalrodswithsharpenedpointsthathadbeenrecoveredfromthedebrisofdiscardedhouse-buildingmaterialsinthesettlement.Allfamilieshadprimusstoves,butthesewere,asmentionedearlier,usedprimarilybymenonhuntingtripstomaketeaatreststopsandintheirtrailsnowhouses.

Ontheotherhand,inmosthomesanumberofitemsofmorerecentvintagewouldbefound.InAullativik,themostvaluedpossessionofwomenfortunateenoughtoownonewasahand-operatedsewingmachine.Thepriceofsealskinswasartificiallyinflatedintheearly1960sbecauseofasouthernfadforseal-skintrimmedclothingandseal-skinboots.(Thiswasbeforethecontroversyoverthehuntingofbabysealscaughtthepublicattention.)Atthesametime,thecaribouherdsthatroamedovernorthernBaffinIsland,andhadneverbeenlarge,werediminished.Consequently,Tununermiutfounditmoreeconomicaltowearclothingthewomenmadefromclothpurchasedatthetradingpost,exceptforseal-skinbootsandcaribou-hideparkas.(Infact,themajorityofmendidnotowncaribouparkas.Iwasunable

toobtainonebecausehidesweresimplynotavailable.)Theprimitivesewingmachineswereimportant,therefore,inthemanufactureofclothing.ThreeAullativikwomenownedtheirownmachinesandprizedthemdearly,buteachwasalwayswillingtoloanhermachinetoaneighbourorrelative.Traditionalpatternsofsharingwereextendedeventothesestatusitems.

Intermsofhuntingtechnology,theTununermiuthadreplacedtheharpoonsoftheirancestorswiththeriflesusedsincethewhalingperiod.Theexceptiontothiswasayoungmaninanothercampwhowasreputedtouseaharpooninhunting.Hewasadeviantinseveralrespects,neverhavingmarriedandcontinuing

tolivewellintoadulthoodwithhisparents.Noonecouldsatisfactorilyexplaintomehispreferenceforaharpoonoverarifle,andmyAullativikinformantsthoughthewasfoolishtodoso.Ispeculatedonwhetherhemightbeanincipientshaman,butthederisiondirectedtohimatsocialeventsheattendedinthesettlementsuggestedthathedidnothavethepresenceforthatrole.Verylikelyhewasmentallyretarded,butcapableenoughnottobeaburdentoothermembersofhiscamp.

Inanyevent,rifleswerethemostvaluedpossessionofTununermiutmen.InAullativik,fouroftheadultmenhadsingle-shot.22s,whichtheyusedtohuntsmallgamesuchasrabbitandptarmigan.Qamaniq,theincipientcapitalist,hadahigh-poweredtelescopiclensonhis.22,whichprobablycontributedtohishuntingsuccess.Heownedtheonly.222inthecamp,butothersaspiredtooneoftheirown,asevidencedbythefactthatwhenIpaidJimmyMuckpahattheendofmystaywithhisfamily,thefirstitemhepurchasedwasa.222.AllAullativikmiutmenhadWorldWarI.303s,heavy,high-poweredriflesdesignedtokillpeople.Themenofthecampusedthemtohunteverythingfromduckstopolarbears.Thereasonwasthattheyreceivedfreeammunitionfor.303s,whereastheyhadtobuybulletsfortheir.22s,andthatwasonlypossiblewhentheyhadskinstotrade.Theyhadbeenissuedthe.303sasmembersoftheCanadiangovernment'sGroundObserverCorps,andaslongastheyremainedmembersoftheCorpstheyreceivedanannualissueofammunition.Inreturn,theywereexpectedtowatchtheArcticskiesforsightingsofforeignaircraftandtoreportanysightings.Inmomentsofdepressionmyspiritssoaredatthesightofmen,faithfultotheirduty,watchinghigh-flyingjetsstreakacrossthesky,thenrunningintotheirhousestolookupthemarkingsintheirEnglishcodebooks,andfinallythrowinguptheirhandsandlaughing.Eveniftheyidentifiedthemarkingsofalow-flyingaircraft,theycouldnotaffordtointerrupt

theirhuntingtotakethetriptoPondInlettoreportit.

TransistorradioscouldbefoundinmanyTununermiutcamphouses,andthereweretwoinAullativik,ownedbyQamaniqandJimmyMuckpah.Qamaniqalsoownedaportablephonograph,whichheusedthatwinterinaningeniousmannertoprovideakindofradiostationforthecamp.Hetookthedetachablespeakerfromhisphonographandinstalleditinthehomeofhisfather,Arniatsiark,andthenconnectedtheturntabletohisownradio.ExtensionsconnectedtheturntablewiththeradioinJimmyMuckpah'shouseandthespeakerinArniatsiark'shouse.WhenQamaniqplayedhisJohnnyCashrecordingsafterthat,theycouldbeheard

inthreeseparatehouses.Heandtheothermenconstructedalargeantennaonthehillbehindthecampandattachedittothetworadiossoastoimprovereception.

TheradiosinAullativikprovidedanimportantlinkwiththeoutsideworld.Despitethearchaicstateofthetworadios,Aullativikwasunusuallywellsituatedforreceptionofradiosignals.EachnightwelistenedtoacountryandwesternstationinWheeling,WestVirginia,andIreceivedwordoftheassassinationofJohnF.KennedyfromastationinDallas,Texas,minutesafterthetragedyoccurred.EveryWednesdayeveningallAullativikmiutinthecampthatdaywouldgatherinJimmyMuckpah'shome,thelargestinthecamp,tolistentothehalf-hourInuit-languagebroadcastcarriedontheCBCNorthernService.Theannouncer,AnnPadlo,wasfromPondInletherself,andherfamilystilllivedinthesettlement,sotheprogramofinformationandnewshadspecialmeaningfortheTununermiut.TheAullativikmiutalsolistenedregularlytoInuit-languageprogramsontheGodthaab(Greenland)station,whichcarrieddramatizedversionsofInuitlegendsanddiscussionsofthreatstothepossibleretentionofInuitidentityandculture,whichwerebeginningtotroubletheGreenlanders.TheaccentsoftheGreenlandersweresubtlyridiculed,buttheirdiscussionsweretakenseriously.IcanrecallJimmyMuckpahexpressingdeepconcernathearingthatuseoftheInuitlanguagewasdyingoutinGreenland.

EveryadultmalehadatleastoneKomatik,orsled,andmosthadtwo.InAullativikallhadtwo.TheyweretheheavyKomatiksofthehigheasternArctic,madetobestrongandsturdy,yetflexible,sothattheycouldtakethepunishmentmetedoutbywintertravelindarknessovericethathadbrokenandrefrozenatleastoncebeforehardeningpermanently,andsowaslitteredwithsharpoutcrops.Theycouldplungeoverfive-foot-highprecipiceswithoutbeingseriouslydamaged.Thetraditionalrunnersofwhaleboneshadbeenreplaced

bywoodenonescoveredwithmetalstrips,purchasedattheBaypost.Somemenwouldhavetwosleds,onesmalloneforhuntingandaheavieroneforuseonlongtripsandfamilyvisitstothesettlement.Whicheveronewasnotinuseatanygiventimewasturnedupsidedownandplacedontwogasolinedrums,thusbecomingausefulstorageunitforfoodandunusedequipmentthatwouldnotbehurtbyfreezing,buthadtobekeptoutofthereachofdogs.

TherewasonlyonekayakinTununermiutcountryin1963itwasownedbytheareaadministratorinPondInlet,whohadbroughtitwithhimfromCapeDorset,hispreviousposting.In-

stead,canoesandsmallrowboatswereused,allpoweredbyoutboardmotors.InAullativikthefourmalehouseholdheadsallhadtheirownboatandmotors,andQamaniqhadtwomotors.Therewasalsoawhale-boatabulky,oldPeterheadcraftpoweredbyaninboardengine.TheboatwasunderthecontrolofArniatsiark,theheadman,butwascommunallyowned.Itwasusedmainlyforthetransportationofwomenandchildreninmovesbetweenthesummerandwintercamps,andforoccasionalsummertripsbyfamiliestothesettlementofPondInlet.

OtherpersonalpossessionsofTununermiutindividualsandfamiliesconsistedofclothing,kerosenelampsinafewhomes,thesewingtoolsofwomen,andthehuntingequipmentofmen,suchasbutcheringknives.Everyfamilyhadastore-boughtsaw,usedinhouseconstructionandrepairand,onoccasion,inplaceofthetraditionalsnowknifetocutblocksofsnowfortrailsnowhouses.Mostmenhadafewassortedtools,whichwereloanedfreelybackandforthbetweenthem.Allofthemenhadwristwatches,andsomeofthefamiliesownedalarmclocks,whichwereusedtosignalimportantevents,suchaschurchservices,butrarelyforawakeningpeople.

Otherthanasacalltoservices,theTununermiutofthatperiodhadlittleusefortheclock.Childrensleptwhentheyweretiredandclimbedfromtheirblanketswhentheywererefreshedorhungry.Mensleptforlongperiodsafterreturningfromhuntingtrips,butonthetripsusedtheirinternalbiologicalclockstoregulatetime,usuallysleepingforshortperiodsoffourorfivehoursatatime.Onsuchhuntingtripstheywouldkeepgoing,oftenfortwentyormorehours,untilfatiguehadreachedthelevelatwhichthecoldbegantowearonthem.Onlythenwouldtheystopandbuildasnowhouseinwhichtorest.Thisattitudetowardstimewastopresentaproblemwhen,afewyearslater,familiesmovedtoPondInlet,wherethemenfoundwagelabourandthechildrenbegantoattendschool.InAullativiktheyused

watchesandclockstotellthehourandtosomeextentforplanning,buttheywerenotyetboundbytheirtyranny.

Theintroductionofpersonalandlargelynon-utilitarianitemssuchaswatchesandradiosseemedtome,atthetime,tobehavingradicaleffectsonTununermiutconceptionsofpersonalproperty.Traditionally,ofcourse,materialitemshadbeenlimitedtohandmadetoolsandweapons,andhuntingcraftssuchaskayaksandsleds.Withtheexceptionsofsuchthingsaschildren'stoys,virtuallyeverythingownedwasutilitarianandrelatedtosubsistenceactivities.Wealthwasnotmeasuredintermsofpersonalproperty,al-

thoughanindividualwhowasabettercraftsmanthanhisfellowbandmembersmightbeenviedhisownequipment.Itwasobviouslyaninconvenienceandaburdenforhighlymobilepeopletoaccumulateexcessivematerialgoods.Mendidcachemeatunderrocks,andagoodhuntermighthavemorecachesthanothers,butmeatwasnotconsideredapersonalpossession,andanindividualwouldbehonour-boundtosharehissupplywithkinspeopleandothermembersofhisband.Takingmeatfromanotherman'scachewascompletelyappropriatebehaviourifonewasinneedoffood.Thisimplicitanddeeplyengrainedpatternofgenerosityevenextendedtohuntingimplements,whichwerefreelyshared,attimeswithouttheexplicitconsentoftheowner.

ThetraditionalpatternoffreeborrowingisillustratedinasituationthatIobservedinthefallof1963.OneoftheRCMPspecialconstables,aTununermiut,wasonahuntingtripinthevicinityofAullativikand,aswascustomary,spentthenightatthecamp.Hewastravellingbycanoe.Twodaysafterheleft,thewatersofEclipseSoundfrozeover.Severalweekslater,themenfromAullativikwenttothesiteoftheabandonedsummercamptoretrievesomehouseholdutensilsthathadbeenleftthere.JimmyMuckpahalsointendedtobringbackthesecondofhisownsleds,whichhehadleftnearbythepreviousspring.SincetheyhadnotplannedtospendanotherwinteratAullativik,hehaddecidedtoleavethesledatamoreconvenientlocation.Onourarrivalwediscoveredthatthesledwasgone.Thespecialconstablehadleftacacheofgasolinenearwherethesledhadbeenstored,andeveryoneassumedthathehadtakenit.Noconcernwasexpressed,andwereturnedtoAullativik.Whenwenextvisitedthesettlementsomeweekslater,JimmylearnedthattheicehadformedbeforethespecialconstablehadlefttheAullativikarea,andconsequentlyhehadbeenunabletoreturnhomebycanoe.Hehadtakenthesled,loadedhisboatandgearonit,andpulleditacross

EclipseSoundtoBylotIsland,adistanceofatleastfiftymiles.Heleftthesledatthelocalcamp,Illukisaat,andarrangedfortransportationbackacrosstoPondInlet.BeforereturningtoAullativik,wemadealongdetourtoBylotIslandtoretrievethesled,andthatwastheendoftheaffair.IwasgentlyridiculedwhenIaskedwhythespecialconstablehadn'tbeenexpectedtoreturnthesledhimself.

Oneanecdote,ofcourse,doesn'tmakeageneralization,butshortlybeforemydeparturein1964IadministeredaquestionnairetoalladultTununermiut,whichhadbeendesignedtoexplorethewaysinwhichindividualsandcategoriesofindividuals(suchasmalesandfemales),interpretedCanadianlawandgovernmental

processesandstructures.PartofitconsistedofaseriesofhypotheticalsituationsinwhichanindividualwasconfrontedwithachoicebetweenresolvingaproblembyobservingCanadianlaw,orresortingtotraditionalInuitlegalnorms.Oneoftheseraisedthequestionofwhatapersonwoulddoifsomeonehadraidedhismeatcachewithoutaskinghispermission,andallrespondentsansweredthatifsuchasituationdidoccur,thepersonwouldobviouslyhavebeeninneedofthefood,andnoreprisalwouldbesought.

Toreturntomypoint,however,suchrecentacquisitionsaswatchesandradios,althoughofrecognizedutility,werenotdirectlyrelatedtosubsistenceactivities,andIthoughtthatIsawemergingtrendsintheirusethatwouldalterdrasticallythetraditionalpatternoffreeborrowing.Forexample,arifleorharpoonmightbeloanedoutforafewdayswhiletheownerremainedincamp,say,repairingotherequipment,butaradiowouldbeuseddailybyhiswifeorhimaslongasoneofthemwasincamp,andtakenalongonforaysintotheinteriorinsearchofcaribou.Iwillsaymoreonthistopicinalaterchapter,butasthingsturnedout,mypredictionofanemergingacquisitiveethicwasbasicallyincorrect.In1973,whenIreturnedtoPondInlet,althoughthematerialpossessionsfoundinTununermiuthomeshadincreasedimmenselyasaconsequenceoffull-timeinvolvementinawageeconomy,permanentresidence,enlargedhomes,andasharplyincreasedlevelofaffluenceamongvirtuallyeveryone,traditionalpatternsoffreeborrowingwerestillmaintainedandinsomewayshadbecomeamechanismfortheretentionofInuitidentity.

Contact-TraditionalEconomics

SoapstonecarvinghadbecomeabasicindustryinmanyCanadianInuitcommunitiesby1963,butlittlecarvingwasdonebytheTununermiut.EachmonthafewpieceswouldturnupintheHBCpost

inPondInlet,tobeeitherplacedondisplayforpossiblepurchasebyanoccasionalpilotorothervisitortothesettlement,orshippedsouthtoWinnipegfordistributiontosouthernCanadianoutlets,butingeneraltheTununermiutresistedtheideaofregularcarving.JimmyMuckpahmadeseveralpiecesforme,asapersonalfavour,butheandKadlooweretheonlyAullativikmiuttocarve,andJimmyfounditatediousactivity,notfullyworthyofahunter.Whenhedidcarve,hewouldjokeabouthisneedfor''coldcash."Asfull-timehunters,themenofAullativikprovidedthefoodstaplesfortheirfamilies,andtheirhuntingactivitiesenabledthemto

tradesealskinsforotherfoodstuffssuchasflour,tea,sugar,andsalt.Onlyemergencieswouldinducementoturntocarving.

Meatwasthemainstaple,andthebasicmeatwasseal,whichwashuntedyearround,byboatinsummerandonandthroughiceinwinter.ThereisanaverageoftwomonthsofopenwatereachyearonEclipseSoundandNavyBoardInlet,andmenwouldbegintousetheirboatsassoonasthefirstcracksappearedintheice.Conversely,sledswereputtouseinearlyfallbeforetheicehadevenhardened.Icanrecallsittingonasledgoingacrossnewlyformedicewiththesledcreatinganeffectlikethatofafingerbeingtracedacrossthetopofafreshlybakedspongecake;afewdayslater,Iranalongsideasledthatleftbehinditachannelofthinfracturedice.Tostoponeitheroccasion,evenmomentarily,wouldhavebeendisastrous.Butthemenwereexcitedaboutgettingtheirsledsout.

Infall,wheniceformed,boatsandcanoeswerestrappedontopofsledsandtakentotheincreasinglydistantlastremnantsofopenwaterforthefinalsummerhuntingoftheyear.Inwinter,breathing-holehuntingwasstillpractised.Itispossiblythemostpunishingformofhuntingknown,forthehunterhadtostandmotionlessforperhapsseveralhoursoverabreathinghole,waitingforthesoundsofasealtakinginair.(TheTununermiuthadgivenupmuchofthetechnologytraditionallyusedinbreathing-holehunting,suchasdownindicators,ifinfacttheyhadeverusedthem.ThisequipmentiseffectivelydemonstratedinsomeoftheNetsilikfilmsmadebyAsenBalicki,withwhichsomereadersmaybefamiliar.)

By1963thetraditionalback-breakingandbone-chillingtechniquehadbeensupplementedbytheuseofsealnets.Artificialbreathingholesweremadeafewyardsacrosstheicefromanactivelyusedone,andnetsstrungbetweenthembeneaththeice.Thenetshadtobeexaminedalmostdaily,forotherwisesealicewouldattacktheskinsof

trappedanimals,makingthemunmarketableandofnouseforclothing.OneincidentthatIobservedin1963illustratedtheimportanceofcooperationeveninsuchanindividualisticsocietyasthatoftheTununermiut.Onthisoccasion,twoofthemenfromAullativikandIhadgoneonanextendedhuntingtrip,leavingthenetsinthecareofanotherindividualwhohadelectedtohuntinthevicinityofthecamp.Wereturnedseveraldayslatertofindtheholessofrozenoverthatittookhourstobreakthemfree,andthenetswerebadlydamagedasaconsequence.Thetwohunterswerefurious,andseriouslyconsidereddemandingthattheindividualresponsibleleavethecampperma-

nently.Eventuallytheydecidedthathecouldremain,butwithaharshreprimandaspunishment.Hisexplanationwasthatduringourabsencehehaddecidedonthespurofthemomenttotakehisfamilyonatriptoanothercamp.Hewastheleastcompetenthunterinthecamp,andhadaweakpowerbase,sothethreatenedbanishmentmightwellhavebeencarriedout.However,itwashisveryincompetencethatprobablysavedhim,fortheothermenlaughedattheirownfoolishnessinhavinglefthimwithmoreresponsibilitythanhecouldhandle.

Duringthewinterof1963inAullativikthesealnetsyielded,ontheaverage,approximatelytwosealsperweekforeachhousehold.Thiswasbarelyenoughfoodforthedogs,butitdidprovideskinsfortrading.Breathing-holehuntingbroughtevenlowerreturns,andsothepeoplewereheavilydependentuponmeatthathadbeencachedthepreviousspringandsummer.Asthecachesweredepletedandhuntingbecamelessproductiveduringthelatermonthsofwinter,therewereseveralperiodswhentherewasnomeatinthecamp.Duringthese,thechildrenwouldbecomedrawnandthinastheysubsistedonbannock,ifindeedflourwasavailable.Ononeoccasionwe"raided"acacheofanarwhalleftbyamarinebiologisttheprevioussummer.Hehadtoldthelocalpeopletoleavethemeat,asitwasfullofparasites,butthatdidnotbotherthem.Irecalltheirlaughterwhenthemenuncoveredtherancidmeatandcutofflargepiecesofskintoeatonthespot.TheythoughtthatthiswasonemeatthatIwouldnotsharewiththem,buteventhoughmyhungerpangshaddiminishedafterdayswithoutfood,Iforcedmyselftojointhem,andintheactpassedthroughonemoreinformalriteofpassage.

Thereawakeningofthelandthatcomeswiththearrivalofspringispossiblymorebreath-takinginthemountainousregionssurroundingPondInletthaninanyotherpartoftheCanadianArctic.ThesunbeginstocastitsreflectiononthetallercliffsinlateFebruaryorearly

March,andbyAprilithasreturnedinitsfullglory,shiningbrilliantlyforclosetotwenty-fourhourseachday,andheraldingthereturnofthefemalesealsandtheircubs.Inlatespringhuntingwasatitsbest;theyoungsealsandtheirmotherswouldclimboutontotheicetosunthemselves,thusbecomingeasypreyforhunters,whowouldcreepclosetothemwhilehiddenbehindwhitescreen-coveredprops.Duringthisperiodmenwouldoftenmovetheirfamiliesfromtheirownwintercampstootherswherethehuntingmightbebetter,andsomecampswouldswellwithnewcomerswhileotherswouldbevirtuallyabandoned.Astheever-presentsunmeltedtheupperlayersofice,however,

andthefirstcracksappearedintheice,theoldgroupswouldreformandmovetotheirsummercamps,usuallyinlateMayorearlyJune.

ThestapleofTununermiutdietduringthecontact-traditionalperiod,then,wasseal,andmostofthehunters'timewasspentinquestofit.However,fromlatespringtoearlyfallcaribouherdsroamedtheinteriorofBaffinIsland,andalthoughtheherdshadbeendiminished,familieseagerlylookedforwardtoforaysinlandinsearchofthem.Duringthesummermonths,thearcticgooseandseveralvarietiesofduckwerehunted,andptarmiganandarcticharesporadicallythroughoutfallandwinter.Insummer,duringperiodsofopenwater,arcticcharwasfishedwithnets,andduringearlyfallmenwouldfishtheinlandlakesthroughnewlyformedice.Thefishwasusuallystoredincachesandusedduringthewinterfordogfoodandasasupplementtothehumandiet.Bannockandtearoundedoutthediet,althoughhandfulsofdriedvegetablesand,inparticular,driedonionswereoftentossedintosoupsandstews.SmallamountsofcannedfoodwerepurchasedinPondInlet,buttheyweregenerallyusedupbeforethemenhadbeenbackincampfortwoorthreedays.WhenitwasavailableintheHBCstore,candywasalwaysboughtforthechildrenwhenthemenwereintotradethebeginningofanominoustrendinnutritionanddentalhealth.

WomenwouldvisitthesettlementatfestivetimessuchasChristmasandusuallytwoorthreetimeseachsummer,butingeneralthemenofAullativikmadethefoodpurchases,andconsequentlyhadconsiderablecontroloverdietarypatterns.Womenwouldmakesuggestions,butwhatwaspurchasedlargelydependedonwhatwasavailable,andsomenexercisedagreatdealofindividualchoiceinthematter.Insomecamps,locatednearertothesettlement,womenmoreoftenaccompaniedmenontripsintotradeskins,andsothisdomesticpatternwasnotinvariant.TheAullativikmiutvisitedthesettlementatleastonceeverysixweeks,andusuallyonceeach

month,andtheywouldnormallyreturnhomeonedayafterarrival,unlessthetripcoincidedwithaweekend,inwhichcasetheywouldremainforthechurchserviceattheAnglicanmissiononSunday.Asarule,twoorthreemenwouldmakethetriptogether,oftensharingonecanoeorboatonsummertrips.

SexualRolesandDivisionofLabour

SomeyearsagoIheardapaper,deliveredatananthropological

ElisapeeandSuzyMuckpah.Aullativik,1963.

conference,inwhichInuitmenwerecharacterizedashulking,demandingmalechauvinistsandtheirwivesaspoor,desperatecreatureswhospenttheirdayshuddledoverakudlik.AsJeanBriggs(1974)hasvividlydescribedelsewhere,suchacharacterizationisacaricature,entirelyunfairtoInuitwomenandtheircontemporaryroleinsettlementssuchasPondInlet,wherewomenholdseveralprominentandpowerfulelectiveofficesintheformalpoliticalstructures.ItalsoconveysafalseimageofInuitmales.

Asthediscussionoffood-purchasingpatternssuggests,thedivisionofeconomicandotheractivitiesbetweenmalesandfemalesincontact-traditionalTununermiutsocietywastoocomplexandinterconnectedtobedismissedbyrhetoric,howeverwell-intentioned.ThepersonwhodeliveredthepaperIheardhadbeeninfluencedbytheavailableliteratureontheInuit,fromwhichitisnotdifficulttoextractanimageofchauvinisticmalehuntersdominatingtheirwomenandtradingthembackandforthasiftheywereproperty.Thisconceptioncan,Ibelieve,beexplainedintwoways.Inthefirstplace,withafewnotableexceptionstheethnographersoftheInuithavebeenmale.AndgiventhattheywerewillingtodofieldworkamongtheInuitinthe

firstplace,theymusthaveoftenbeenmenofadventuresomespiritwhowereenamouredofthehuntitself,anditsactivities.Itispossiblethatfor

themcontrolofthehuntalsomeantsocialdominance.Secondly,theveryfactthattheyweremalelimitedtheirobservationstothesphereofmaleactivity.Theywerenotasprivytothefemalerealm,andsocouldnotdescribeitastheycouldthatofthemale.Theyprobablyarenottobecriticizedexcessivelyfortheirfailings,ofcourse,fortheywereproductsoftheirowntimeandofaparticularperiodinthehistoryofanthropology.Nevertheless,theirdescriptionsare,asaconsequence,typicallyskewedandmaleoriented.

Beingamale,Iwasnaturallylimitedinmyownopportunitiestomakeconsistentandregularobservationsoffemalebehaviour,andItendedtoactwithinthemalesphere.JimmyandtheothermenhadtakenmeseriouslywhenItoldthemthatIwantedtolearntolivelikeanInuit,andthismeantthatIusuallyaccompaniedthemonhuntsandothertravels.Duringthisperiod,ofsemi-sedentarycamplife,womenonlyinfrequentlywentalongonsuchexpeditions.Atthesametime,though,Iwasnottotallyexcludedfromthefemalesphere,attimesbecauseofsimplegoodluck.

OnthreeoccasionswhileIlivedatAullativikIwasforcedbyillnesstoremainincampwhilethemenwentoffonhuntingtrips,andoneachIwasabletoobserveTununermiutwomenintheabsenceoftheirmen.Onespecialsituation,whichIinitiallyregardedasadisaster,affordedmeaspecialopportunitytoobservefemalebehaviour.Ihadmadearrangementsinthespringof1964toborrowadogteamandsledfromafriendinPondInletandtovisitIllukisaat,hisfather'scamponBylotIsland.Ihadreceivedaninvitationfromthefather,whowasalsoheadmaninthecamp,someweeksbefore,andIhadplannedtospendtwoweekswithhisfamily.Apparentlythefatherforgotaboutthearrangements,andIarrivedtodiscoverthatthemenwereallawayonanextendedhuntingtrip;onlywomenandchildrenwereleft.Theheadman'swife,agentleandhospitablematron,seemedundistressedbythesituationandinvitedmetostayinher

homefortwoweeksanyway.InspiteofsomereservationsIacceptedherkindoffer,feelingthatIwouldbediscourteoustodootherwise.IwasnotsurewhatIwoulddowithmytime,feelingratherawkward,butsoonrealizedthatIhadbeenaffordedrareopportunitytoobservefemaleinteractionpatternsintheabsenceofmalesinasettingotherthanAullativik.Mypresencemadethesituationsomewhatartificial,ofcourse,andmyfeelingsofdiscomfortmusthavebeenobvious,butInuithospitalityprevailedandIsoonbecameasmuchaspossiblepartofthescenery.Muchofmytime,whenIwasnotcaringformydogsorvisiting,wasspentsittingonasmallcliffoverlookingthecampandwatchingtheactivitiesbelow.(Perhapsthisisagood

Womancleaningsealskin.Aullativik,1963.

placetomentionthatduringtheentiretimeIlivedwiththeTununermiutIwasneverofferedsexualhospitality,nordidIeverrequestit.)

Anthropologistshavewrittenextensivelyinrecentyearsaboutpatternsofbondingamongmalesinhuntingsocieties.Certainly,cooperationbetweenTununermiutmenwasanessentialcomponentoftheirrelationswithoneanotherineconomicandotheraffairs.However,theconverse,femalebonding,wasadecidedaspectoffemalerelationshipsamongtheTununermiut.Insteadofsittinghunchedovertheirkudliks,Tununermiutwomenspentmuchoftheirtimevisitingbackandforthintheirhomesorintheopenair.Theywould,asI'vementioned,freelyborrowequipmentsuchassewingmachinesfromoneanother,andwouldpasscansoftobaccobackandforthwhensharingakettleoftea.IwasneverfluentenoughinInuktituttobeabletofollowcarefullytheirconversationswithoneanother(forIwasalwaysintheroleofeavesdropperwhenlisteningtothem),butIdidnotethattheirtalkwasfilledwithhumourandinterspersedwithagreatdealoflaughter.Likewomeninsouthernsociety,theydiscussedtheirchildren,plansfortheirnextshopping

triptothesettlement,andothersuchmatters.Therewasmuchjokingabouttheirhusbandsandothermen,withexplicitsexualreferences.Whilethewoman

whowashostesswouldworkawayonaparkashewasmakingforherhusbandorachild,oranewpairofboots,hervisitorwouldsitbesideheronthesleepingplatformsmokingandmakingsuggestions.Itwasnotsomuchaneconomicbonding,then,foreachwomanwashighlyindependentinfulfillingherowndomesticobligations,butratheroneofsocialandpsychologicalsharing.

Toreturntothetopicofthedivisionoflabourbetweenmalesandfemales,ithastobeadmittedthatinbothtraditionalandcontact-traditionalTununermiutthemenwerethehunters,andhuntingskillswerebothhighlyvaluedandthebasisfortheacquisitionofovertpoliticalauthorityandinfluence.However,onceananimalhadbeenkilledandskinned,theprocessingofthehideandcarcassusuallybecametheresponsibilityofthewife.Iftheanimalwastobecached,itwouldbeburied"onthetrail"bythehunter,aftertheskinhadbeencutoff.Ifitwasbroughtbacktothecamp,thehunterwouldskinitandthencutawaythethickfattytissuejustundertheskin,whichthewifewouldthenrenderintofatforcookingandheating.(ApopularimageoftheInuitattableisofindividualsconsuminglargehunksofrawblubber.Contrarytothisstereotype,althoughtheTununermiutofthecontact-traditionalperioddidfavourfattymeat,sealwasthemainstapleintheirlarders,andoncetheouterlayeroffathasbeenremovedfromasealthemeatthatisleftisnotfattyorevenmarbled.Itissomewhatoily,however,andhasarich,sweettaste.Sealmeatisanacquiredtasteforthesoutherner,butafterexistingonitforseveralmonthsIfoundthatIpreferredittobeef.Becauseofitsodor,manysouthernvisitorstotheArcticdisdaintoeatit,andtherebyforgoaspecialculinaryexperience.Theyoftenlimitthemselvestotheliverandheart,whicharelessaromaticandoily.)

LardpurchasedattheHBCpostwouldbeusedforfrying,ifitwasavailable,butthemenpreferredtheirbannockmadewithsealoil.Bannockmadethiswaywouldnotfreeze,andsochunkscouldbe

brokenoffaloafandeatenwithamugofteaatrestbreakswhenonthetrail.Sealoilwasastapleofthediet.

Thewomenwouldthenscrapetheskincleanofanyresidueoffat,washit,andstringitonadryingrack.Onceitwasdried,thewomenwouldscrapeofftheoilyresiduefromtheunderside,rolluptheskin,andstoreitinthetentorhouseuntilitwastimetotradeitormakeitintoapairofboots,orpossiblycutitinacircular,coil-likemannertofashionalongbullwhip.

Thefeedingoftheever-hungrydogswasaprocedureinitself,carriedoutjointlybymenandwomen.Themenwouldcutthemeatintosmallpiecesandfeedthepupsandnursingbitchesfirst,

whilethewomenstoodabouttheminacirclewieldingwhipsandstavestowardoffthehowlingmales.Ifmeatwasmeantforhumanconsumption,itwouldbecutupbythewomenoutdoorsinthesummer,or,incoldertimesoftheyear,thecarcasswouldbebroughtintothehousetobetakenapartmealbymeal.

LikeotherInuit,theTununermiuthadtraditionallyeatenmostoftheirmeatraw,butby196364theyincreasinglycookedtheirfood.Meat,ifcooked,waseitherfriedorboiled.Fryingwasdoneoveraprimusstoveandwasusuallylimitedtotheheartandliver.

Normallyonlyonemainmealwaseateneachday,andifnoonefeltlikecookingeventhiswasomitted.Childrenandadultsalikeatewhenevertheyfeltlikeit,iffoodwasavailable,andchildrencouldoftenbeseenwalkingfromhousetohousechewingonapieceofleatherymeat.Whenmealswereprepared,bannockwasalwaysapartofthem,andwasatothertimesusedasafillerwhentherewasnomeat.Onspecialoccasions,orwhenthewifeofthehousefelttheurgetomakethem,pancakeswereprepared,andifenoughmoneyhadbeenleftoverafterbasicfoodstuffswerepurchasedatthestore,coffeeboiledinapotwouldbeservedwiththepancakes.Womenalwaysmadethebannockandpancakesincamps,butonthetrailmenwould,ofcourse,dotheirowncooking,whichwasusuallylimitedtofryingliver.(Iwasnevercertainwhethermeatwascookedonhuntingtripsindeferencetomyownpreferenceforcookedmeatorbecauseitwastheirpractice.Iregularlyaterawmeatinthecamp,andevendevelopedatasteforrawsealandcariboumeatandfish.)Themenatecamp-cookedmealsaboutone-thirdofthetime.

ThestereotypedimageoftheInuitwomanhadsomebasisinfact,inthatwomendidspendmuchoftheirtimesittingontheirsideofthesleepingplatform.However,therewasalwaysabacklogoftaskstobeperformedwhilesitting,andtherewasusuallyacompaniontohelp

passthetime.Someofthesetaskswerefromasouthernperspectiveonerous,suchaschewingseal-skinboots.Ifthesebecomewet,theydryintoacardboard-likestate.Iftheyarenottoostiff,theycanbesoftenedbywalkinginthemthroughsoftsnow,butiftheyaretoohardtobeforcedontothefeettheymustbechewed,anditwasthechoreofthewomentosoftentheminthisway.

Ontheotherhand,ofcourse,theTununermiutwomenwerenotforcedtogoonthelong,punishinghuntingtrips,duringwhichmenwouldoftentravelforhoursatatimeinbone-chillingtemperatures,stoppingforafewhoursofsleepinahastilybuiltsnowhouseandthenventuringononceagain.Womendidnothave

topullsealnetsfromthewater,feelingthemfreezealmostinstantlyintheArcticair.Therewasexcitementinthehunts,andmenlookedforwardtothem,buttheywerenoteasy,andwomenincontact-traditionalperiodsweresparedthem.Whenthemenwereout,womenwouldvisitbackandforthandhouseswouldresoundwithlaughteratthestoriestold,buttherewasalsoanunderlyingtension,afearthatthemenwouldreturnfromthehuntwithoutmeat,orperhapsnotreturnatall.Thestressofthesecircumstanceswasgreaterforwomenthanformen,Ibelieve,formenweretosomeextentincontrolofthehunting,andthusthefoodsupply,whilethewomenhadtostaybehindandworry.Thefemalesocialbondingdescribedearlierwasverylikelyinlargepartanadaptivetechniquefordissipatingtheanxietyproducedbythisstress.Laughteriscommonlyusedinhumansocietiestomaskandrelievepsychologicaltension,andthejokingbetweenwomenwhenmenwereoutonahuntservedthisfunction.Men,ofcourse,alsosufferedfromtheanxietyofnotknowingiftheywouldbesuccessful,andmuchlaughterandjokingoccurredamongthemwhilehunting.

Whenmenreturnedfromahunteitherwithfreshlykilledanimalsormeatfromcaches,theywouldstopamileorsooutontheice,inviewofthetwinklinglightsofthecampinthedistance,chopthefrozenmeatintosmallpieces,andthenunharnessandfeedtheirdogs.Thiswasdonetoensurethattheirowndogs,wearyfromthetrip,wouldbefedbeforetheothercampdogs.Therewas,then,apragmaticreasonforthepause,butitalsohadovertonesofsexualposturing,forafterhavingeaten,thedogswouldbedrivenintoafrenzybythewhipsandshoutsofthemen,andwouldstreakacrosstheicetocoverthelastdistancehome.Womenandchildren,alertedbythecriesofthedogs,wouldtossjacketsovertheirshouldersandrunouttomeettheapproachingteamsandassistintheunharnessing.

Nomatterwhatthetimeofnightorday,familieswouldthenretireto

theirownhomesandhusbandsandwiveswouldsitupforhoursrecountingtheeventsofthehuntingtripandgossipingaboutwhathadhappenedinthecampwhilethemenhadbeenaway.

CareandTrainingoftheYoung

Likefoodpreparation,childtrainingamongtheTununermiutin1963wasajointventureofhusbandandwife.The"favoriteson"complexwasverymuchapartofTununermiutdomesticlife,withthestatususuallyconferredontheyoungestmalechild.This

childreceivedpreferentialtreatmentatthehandsofhisparents,anditwasanactoffoolhardinessforanoldersiblingtomistreathisorheryoungestbrother,evenif,untilthelatestbirthinthefamily,thatsiblinghadbeenthefavouritesonhimself.Untilachildwasweaned,itwastheexclusiveconcernofthemother,whowouldfussoveritandingeneralbehaveinahighlyindulgentmanner.Toalesserextentthechildwouldbecoddledbythefatherandothersiblings.Asitmatured,itwouldincreasinglybecometheresponsibilityofanoldersisterorfemalecousin,evenifthatpersonwasonlyeightornineyearsold.Awoman'sparkawouldusuallybemadeforthesister/cousin,andshewouldcarryheryoungwardaboutthecamponherbackintheouterhoodwhilesheplayedwithherpeers.Inthiswaythemotherwasfreetoeitherindulgeanewinfantiftherewasoneortoengageinotheractivitiesthatsheconsideredimportant.Shewouldbeconstantlyonthewatchfortimeswhentheolderdaughtermightbelesspermissivewiththechildinhercarethantraditionallowed.Asarule,theworldofchildrenincontact-traditionalTununermiuthomes,oncetheyhadpassedinfancy,wasinmanyrespectsseparatefromthatofadults.Particularlyinsummer,childrenwouldplayatanyandallhoursofthedayornight.Irememberoftenwakingonmorningstofindsmallchildrencominghometosleepafteranightofactivity(themidnightsungavethemlightduringsummernights).

Whenboysreachedtheageofabouttenyears,theyquicklylostanyfavouritestatustheymayhaveenjoyedandbegantrainingforadulthood.Atthatagetheybegantobetakenalongwiththemenonshorthuntingtrips,ortocheckonthesealnetsorthefoxline.Fromthenontheyleftbehindtheprotectedworldofthehomeandincreasinglyweregivennewresponsibilities.Inspring,forexample,ayoungmanmightbetakenalongwithhisolder,marriedbrotheronahuntingtrip,andtoldtocontrolthedogswhilethebrothercreptuponasealbaskinginthesun.Responsibilitytrainingwasstandard

procedureforadolescents,andyouthswhowerenegligentweresubjectedtotheharshverbalridiculeoffathers,brothers,andothermen.Iobservedseveraladolescentsinanumberofcampsbeingputthroughthistraining,butinAullativikin1963onlyPaneelook,tenyearsoldatthetime,experiencedthisdiscontinuityinthebehaviourexpectedofhim.Untilthatyearhehadbeenthefavouredsonofhisfather'searliermarriage.Hisolderbrother,Qamaniq,andhisbrother-in-law,JimmyMuckpah,becamebothhistormentorsandtutors.Thefather,Arniatsiark,wasasolitaryindividualwhousuallyhuntedalone,andQamaniqwasinlinetoreplacehimasheadman.Thetwomenteasedthe

NoahMuckpahandfriends.Aullativik,1963.

youthwithoutmercy,butalsotaughthimtheskillsofahunter.Heacceptedthediscontinuityjoyously,forhewasenteringthesphereofadults:thenewstatushewasmovingtowardsmorethancompensatedforthenewresponsibilitiesplaceduponhim.ThefollowingyearPaneelookbecameapupilinthenewschoolinPondInletandlostsomethingthatatthetimeIthoughthewouldneverrecovertheprideassociatedwithbecomingahunter.BythetimeIreturnedtoPondInletadecadelaterhehadbecomeanoilrigger,workingonrigsinthehighArcticnorthernislands,andwhileIwasinthefieldthattimehesubmittedanapplicationwiththelocalAdultEducationOfficertobesentsouthtoreceivetrainingasaheavyequipmentoperator,ashisolderbrotherQamaniqhaddone.Butwhenhewashomeonperiodsof''restandrecuperation"hewouldpackhisgearandgooffonhisownhuntingtrips.Theskillslearnedinhisadolescencehadstayedwithhim,buthadnotbeenlearnedbyhisyoungercontemporaries.

Younggirlsusuallyhadwarmrelationshipswiththeirfathers,buttheirtraininginadultsocialroleswaslefttotheirgrandmothers,oldersisters,and,toalesserextent,itseemedtome,theirmothers.Althoughtheyweregivenresponsibilitytrainingataconsiderably

earlieragethantheirbrothers,andfromtheageoffiveorsixyearswouldbeexpectedtoassistincaringfortheiryounger

siblings,nieces,andnephews,fulladultstatusdidnotcomeuntiltheymarried.Inthecontact-traditionalperiod,thatusuallytookplaceinmiddletolateteens.

TherewasonemarriageamongtheTununermiutduringmyfirsttimewiththem.Asixteen-year-oldgirlinAullativik,thedaughterofArniatsiark,hadbeenbetrothedininfancytoamaleinfantinacampattheothersideofPondInlet.Becauseofthedistancebetweenthetwocampsherfiancéhadnoopportunitytocourther,andindeed,asthetimefortheimpendingmarriageapproached,thetwoyoungpeoplewerestillvirtuallystrangerstooneanother.Traditionally,themarriagewouldhavebeenfinalizedbythetwosimplybeginningtolivewithoneanother,eithertemporarilyinoneoftheparentalhomesorinaresidenceoftheirown.AsCanadiancitizens,however,theywouldhavetohavetheirmarriagenotarizedbythelocalpolice.Allarrangementshadbeenmade,andtheRCMPcorporalinPondInletwaspreparedtohavethemsignthemarriagecertificate.

Afigurativewrenchwasthrownintotheplanswhen(Qamaniq,olderbrotherofthebridegroom,wentintoPondInlettoinformthecorporalthathissisterdidnotwantthemarriage,andthatinhisopinionshewastooyoungtobemarriedinanyevent.Concernedbythis,thecorporalinvitedthetwoprospectivemarriagepartnerstoameetingwiththeirparentsandhimself.Atthemeetingheaskedthetwoiftheyreallywantedtobemarriedtooneanother,andtheyansweredintheaffirmative.Hefelthehadnorecourseotherthantoperformthecivilceremonyandhavethemsignthecertificate,whichtheydid.AircraftonlyvisitedPondInleteverythreemonthsorsointheearly1960s,butonedidarriveshortlyaftertheceremony,andthecertificatewassentsouthonit.Afewweekslaterthebride,onatriptothesettlement,approachedtheRCMPcorporalinastateofabjectdepressiontoaskthatthemarriagebeannulled.ShewasinformedthatithadbeendulyregisteredinOttawa,andthatnothingcouldbedone

otherthantofiledivorceproceedings.IcitethisstoryatlengthbecauseitillustratesoneofthemanyareasofconflictbetweentraditionalcustomsandtheimposedlawsandnormsofsouthernCanadiansociety.Thecorporalhadsimplydonehisjob,whichwastoperformtheceremonyandregisterthemarriagecertificate.HehadtriedtoascertainthewishesoftheyoungInuitcouple,buthadeitherforgottenorbeenignorantofthefactthat,untilmarriageatleast,Inuityouthswererespectfuloftheirparentsandtheirwishes,andsothecouplehadnochoicebuttoacquiesceatthemeetinghehadarranged.

Qamaniqperformedhistraditionalroleasabrotherbyintervening,forolderbrothersintraditionalTununermiutsocietyfeltamoralresponsibilityforthewelfareoftheirmarriedandunmarriedsisters.Itwouldhavebeenappropriateforhimtohavetakenhissisterbackwhenhediscoveredthatshewasunhappywithhermarriage,buthewastoomuchintimidatedbythepotentialforceofCanadianlawtodoso.

CustomaryadoptionswerestillcommonamongtheTununermiutduringthatperiod.InAullativik,JimmyMuckpah'sagedmother,Attagootung,livedwithheradopteddaughter,whohelpedcareforherneeds,andJimmyandhiswifeadoptedaninfantdaughterwhileIwaslivingwiththem.Jimmywasanexcellenthunterandsoagoodprovider,whilethebiologicalparentsoftheadoptedchildhadmorechildrenthantheycouldeasilysupport.Arrangementsfortheadoptionhadbeenmadeduringthepregnancy.IknewthatJimmyandhiswifehadlostachildtheyearorsobefore.Itwaskilledbydogs,andIwastoldthatbecauseofthetragiceventthewife,Elisapee,didnotwantanymorechildrenofherown.Speakingoftheneedtoadopt,sheexplainedthatshewastemporarilyinfertile.Itispossiblethatthepsychologicaltraumaassociatedwiththelossofthechildhadaneffectonherabilitytoconceive,butinanyevent,althoughshedidnotwanttogivebirthagain,shedidwantababy,andsotheadoptionhadbeenarrangedwiththefullconsentofbothfamilies.

WehadgonetoPondInletfortheChristmasandNewYear'sfestivities,andonourreturnmadeadetourtothecampofthebiologicalparentstoretrievethetwo-week-oldgirl,Suzy.Itwasabitterlycoldday,andIrecallvividlythelongtripbacktoAullativikwiththebabyandadoptivemotherhuddledonasledunderseverallayersofcaribouhides.Ifearedfortheirwell-being,andforthatofthetwoolderchildren,becauseIhadbeentaughtbyJimmythattheonlywaytokeepfromfreezingone'slimbsonalongdogteamtrip

wastorunalongsidethesledasmuchaspossible.WhenwestoppedafewmilesfromAullativikwhilethemenrecoveredmeatfromacache,Itooktheboy,Noah,themother,andtheinfantononesledanddrovethedogsasvigorouslyasIcouldinordertogettothecampbeforetheyfrozetodeath.Iwasprobablyworriedunduly,fornooneseemedasconcerned.(ThiswasonlyoneofseveraloccasionswhenmyinexperiencecausedmetoworryaboutpotentialtragediesthatdidnotcreateanyanxietyinmyInuitcompanions.)Theinfantandtheolderchildrenallsurvivedthetrip,andlittleSuzysoonbecamethecentreofattractioninJimmyandElisapee'shousehold.

AlthoughSuzywasagirl,shehadbeengreatlydesiredbyheradoptiveparents,andIfounditintriguingtoseethatsheusurpedthefavouredpositioninthefamilyfromyoungNoah.Noahhadbeengivenfreereininthehousehold,eventotheextentofterrorizinghissister,whowastwoyearsolderthanhimandhadhadtodefertoallofhisdemands.Hesurprisedmeevenfurtherbyacceptingthisdisplacementwithconsiderableequanimity.Bothheandhisseven-year-oldsisterlavishedaffectionandattentionontheirnewsister,andIsawnoevidenceofsiblingrivalryonthepartofeither.

Whentheycould,pregnantwomenwouldtraveltoPondInlettogivebirth,butitwasn'talwayspossibletodoso.Thesmallnursingstationinthesettlementwassanitaryandcomfortablebuttherewasnonurseinresidence,andsoInuitmidwivesperformedthenecessaryobstetricoperationsor,incasesofpossiblecomplications,theywereperformedbytheRCMPcorporal.Inseriousemergencies,weatherconditionspermitting,womenwouldbeevacuatedbyaircrafttoFrobisherBay.Itwasnotalwayspossible,ofcourse,tomakethetripeventoPondInletfromadistantcamp.OnNovember11,1963,asledwasdrivenontotheshorelineinfrontofAullativikanddisgorgedayoungwomanbundledtightlyagainstthewindandcold.Shewastakenintothehouseofhermother,Attagootung,andsoonallofthewomeninthecamphadjoinedher.Thehousewassmall,measuringlessthanthirtycubicfeetoffloorspace,buttheyallmanagedtogetin.Thefather,Pauloosie,whowasthesonofacampheadmanandthenephewofArniatsiark,joinedhisbrother-in-law,JimmyMuckpah,atthelatter'shome,wheretheyweresoonjoinedbytheothermen.Whilethewomenkeptvigilthroughthenight,themenplayedcards,joked,andalsostayedawake.Beforemorningasonhadbeenborn,andanairofgreatjubilationpervadedthecamp.

TherolesofmenandwomenamongtheTununermiutwere,then,complementary.Womenwerenotdocile,andIcanrememberatleast

oneoccasionwhenawifestruckherhusbandonthefaceforanallegedindiscretion,andmanywhenhusbandswereseverelycowedbytheirwives'sharpverbalattacks.IfalldidnotgowellforaTununermiutwife,everyoneelseinhercampsoonknewaboutit.

HuntingPatternsandTerritoriality

Inspiteofthecomplementarityoftheirroles,duringthecontact-traditionalperiodmenandwomendidcarryontheireconom-

ics-relatedactivitiesrelativelyindependentlyofoneanother.Inpart,thiswasbecausewomenusuallyremainedinthecampswhilemenwentoffhuntingontheirown.EachcampinthePondInletareawassurroundedbyaroughlydefinedterritoryinwhichmenfromthatcampwoulddomostoftheirhunting.However,itwasnotuncommontoencountermenfromanothercamp,orfromthesettlement,huntinginone'sownarea.Insuchcircumstancesthetwopartieswouldsitdownandshareapotoftea,tradelocalgossip,andthengotheirownways.StrictadherencetoterritorialrightswasnotafeatureofTununermiutlegalnorms,atleastwithregardtofellowTununermiut.

Thesamepatternprevailedforintra-camphuntingterritories.Ifthemenfromaparticularcamptendedtohuntseparatelyfromoneanotherandalwaysfollowedthesameroutes,itwasbecauseofpersonalpreference.InAullativik,forexample,thecampheadman,Arniatsiark,generallyhuntedaloneononesideofCurryIsland.Thethreeyoungermenusuallyhuntedontheothersideandoftenhuntedtogether,althoughtheywouldalsogooffonforaysontheirown.JimmyMuckpahandQamaniqalmostalwayshuntedandfishedtogetherduringtheyearIlivedwiththem.Thiswasinpartbecauseoftheirkinshipties,asJimmywasmarriedtoQamaniq'ssister,butmoreimportantly,Ithink,becauseoftheirexceptionalskillashunters.

Afterhischildwasborn,PauloosielivedinAullativikwithhismother-in-lawforapproximatelyfivemonthsbeforereturningtohisfather'scamp,andhewouldoftenhuntwithJimmyandQamaniq,buthewasnotanefficienthunterhimself.Hewasprobablytakenalongbecauseoftheneededsupporthewouldreceivefromtheothertwomen.Ononeoccasion,forexample,whenseveralofusweretravellingtogetheronanextendedhuntingtrip,hebecamelost,andthemenerectedatemporaryshelterandspenthourssearchingandwaitingforhim.Heeventuallyturnedupandexplainedthathehadtakenthewrongturnithappenedinthemiddleofablizzard,orwhat

iscalleda'white-out"andsohadtofollowtheshorelinetocomeoutinacircle.Thishadaddedseveralmilestohistrip.

Kadloo,thefifthadultmale,occasionallyhuntedwithJimmyandQamaniqbutmorecommonlyonhisown.Hewasnotaseffectiveahunteraseitheroftheothertwoandwasnotcloselylinkedwitheitherbytiesofkinship.Also,thatyearwashisfirstatAullativik:thepreviousonehadbeenspentatIgloolik,thehomeofhiswife.

Leadership

Ineachcamptherewasatleastonemalewhowieldedmoreauthoritythanothers;theheadman.Inonecampin1963thereweretwoheadmen,butthiswasaninstanceofanoldermanretaininghisprestigealthoughhehadbeenreplacedbyayounger,morevigorousman.Inonecamp,Ippiarjuk,theheadmanwasalsoanangakok,orshaman.Theseroleswerenotnormallycarriedoutbyoneindividual,butinthiscasetheindividualwasapersonofimmensepowerandauthoritywhowasfearedandrespectedbyallotherTununermiut.Hiscampwassmall,consistingonlyofhisclosekinspeople.

Campheadmenweregenerallymiddle-agedmenwhohadacquiredprestigefortheirhuntingskillsanddecision-makingabilities.Theyhadnoultimatecontrolovertheirfellows,asanyonewasatanytimefreetopackupandmovetoanothercamp,buttheycouldbehighlyautocraticandgetawaywithitiftheirprestigeremainedhighenough.Arniatsiarkwasamild-manneredmanwhorarelytoldtheothershowtoconducttheiraffairs.Butoneofhispredecessorshadbeenadominantforceinthecamp:thiswasthefamousIdlouk,withwhomtheArcticphotographerandwriterDougWilkinsonlivedwhilegatheringmaterialforhisbookLandoftheLongDay.BeforemovingtoResoluteBayinthelate1950s,IdloukhadgovernedAullativikinawaythatin1963wasrecalledwithrespectbutlittlefondness.

Possiblybecauseofhisowngentlenature,ArniatsiarkleftmuchofthecontrolofcampeventsandactivitiesinthehandsofQamaniq.ItwasoftenQamaniqwhodeterminedwhenmenwouldhunt,and,tosomeextent,where.Onhuntingtripswithothermen,Qamaniqwoulddecidewhentheywouldstopforthenight,whethersealskilledwouldbetakenbacktothecamporcached,andsoon.Whenhistemperflared,whichwasnotanuncommonoccurrence,theothermenwouldquietlyaccepthisrebukes.AyearorsobeforeIarrived,Jimmy

MuckpahhadbeenofferedandhadacceptedajobasassistantclerkwiththeHBCstoreinPondInlet.AshorttimeafterhebeganhisnewdutiesQamaniqcameintothesettlementtoinsistthathereturntoAullativik,andJimmyquicklyresigned.

However,Arniatsiark,despitehismildtemperament,didrequireobservanceofmattersthatheconsideredtobeofcriticalimportance.Mostofthesefellwithintherealmofreligion.ShamanismwasstillpracticedbytheTununermiut,anditwasgenerallybelievedthattheshamanofIppiarjuk,towhomIreferredearlier,

couldspeakwithpolarbearsand,sittinginhisownhouse,watchactivitiesinothercamps;theTununermiutwerealsopractisingAnglicans.(TheRomanCatholicchurchhadnotbeensuccessfulinitslong-rangeproselytizingactivitiesamongtheTununermiut,despiteitsearlysuccess.TherewasoneCatholicfamilyintheregionin1963.)By1963theroleoftheheadmanasreligiousleaderhadhadamajorimpactonboththeheadman'sstatusandthebehaviourofTununermiutonSundays.ServiceswereheldeachSundaymorninginthelargesthouseineachcamp(inAullativik,JimmyMuckpah's),andeveryonewasexpectedtobepresent.IrememberoneoccasiononwhichJimmy,Qamaniq,andIreturnedfromahuntingtripearlySundaymorninginastateofexhaustion.JimmyandIwereshakenawakelater,abaretwohoursafterfallingasleeptomakeroomonthesleepingplatformforthewomenandchildreninthecongregation.Qamaniqwasnotasunfortunateandsleptlate,buthisfather'ssharprebukelaterthatdayensuredthathedidnotmissaserviceforthenextseveralmonths.Onanotheroccasion,whenweweredesperatelyshortoffood,IconsideredshootingasealthathadreacheditsheadabovewaterforabreathofaironaSundaymorning,andwaspromptlytoldthatifIdidArniatsiarkwouldmakemeleavethecampandreturntoPondInlet.ReligionwasamatterofcentralimportancetotheTununermiut,andeventheshamanwasadevoutmemberoftheAnglicancommunion.Sundayserviceswereevenheldonhuntingtripsandhuntingwaseschewedfortheday.(Ononesuchtrip,themenandIwereplayingcardsoneeveninginasnowhouseanddiscoveredthatnoone,includingmyself,hadapenorpenciltomarkdownscores.Weresolvedtheproblembyusingthenumberedpagesofthehymnalsthatallcarried:aftereachhandwewouldlaythebooksdownupsidedownatthepagecorrespondingtoourscore.)

ContactwiththeSettlement

Untilnow,IhavedescribedcamplifeamongtheTununermiutin1963almostasifcampsexistedinavacuum,andhaveunderplayedthelinksbetweencampsandthesettlement,whichwasinturnthelinkwiththeoutsideworld,orthesouth.Ididsobecauseduringthecontact-traditionalperiodalife-styleemergedthatemphasized"lifeontheland";despitelinkswiththeoutsideworld,andconsiderabledependenceuponit,thatlife-stylewasinmanywaysself-contained.Inaddition,duringthatperiodseveralprominentindividualslivingincampsmadeconsciousattemptstobothdisguisethevitalityofcampcultureandcreatemechanismsforits

preservation.Iwillreturntothisthemelater,butforthetimebeingwillillustratesomeofthelinksbetweencampandsettlement.

TripsbythemenofAullativiktoPondInlettotradewereusuallymadeonceeachmonth,butwerelessregularduringthewintermonthsbecausefewersealskinswerethenavailablefortradingandtravelwasfasterbypower-drivencanoesthanbysled.Also,gasolinewasneededtoruntheoutboardmotors,andwithoutlargestoragefacilities,camppeoplehadtoreplenishtheirsuppliesregularly.Forallthesereasons,tradegoodssuchasflour,tea,andsugarweremuchmoreprevalentinthecampsinsummermonths.

In1963insharpcontrasttotenyearslateralthoughtheTununermiuthadbeeninvolvedinacasheconomyfordecades,fewhadhadopportunitiestolearntohandleorsavemoney.Untilfairlyrecently,theHudson'sBayCompanyhaduseditsownformofcoinage;whenamancameintotrade,theclerkwouldexaminehisskins,decidetheirmarketvalue,andthenlayonthecounteranumberofthesetokens.AstheInuitrequestedcommodities,theclerkwouldtakecoinsaway,untilallweregoneandthetradingforthemonthwascompleted.(Ifasmallexcessamountwasleftafterbasicshadbeenpurchased,itwouldbeusedtobuycandyortoysforthechildrenoratrinketforhiswife.)By1963eachadultmalehadhisownaccountwiththeHBCstore,butinmostcasesthesamepracticewascontinued,notbecausetheresidenttraderencourageditsomuchasbecauseithadbecomeinstitutionalized.

Withtheexceptionofthosefewindividualswhohadregularincomesviafull-timeemploymentwithEuro-Canadianagenciesinthesettlement,then,mostTununermiutdidnotbuildupcashreservesintheiraccounts,andsavingwasvirtuallyunknown.Asaresult,ofcourse,duringthepoorhuntingofthewintermonthscreditwouldhavetobeextendedregularly,toberepaidfromthespringbounty.

Mosttradingwasdonewithsealskins,althoughduringfallandwintertraplinesforfoxweremaintainedandwerecheckedeveryweekorso.During196364,however,thepriceofsealskinsescalated,anditwasalsoanunproductiveyearforfox,soatleastamongtheAullativikmiutlittleattentionwasgiventomaintainingthetraplines.

Whileinthesettlementtotrade,menwouldnormallystaywithfriendsorkinsmen.ThehomesoftheInuitclerkattheHBCstoreandtheInuitmaintenancemanandgeneraljack-of-all-tradeswiththeDNANRwereconstantlycrowdedwithvisitingcamppeople,whetherrelatedtothemornot.BothmenhadlargeincomesrelativetootherTununermiut,andlargerhousesthantheotherInuit

inthesettlementwhohadjobswithEuro-Canadianagencies.However,beingexcludedfromtheEuro-Canadiansocialworld,theycontinuedtheircloserelationswithcamppeopleand,asaconsequence,werebetterabletomaintaintheirInuitidentity.BothwereinpositionswheretheycouldsystematicallyobservethebehaviouroftheEuro-Canadiansinthesettlement,andgainedsocialdividendsbytransmittinggossipaboutthemtovisitors.AtraditionthatwentbacktothedaysofSergeantJoywasthatthemenfromthecampswouldalwaysvisittheRCMPofficewhileinthesettlement.TheseencountersallowedtheRCMPofficerswhospokeInuktituttoassembleinformationaboutactivitiesinthecamps,andinreturntheywouldoftenfreelygossipwiththeirvisitorsaboutrecentdevelopmentsinthesettlementandtheidiosyncraciesoftheirfellowEuro-Canadians.

AtChristmasmostoftheTununermiutcampswouldbedesertedwhiletheirinhabitantsvisitedthesettlementforthefestivitiesthataccompaniedtheseason.Severalchurchserviceswereheld,withattendancesthatthreatenedtoburstthewallsoftheAnglicanmission.ItwasatraditionthattheHBCmanagerandtheresidentRCMPofficersheldaChristmasparty,atwhichchildrenwouldscrambleacrossthefloorincompetitionwitheachotherforhardcandiestossedintheairinhugehandfuls.Adancewasalsoatradition,andthenightwasmadeshortwiththefoot-stampingScottishdancesinwhichmenandwomencircledthefloorclaspingandunclaspingoneanother'shands.Theearlydancesduringthe1963eventwerekeptgoingforaslongasanhouratatime,andaftertwoorthreeofthesetheEuro-Canadianparticipantswouldsuccumbtofatigueandretirefromtheroom.Whentheyhadallleft,theindividualdanceswouldbeshortened,greatervariationinstepsintroduced,andtherecordplayerkeptatworkuntildawn.

Alargeinfluxofcamppeoplealsotookplaceeachspring,whena

formoflocal"northerngames"washeldinthesettlementunderthesponsorshipoftheHBCandtheRCMP.Duringthisperiodtraditionalgamesofphysicalskillsuchastug-of-warswereheldontheiceinfrontofthesettlement.ThegamesbecameabasisfordissensionamongtheEuro-Canadiansin1963,becausetheteachersofthenewDNANRdayschoolthoughttheeventshouldbesponsoredbythemandshouldberunasthesortoftrack-and-fielddaysocommonlyheldinsouthernschoolsneartheendofeachacademicyear.Eventuallythepartiesagreedthatthegameswouldbeco-sponsored,butthedebatecontributedtoabruisedstateofinter-agencyrelationships.

Thecampswouldagainbevirtuallyabandonedinmiddleor

lateAugustfortheannualsealift.MostoftheHBCstoresuppliesforthecomingyearandprovisionsforprivatemembersofotherEuro-CanadianagencieswerebroughtnorthontheC.D.Howe,acombinedsupplyshipandfloatinghospital.Almosteveryablebodiedmanintheareawouldbehiredtounloadtheship,ataskthatwouldlastdayandnightforthreeorfourdays.Tentswouldbeputuponthebeachinfrontofandonbothsidesofthesettlement,andwhilethemenandolderboysunloaded,theirwiveswouldvisitwithoneanother,renewingcontactwithfriendsandrelativeswhomtheymightnothaveseenforseveralmonthsorevenforthepastyear.Iftheshiparrivedbeforethemaininfluxofpeopleintothesettlement,itshelicopterwouldvisitthenearbycampsandbringinresidentsfordentalattention,x-rays,andothermedicalexaminations.Themenwereapparentlywellpaidfortheirwork,butpaymentwasintheformofcreditwiththeHBCstoreratherthanincash.Shortlyaftercompletionofthesealiftfamilieswouldbegintomovebacktotheirsummercamps,or,ifitwaslateenoughintheseason,totheirwintercamps.TheRCMPofficerexertedpressureonstragglerstoreturntothecampsassoonaspossible.(Inthesummerof1963anumberoffamiliesremainedinthesettlementforseveralweeksaftersealift;eventuallythemenwerecalledtoameetingatwhichtheywereurgedtogobacktohuntingtoensurethattheywouldhaveenoughdogfoodtogetthemthroughthewintermonths.)

During196364aconsiderableamountofconstructionwentoninthesettlementprimarilybyDNANR,whichwasbuildinganewschoolandtwostudenthostelsaswellasmorehousingforpersonnel.Severalyoungmenwereemployedonthisconstruction,althoughusuallyonlytemporarily;theyreturnedtothelandafterafewmonths.

In196364allofthemenfromAullativikworkedforvaryingperiodsoftimeatanironminethatwasbeingdevelopedatMaryRiver,locatedapproximatelyonehundredmilesfromAullativik.Threemen

weretakenoutbycompanyaircraftinAugusttoassistintheunloadingofacargoship,andremainedatthemineforapproximatelytendays.Apparentlytheywerepaidhighwagesfortheirwork,butagainintheformofcreditattheHBCstoreinPondInlet.Noneofthemenwerecertainofhowmuchtheyhadearnedoriftheyhadbeenpaidbythedayorthehour.ThefollowingspringJimmyMuckpahwastakentotheminetoworkasanunskilledlabourerandreceivetrainingasaheavyequipmentoperator.Hereturnedhomeafterafewweeks,explainingthathemissedhiswifeandchildren,althoughhisemployershadbeen

morethansatisfiedwithhisworkandhadmadehimanofferofapermanentjob.HereisaninstanceofayoungInuitrejectinganopportunityforpermanentemploymentinordertoreturntotheland,andthisinspiteofthefactthathehadseveraltimestoldmehewishedhecouldhaveasteadyincomesoastoensurethathisfamilywouldnotgohungryduringleantimes.Histiestothelandwerestrong.LaterthatspringthethreemenfromAullativikwhohadworkedattheminethepreviousyearwererehired,andoneQamaniqdidaccepttrainingintheoperationofheavyequipment.However,theyalllaterreturnedtoAullativik.

Jimmy'srefusaltocontinuewithhisjob,despiteitsobviouseconomicadvantages,isindicativeofthebehaviourofmanyTununermiutmaleslivinginthecampsintheearly1960stowardswork''forthewhiteman."Many,includingsomecampheadmen,hadworkedinthepastforEuro-CanadianagenciessuchastheRCMPandtheHBC,inpositionssuchasspecialconstableandclerk.Almostallhadreturnedtocamplifeandseemedtohaverejectedtheoutsideworld.ThesemenhadhighstatusamongtheTununermiut,bothlivinginthesettlementorinthecamps.Theirconsciouschoiceoflifeonthelandillustratesthetenacityofthecontact-traditionallifelivedbytheTununermiutduringthattransitionalandyetstableperiod.

TheComingoftheBureaucratsDuringthecontact-traditionalperiod,camplifefortheTununermiutcontinuedinmanyrespectsasithadbeenfortheirancestors,inspiteofthemanychangesdiscussedinthepreviouschapter.Intheearly1960s,althoughthesettlementofPondInletwasthenodeofTununermiuteconomicandreligiousactivityandtheirlinkwiththeoutsideworld,individualidentitywasrootedincampresidence.Inuitmembershipinasocialunitwastraditionallymarkedbyanameoftenaplace-nameendinginthe-miutsuffix.ThefamilieswholivedincampsinthePondInletenvironswereknownbytheircampname,suchastheAullativikmiutofthecampinwhichIresidedformostofmystay.Broader,moreinclusivenameswerealsoemployed,suchasTununermiut,whichencompassedthepeoplelivinginthesettlementaswellasallthoseintheoutlyingcamps.

TheInuitnameforPondInletisMittimatalik,andthefewInuitwholivedthereintheearly1960swereknownastheMittimatalikmiut.Thesewerefamilieswhohadoneormoremembersintheemploymentofsouthernagencies,orhadretiredfromsuchserviceandwereunabletoreturntocamplifebecauseofpoorhealthorage,aswellasafewindividualswhochosesettlementlifebecauseofinfirmitiessuchasblindnessorsimplytheproximityofcloserelativeswhohadregularemploymentwithoneoftheagencies.InthischapterweshallexaminethesocialandculturalpatternsoftheresidentsofPondInletatthetimeofmyfirstfieldtriptothearea,andinthecourseofthatexaminationwilllookatnotonlytheMittimatalikmiutbuttheEuro-Canadiansandtheiragencies,aswellastheinteractionsbetweenthetwo.Aswehaveseen,theyweredistinctandyetcloselyintertwinedsocialgroupings.

Myinitialinsightintothesocialstructureofthesettlementwasthe

realizationthattwosocialsystemswerepresent,theMittimatalikmiutandtheEuro-Canadian(anditwasthisthatledmetomovetoacampformyresearch).TheEuro-Canadiansformedatypicaloutpostofthetypethatanthropologistshavemetincolo-

nial-likesettingsaroundtheworld.Thereweredivisionswithinthatcommunity,andweshallexaminethemaswell,butessentiallytheywereaseparatesocialunitfromthesettlement-dwellingInuit.However,thissegregationcannotbeeasilyexplainedintermsofsimplistictermssuchas"racism,""prejudice,"andsoon.Discriminationdidexist,andprejudicialattitudestowardInuitwereevidentamongsomemembersoftheEuro-Canadiancommunity,butisolatedinstancesarenotanadequateexplanationforthesocialseparationbetweenthetwo.Today,aswillbecomeapparent,Euro-CanadiansareexcludedfrommanyInuitactivitiesinPondInlet,butneithercanthispatternbetidilyexplainedawaybychargesofracismagainsttheTununermiut.Thesituationwasandismorecomplexthanthat,andwemustlooktohistoricalfactorsifwearetounderstandit.

TheEuro-CanadianCommunityandItsDivisions

WehavealreadydealtatsomelengthwiththehistoriesofthethreeprimaryagenciesinPondInlet;thepolice,missionaries,andtraders.Myownprimarypurposeinvisitingthesettlementwastostudylegalchange,andsoinitiallyIconcentratedonthepoliceandtheRCMPdetachmentastheexpressionofpoliceactivity.Nevertheless,circumstancesmadeitbothpossibleanddesirableformetointeractwithmembersofotheragencies,inspiteofmypreferenceforavoidingexcessiveidentificationwithEuro-Canadiansingeneral.WheneverIvisitedthesettlementwiththeAullativikmiutIwouldstayovernightwiththefamilyofeithertheareaadministratorortheDNANRmechanicandwoulddropinatotherEuro-Canadianhomes.ThehospitalityIwasalwaysshownwasgratefullyaccepted,foritgavemeopportunitiestogorgemyselfon"southern"foods,tohaveconversationsinEnglish,andtocatchuponnewsoftheoutsideworld.AtthehomeswhereIstayed,Iwouldfirstbatheinluxuriantwarmwater,trimmybeard,andscrapefrommyteeththeblack

residuethatwastheresultofcontinualteadrinkinginthecamp.WaterwasascarcecommodityinInuitcampsinwinter,whentheonlysourcewaschunksoficemeltedoversoapstonelamps.

WhenIleftAullativikinthefollowingspringIlivedforsometimeinthebackroomofanunoccupiedstudenthostel,andinthesummerrentedavacantteacherage.IfeltthatIwasabletomovecomfortablybetweenthedifferentagenciesinthesettlement,althoughIhadtobeconstantlyonguardlestsomethingIsaybetakenassupportingonesideinadisputebetweenindividualsor

agencies.Attimes,evenmysilencewastakenastacitsupportforapositioninanargument,anditsproponentwouldlatersaythat"theanthropologistagreeswithmeonthis."SeveralofmyEuro-CanadianfriendsmusthavethoughtthatIhadfewopinionsofmyown.

TosomeextentIdidbecomeidentifiedmorethanIcaredforwiththeDNANRanditspersonnel,becauseofmyovernightstayswiththem,butfrequentdinnerinvitationstothehomeoftheAnglicanmissionary,whenhisbudgetwassosmallthatprovisionforaguestwasalmostahardship,andtheassistancetheresidentCatholicpriestgavemeintranslatingmyquestionnaireintoInuktitut,gavemesomeassurancethatIwassuccessfulincrossingagencylines.IhavealreadymentionedsomeofthewaysinwhichtheRCMPofficerassistedmebyhelpingmeestablishmyselfinacamp,andwheninthesettlementIsharedmanycupsofcoffeewiththeHBCmanagerinhishome.Ihopethattheyarealltolerant,shouldtheyreadthis,ofmydescriptionsoftherolestheyperformedintheday-to-dayfunctioningofPondInletasanoutpostofsouthernlife.And,Iwanttoemphasize,thedescriptionsthatfollowwillbeofrolesandthestatusestowhichtheyrelate,notofpersonalitiesorindividuals.EachincumbentofapositionintheEuro-CanadiansystemofPondInletinthe1960shaddutiestoperformthatwereunrelatedtopersonalpreferencesandpredilections.Imadeobservationsofrolebehaviourcarriedoutbyindividuals,butIhavetriedtoseparatetherolefromtheidiosycraciesoftheindividual.Occasionalanecdoteswillbeusedasillustrations,buttheyshouldnotoffendthepersonswhofigureinthem.Theproblemsofsuchdescriptionsinsettingswhereoneindividualistheincumbentofaspecificstatusmakeforaseriousethicaldilemma.

Althoughithasadifferentcharactertoday,PondInletoftheearly1960swasessentiallyaservicecentreministeringtotherealandmanufacturedneedsoftheTununermiut.Increasingly,ithasbecomeacentreprogrammedtoservicetheEuro-Canadianswholivethereas

well,butthatisalaterstory.Putinbroadterms,theservicesthatEuro-Canadianagenciessoughttoprovidewereofamaterial,spiritual,andintellectualnature.NotallofthemwereinterestedinmakingprofoundchangesintraditionalInuitsocietyandculture,butratherinmakingmodificationswhenrelevanttotheirownmandates.Wediscussedthisearlierintermsofthepolice,traders,andmissionaries:theneedsthattheysawthemselvesassatisfyingwereoftenspuriousormanufactured.TheInuithad,forexample,developedthroughcontactwithwhalersandtraders,

needsforammunition,traps,cloth,andfoodstuffs,andtheHBCprovidedforthoseneeds.Onanideologicallevel,however,therepresentativesoftheEuro-Canadianagenciessawthemselvesasprovisionersofanewand,fromtheirperspective,superiorwayoflife.ThiswastheovertrationalefortheirpresenceintheCanadianArctic.Fromthevantagepointofrevisionisthistoryitiseasytocriticizethecontactagentsofthe1960s.Theywereindeedexploitativeinmanyrespects,andhadhiddenmotives.NomatterhowmuchtheHBCmayclaimthatitoperatedintheArcticforbenevolentreasons,andthatinlateryearsitdidsoatacosttoitself,thefactremainsthatitestablishedpostsinordertoobtainfursandskinstomeetsouthernandEuropeanmarketdemands.ThepoliceweretheretoenforceCanadianlaw,andthustoreinforceCanadiansovereigntyinitsArcticlands,andthemissionariesofferedanewreligionandsoughttostampoutshamanism.Nevertheless,IampersonallyconvincedthattheagentsinthefieldgenerallybelievedtheywereofferingassistanceofonetypeoranothertotheInuit.Theirpersonalmotivationsweredecent.

TherewerefiveEuro-CanadianagencieslocatedinPondInletinthe1960s:AnglicanandRomanCatholicmissions,anRCMPdetachment,anHBCstore,andarecentlyestablishedDNANRcontingent.Thefirstfourhadbeentherefordecades,andhadlimitedgoalsforsocialandculturalchange.TheupstartDNANRhadmoregrandiosepurposesinmind,andbecameamajorcatalystofchange.Afteritsinception,thisagencyofthefederalgovernmentwastowieldwhatwerepotentiallydictatorialpowersintheNorthwestTerritories,anditspersonnelwereresponsibleforoverseeingandinmanyinstancesdirectingeverythingfromthedevelopmentofmineralresourcestotheday-to-daylivesoftheInuitunderitsjurisdiction.Thegoaltheyestablishedforthemselves,withtheblessingofthegovernmentofthetime,wasnothinglessthanthecomplete

integrationoftheCanadianInuitpopulationintothefabricofCanadiansociety,andpoliciesandprogramswereaimedatthisgoal.ThebasicpolicywasconciselystatedtwoyearsafterthecreationofthedepartmentbyJeanLesage(1955),thenministerofnorthernaffairsandnationalresources:

TheobjectiveofGovernmentpolicyisrelativelyeasytodefine.ItistogivetheEskimothesamerights,privileges,opportunitiesandresponsibilitiesofallotherCanadians:inshort,toenablethemtosharefullyinthenationallifeofCanada.ItispointlesstoconsiderwhethertheEskimowashappierbeforethewhitemancame,forthewhitemanhascomeandtime

cannotbereversed.TheonlyrealisticapproachistoacceptthefactthattheEskimowillbebroughtevermoreundertheinfluencesofcivilizationtothesouth.Thetask,then,istohelphimadjusthislifeandhisthoughtstoallthattheencroachmentofthisnewlifemustmean.

AsoneseniormemberoftheDepartmentisreputedtohavestated,theInuitweretobebroughtfromtheStoneAgetotheatomicageinonegeneration.Theaxehadfallen,andthecontact-traditionalperiodfacedamajorthreattoitsexistence.TheInuitweretobe"modernized,"forbetterorworse.AsthefirststepintheimplementationofthispolicyaNorthernServiceOfficer(NSO)wasstationedinPondInlet,tobefollowedbyteachers,mechanics,and,intime,nurses.

In1963therewerefourfull-timeEuro-CanadianpersonnelattachedtotheDNANRcontingentinPondInlet(threewithfamilies)andseveralInuitwhowereemployedonapart-orfull-timebasis.TheoriginalNSOhadbeenreplacedthatyearbyanareaadministrator,whosepositionhadahighercivilserviceranking.Asingleteacherhadcomeandgone,tobereplacedbyamarriedmanandasinglewoman.Thefourthmemberwastheequipmentmechanic,whoseresponsibilitiesincludedmaintenanceofthepowerhouse,supervisionofInuitworkers,andotherassortedtasks.

Atthetime,areaadministratorsinnortherncommunitieswereoftenuncertainoftheprecisenatureoftheirmandateandduties.Forexample,theresidentadministratortoldmethat"mostofmyworkisn'tlaiddowninblackandwhite...myactualdutiesareprettyvague."Heandotherslikehimhadbeengivencrashcoursesinthesouthbeforetakinguptheirpositions,butthetrainingreceivedwasinadequate.SomeeducationinInuktitutreceivedatthe"northerncollege,"asthepreparatorytrainingprogramwascalled,wasanassetbutnotextensiveenoughforworkamongmonolingualInuktitutspeakers,whichmostInuitofthatperiodwere.Vallee(1962)had

identifiedthelackofprecisioninroledefinitionforNSOsinBakerLakesomeyearsearlier:

ThepositionofthecommunitywiththeleastclearlydefinedfunctionisthatoftheNSO.Heistoldthatheistheseniorgovernmentrepresentativeinthecommunity,butwhatthisimpliesinspecifictermsisnotclear.

ValleehadjuxtaposedtheroleofNSO/areaadministratorwiththoseofothergovernmentpersonnelinasettlement,suchaspolice

hadtoberespectedandmaintained,whileatthesametimetheseniorcivilservanthadbeeninstructedtodowhateverpossibletoproducethe"modernization"soughtbyhis

1owndepartment.Thelackofprecisedirectivescouldbeamajorassetforimaginativeandinnovativeadministrators,asevidencedbyJamesHouston'sdevelopmentoftheembryonicInuitartindustryinCapeDorsetinthe1950s.Houstonpresumablyregardedhismandateasbeingtodevelopanewsettlement-basedeconomy,andhewasgivenrelativelyfreereintousehisownexperiencesasanartisttocreateacadreoflocalartists.Therest,ofcourse,isArctichistory.

TheresidentNSOoradministrator,then,wasexpectedtoproduceresultswithlittlespecificdirection,andtocreatevisibleevidenceofthemintheformofinnovativeprograms,andhardwaresuchasbuildingsandtechnologicalexpansion,andyetwasmonitoredbyhigher-rankingofficialsandcommitteestothesouth.Failuretoproducesuchproofcouldleadtocriticismandpossiblylossoftheposition.Ontheotherhand,theNSOoradministratorcoulddovirtuallynothingwithoutadministrativeapprovalfrom,forexample,FrobisherBay(nowIqaluit),theadministrativecentreforDNANRintheeasternArctic,andthisinturnhadtoberatifiedbymoreseniorofficialsinOttawa.Thedifficultywascompoundedbydiversificationandautonomyofdepartmentbranches,whichoftenhadconflictingpolicies.Acceptanceofanewprogrambyonewouldoftenbecounteredbyrejectionbyanother.Inaddition,intheearly1960scommunicationbetweenisolatedsettlementsandadministrativecentressuchasFrobisherBaywaspoor.Ifanadministratordidnotwanttoentrustamessagetoradio,whichcouldbemonitoredbyanyonewithareceivingset,hewasforcedtorelyonthemail,andmailserviceintosettlementssuchasPondInletwasinfrequentand

dependentonthewhimsofindividualpilots.Oftentherewouldbenoflightsinforasmuchasthreemonthsatatime,andeventhen,ifacrafthadaheavyload,itmightnottakethemail,despitethefactthatapilotwholeftthemailbehindwasinnowaycertainofabedforthenightorevenacupofcoffeeinthesettlement.Hence,mostpilotstriedtobringalongabottleofwhiskyfortheirhostsaswellasthemail.

Anexamplemightillustratetheproblemsofanadministratorwishingtomakevisibleprogressinfulfillinghismandatewhilealsobeingatalosshowbesttodoso.AstheonlyfacilitiesforbathinginthesettlementwereinthehomesoftheEuro-Canadians,whohadbathtubsandlargeholdingtanksformeltingice,shortlyafterhisarrivaltheadministratordecidedthatacommunitysaunabathwasneeded.(TheInuitlivinginthesettlementhadgovernment

providedhousing,butalthoughmosthadsmallbathroomstheyhadnoplumbing.Thebathroomswereoftenusedtostoremeat.)TheadministratorwasawarethatsaunashadalonghistoryofuseamongtheSammiofnorthernScandinavia,andthoughtthattheymightbeculturallyacceptabletotheInuit.Scraplumberwasusedintheconstructionofthesauna,whichhadanattachedroomequippedwithawashingmachineforthewomenofthecommunitytouse.(EachEuro-Canadianhomehadequipmentforwashingclothes.)Themenofthesettlementweresentouttosearchalongtheshorelineforrocksoftheproperconsistencyandwiththeappropriateheatingqualities.Finallythesaunawascompleted,andtheadministratorinvitedseveralMittimatalikmiutmentojoinhimintestingit.Ihappenedtobevisitingthesettlementontheinauguralday,andwasinvitedtotakepart.Therewasnothermometerattachedtothewall,asoneusuallyfindsinmoreconventionalsaunasandTurkishbathsinthesouth,andnoneofusparticipatingwereawareofhowhottheroomhadbecome.Noonewassurprised,though,whenoneofthemensuddenlyboltedfromthesaunaandmadeforthenearestsnowbank,followedbyseveralothers.AlthoughthePondInletsaunawasanobleeffortandwasinfutureusedbyafewmen,althoughatlessextremetemperatures,itneverreceivedfullcommunitysupport.ItwasgonewhenIreturnedadecadelater.

Theproblemsfacedbyadministrators,suchasaninadequatejobdescriptionandthecomplexitiesthattheDNANRbureaucracypresented,wereessentiallyproblemsfortheindividualincumbent(butdidaffecttherateandpatternsofchangewithinthesettlementanditsenvirons).Despitetheseproblems,however,therewerecertainwell-definedattributesattachedtothepositionofadministrator.Theadministratorwas,asmentionedbefore,theseniorcivilservantandgovernmentrepresentativeinhissettlement,andassuch"directed"theDNANRoperations.Althoughhewasanemployeeofthefederal

government,healsorepresentedtheGovernmentoftheNorthwestTerritories,andoccasionallythetwopositionswouldconflict.Mostofhisday-to-dayactivitieswererelatedtohisTerritorialposition.Forexample,inwhatwasintendedtoimprovethelocaleconomiesandprovideabetterqualityoflife,theTerritorialgovernmentsoldboatsandrentedhousestotheInuit,andtheadministratorwasagentforsuchtransactions.InhispositionasrepresentativeoftheTerritorialgovernmenthewasalsoresponsibleforbulksalesoffueloil,theenforcementofdogordinancesinthesettlement,andthemanagementoffurexports.Attimes,theexerciseoftheseresponsibilitiesconflictedwithactivities

traditionallycarriedoutbypolice,suchastheenforcementofdogordinances.Itwasrequiredthatdogsinthesettlementbecontinuallychained,butcamppeoplevisitingPondInletoftenneglectedtochaintheiranimals,allowingthemtorunfree.TheresidentadministratorhadtohandlethepotentialconflictoverjurisdictionwithtactifhedidnotwanttocreatetensionsbetweenhimselfandtheRCMPofficer.

Anotherareaofconflictwastheprovisionofsocialassistance.AsCanadiancitizens,theTununermiutwereeligibletoreceivefamilyallowanceandOldAgeSecuritypayments.HistoricallythesepaymentswerehandledbytheRCMP,butbytheearly1960stheyhadinmostsettlementsbeentakenoverbyadministratorsorNSOs,aswerereliefandwelfarepaymentsandspecialformsofsocialassistancesuchaspensionstotheblind.Occasionallyindigent,disabled,orelderlypersonswereprovidedwithheavilysubsidizedhousing,anddecisionsabouteligibilityweremadebyadministrators.ThesehadallformerlybeenhandledbytheRCMP,andtheinevitableinter-agencyconflictwascreatedwhentheyweretakenoverbyDNANRpersonnel.ThetraditionalbaseoftheRCMPintheareawasobviouslythreatenedbytheusurpingoftheirresponsibilities.

Althoughnotexplicitlydirectedtodoso,NSOsandadministratorswereencouragedtodeveloplocalconsumercooperativesandcommunitycouncils.NeitherexistedinPondInletin1963,buttheresidentadministratorworkedtowardsthedevelopmentofboth.HehadpreviousexperiencewiththeverysuccessfulcooperativeventureatCapeDorset,wherehehadbeenanNSObeforebeingpromotedandstationedatPondInlet.AdministratorslikehimwerealsoencouragedtoimproveInuithousing,inbothsettlementsandcamps.Aprogramtoprovidegovernment-subsidizedhousinghadbeeninitiatedinPondInletbyhispredecessor,andheexpandedonit.Hewouldinvestigatepotentialrecipientsandworkoutfinancialarrangementswiththoseconsideredworthy.(Iwasnevercertainhow

thesedecisionsweremade,anditisinterestingtospeculateonwhethertheconceptofworthinessheldbytheadministratorcoincidedwiththatsubscribedtobytheInuitthemselves.)Underthehousingprogram,afewdwellingswereconstructedincamps,butmostwerebuiltinthesettlementitselfoneofthefirststepstowardswhatIterm"centralization."

TheadministratoralsoattemptedtoencouragegrouppurchasesoflargePeterheadboats,which,itwasassumed,wouldimprovethelocaleconomybyexpandingsummerhuntingterritoriesandcreatingmoreefficienthuntingcrews.Theassumptionwas

basedonexperiencesinothersettlements.However,inPondInletonlyonesalewasmade,anditwasmadetoanindividual.Kayak,whohadworkedfortheRCMPforseveralyearsasaspecialconstable(infact,hereceivedtheOrderofCanadaforhisservicestotheRCMP),hadputawayenoughsavingstomakeasubstantialdownpayment.Hewastolaterusetheboatasachartercraftforscientificteamsandhuntingpartiesfromthesouth.

Thedutiesandresponsibilitiesoftheadministratorwere,then,primarilyofaneconomicnature.Newhousingandemploymentopportunitiesinthesettlementwereovertimetoattractcamppeopletoitasaplaceofresidence.ButiftheInuitweretobethrustintotheatomicageinonegeneration,educationwouldhavetobetheprimemechanism.ThetwoenthusiasticteacherswhoarrivedinPondInletinthesummerof1963tomanagetheoperationsofthefederaldayschoolwerequicktotakeupthechallenge.Thewomantaughtthefirstgradeinthecentralroomofoneofthenewlyconstructedstudenthostels,andhermalecolleaguetaughtthehigherelementarygradesintheone-roomschoolhouse.Therewasanexpectableclusteringofpupilsinthelowergrades.ThemainclassroomactivityforbothteacherswasthedevelopmentofEnglish-languageskills.Infact,manyparentsallowedtheirchildrentoattendschoolmainlybecausetheyfelttheyoungstersneededtoacquiresuchskills.(Theywerealsomotivatedbytheimpressionthatiftheywithheldtheiroffspringfromschooltheirfamilyallowancecheques,animportantstablesourceofincome,wouldbediscontinued.)TheeffectivenessofinstructionwashinderedbytheinabilityofeitherteachertospeakInuktitut.Teacherturnoverwasrapid:withsomenotableexceptions,fewteachersduringthefirstdecadeofDNANR-sponsorededucationintheCanadianArcticspentenoughtimeinthefieldtoacquiremorethanthemostrudimentarycommandofInuktitut.Someteachersinlateryearsdidbenefitbyparticipatinginasummerlanguagecourseheldyearlyin

RankinInletandsponsoredbytheUniversityofSaskatchewan,butthesewereasmallnumberofcommittedindividualswhohadoptedforprolongedArcticresidence.

ThetwoteachersinPondInletin1963carriedoutseveralcommunityactivitiesaboveandbeyondtheirbasicnine-to-fourduties.ThewomantaughteveningclassesinEnglishforadults,andthemanorganizedaBoyScouttroop.Bothalsoattempted,atleastinitially,toencourageInuitchildrenandadultstovisittheirhomesintheeveningsandonweekends.ThiswastoproducedifficultiesforthewomanwhenInuitmenmisinterpretedherhospitality,butthemisunderstandingwasovercomebytactfulexplanationsonboth

sides.TherehadbeenalonghistoryofsexualalliancesbetweenInuitwomenandEuro-Canadianmengoingbacktothewhalingperiod,andperhapsInuitmaleshadinterpretedthefriendlyoverturesofEuro-Canadianfemalesintermsofthathistory.Also,itwasperhapsasimplematterforInuitmalestointerpretfriendlinessonthepartofEuro-Canadianwomenashavingsexualconnotations,giventhedegreeofsexualfreedomintraditionalInuitsociety.(Iintentionallyusetheterm''freedom"ratherthan"promiscuity,"forthisfreedomexistedwithinwell-definedculturalparameters.)Inthe1990stheeducationalpicturehaschangeddramaticallyinPondInlet,asagenerationofyouthwhoprogressedthroughhighschoolhavere-enteredthecommunitystructure.

TheresidentequipmentmechanicwasthefourthmemberoftheDNANRcontingent,andinsomewayshehadthemostpowerofanyofthem,althoughinthecivilservicehierarchyhehadtheloweststatus.Ithasoftenbeensaidinanotcompletelyjokingwaythatmechanics"run"northernsettlements,andthestatementwastrueinthe1960sinamorethanstrictlymechanicalsense.Thedutiesrelatedtothepositionwereseveralanddiverse.Forexample,themechanicwasresponsibleforthemaintenanceofthepowerhouseandthegeneratorhousedwithinit,whichwasthecommunity'ssourceofelectricity.HekepttheheatingsystemsoftheDNANRbuildingsingoodoperation;supervisedtheretrievaloficefromoffshoreicebergsduringwintermonths,whentheseprovidedtheonlysourceoffreshwater;andmaintainedDNANRheavyequipmentandvehiclessuchastractorsandbombardiers.

Themechanicalsohadextensiveday-to-daycontactwithseveralInuitwhoworkedunderhissupervision.Theseweremenwhoperformedthetasksoficeretrieval,collectionofgarbageandtoiletbags,roadmaintenance,houseconstruction,andsoon.TheInuitwerenotaccustomedtoofficework,andthemechanicwastheonlyEuro-

Canadianwhodidmuchofhisownworkoutofdoors.HispracticalskillswereonesthatInuitmalesenvied,andthattheycouldobservehimusing.Theadministratorhadmoreauthoritythanthemechanic,buttheTununermiutofthetimehadlittleunderstandingofthebureacucracythatlegitimizedandsupportedit.Theformerwasseenasa"papershuffler,"whilethemechanic'sactivitieswereperceivedas"authentic."Inessence,themechanicwasthemainrolemodelforTununermiutmaleswhoaspiredtopositionsintheEuro-Canadianstructure.Iamconvincedthathewasthemajoragentofacculturation,despitetheparadoxicalfactthathewastheEuro-Canadianleastrecognizedasanacculturatinginfluence.Manyofthemenwhoworkedforhimdidacquireskills

thatwouldstandthemingoodsteadatalatertime,buttheyalsoperhapsdevelopedparticularattitudestowardsthevaluesofthelargersocietyofwhichtheywerenotapart,becauseofinteractionwithaparticularresidentmechanic.

Theadministrator,themaleteacher,andthemechanicwereallmarriedwithyoungchildrenandtendedtoformasocialclusteroftheirowntowhichthefemaleteacherwasonlyperipherallyconnected.Beingsingle,shedidnotsharethedomesticroleofhercolleaguesandactedinmanyrespectsasaliaisonbetweentheDNANRandmembersofotherEuro-Canadianagencies.Occasionalparties,suchasNewYear'sEvegatherings,broughttogetherallEuro-Canadians,andwork-relatedactivitiesbroughtindividualsintocontactwithoneanother,butbasicallytheDNANRemployeesformedagroupoftheirown.ThismayinparthavebeenadefensiveresponsetocoverthostilityexpressedtowardsthembyotherEuro-Canadianswhoresentedtheirpresence,althoughperhapsnotonapersonallevel,andwhattheyperceivedasimperialisticobjectivesandbehaviour.DNANRencroachmentonthejurisdictionsofotherswascertainlyresented,andthisresentmentwasrecognizedbyDNANRpersonnel.OtherEuro-Canadians,suchasthetraderandmissionaries,werealsodeeplydisturbedbytheopenlychange-orientedobjectivesoftheDNANR.

ThemissionariesrepresentedasecondEuro-CanadiantentacleintothelivesoftheTununermiutfromthelargesocialorganismtothesouth.Inmanyrespects,themissionsinPondInletweresimilartoproselytizingmissionsaroundtheworld.BoththeRomanCatholicandAnglicanmissionariessawtheirroleasbeingtoministertothespiritualconditionoftheTununermiut.HereIwilldepartfrommyattempttopreserveanonymitybymentioningthattheresidentCatholicpriestoflongstandingwasthewell-knownandhighlyrespectedarchaeologistFatherGuy-MarieRousseliere.Father

RousseliereleftthesettlementshortyaftermyarrivaltoactastechnicalconsultanttothecrewfilmingthecriticallyacclaimedseriesontheNetsilikInuitatPellyBay.WhileatPellyBayhewasinvolvedinaseriousaccident,andasaconsequencewashospitalizedinthesouthformostofthefollowingyear.AnitinerantpriestwassenttoPondInlettoministertohissingle-familyparish.(AlthoughtheCatholicchurchhadbeenestablishedinthesettlementdecadesbefore,afewyearsearlierallconvertshadmovedtoIgloolik,leavingonefamilybehind.)

Inspiteoftheirsmallparish,FatherRousseliereandhisreplacementwereextremelyinfluentialamongtheTununermiut,bothCatholicandProtestant.EachmanhadyearsofArcticexpe-

riencebehindhimFatherRousselierehadspentaconsiderableamountoftimelivingincamps,asbothpriestandarchaeologistandeachwasfluentinInuktitut.ThisextensiveexperiencewasthebasisofthehighdegreeofrespectthetwoalsoreceivedfromtheirfellowEuro-Canadians.

Inshort,thetwopriestshadoneofthemainfactorsinnorthernprestige-acquisition:lengthyresidence.Intheearly1960s,atleast,recentarrivalshadtoworkhardtoearnrespectfromEuro-CanadiansaswellastheInuit.ThiswasoneoftheproblemsthatDNANRpersonnelfacedincarvingoutanicheforthemselvesinsettlementpowerstructures.

ThepriestsImetinPondInlethadsuchexperience,orcredentials.AnglicanInuitfromthecampsrarelyvisitedthesettlementwithoutmakingasocialcallattheCatholicmission,inspiteofadmonitionsfromearlierAnglicanmissionariesthatthetallstatueofJesusonthecrossstandingonthehillabovetheCatholicmissionwasasymbolofthedevil.(IwastoldofthisbyseveralofmyInuitinformants.)TheTununermiutregardedthepriestsasfriendswhounderstoodandrespectedtheirtraditionalculture,butpersonalaccountswrittenbythefirstmissionariesinthearearevealinoftenfloridprosethebitterstrugglesbetweenthetwomissionsforthesoulsoftheTununermiut,andthesemusthavebeenconfusingandmoretotheInuitthemselves.Muchoftheantagonismbetweenthetwohaddisappearedbythe1960s,butIoftenwonderedhowtheInuithadhandledtheconceptualproblemsofbeingpresentedwithtwoapparentlyopposedimagesofthesamefaith.

TheincumbentAnglicanmissionarywasatadisadvantagetheyearthatIarrived,evenwithhislargecongregation,foritwasthefirstyearofhistourofdutyintheArctic.RecentlyarrivedfromEnglandwithhiswifeandinfantdaughter,hewasunabletospeakInuktitut

andyetwasexpectedtocarryonanactiveweeklyprogramofservices,meetings,andfamilyvisits.Nevertheless,byassumingthemantleoftheAnglicanmissionaryinthearea,hesoonbecamepossiblythepivotalpersonintheEuro-Canadiancommunity,atleastintheviewofmostTununermiut.AsIhavementioned,shamanismwasstillaliveamongthem,andthelastremainingshaman,atleasttothebestofmyknowledge,wasalsoapractisinganddevoutAnglican.Themissionaryonceproudlyshowedmeaninlaidseal-skinrugthathadbeendonatedtohimforuseinthenewchapelheplannedtobuilddonatedbytheshaman.Onanotheroccasion,IrecallKadloo,oneoftheAullativikmiut,tellingmethathisbrotherinPondInletwasveryillandthathethoughttheshamanhadplacedaspellonhim.Kadlooplannedtotraveltothe

settlementtoaskthemissionarytoinvokethespiritofJesusChristtocounteractthepoweroftheshaman.ItseemedtomethatTununermiutlikeKadlooregardedthemissionaryasaparticularlypowerfulshamanwhohad,inJesus,aspirithelpersuperiortothoseofothershamans.CertainlyshamanismhadbeenacentralstructureunderlyingtraditionalInuitculture,andsotheinfluenceofthemissionaryseenasshamanisnotdifficulttocomprehend.

AthirdEuro-CanadianagencyinthesettlementwastheHudson'sBayCompanytradingpost,whichatthetimewasstaffedbyatraderfromScotlandwhohadadecadeorsoofArcticexperience.TheHBCstorehad,untilthearrivalofDNANR,beenthecentreforTununermiuteconomicinvolvementwiththeoutsideworld.Thephysicalcomplexconsistedofthestore,whichwasafairlylargesingleroomwithasmallofficeandstoragespaceattachedattherear,severalwarehouses,andthemanager'sresidence.LikemanyHBCmanagers,theresidenttraderspokeInuktitutfluently.Mostday-to-daypurchasesinthestorewerehandledbytheInuitclerk,butthemanagercouldusuallybefoundthereaswell,barteringoverfurprices,greetingvisitorsfromthecamps,orworkingontheaccounts.ItwashewhotoldInuitmenthevalueoftheirfursandskinsandwhatgoodscouldbepurchasedwiththem,andmanyoftheirinformantstoldmethattheybelievedhewastheonewhosetprices.Theyhadlittleawarenessinthe1960soffluctuatingsouthernmarkets,andsoregardedthetraderasapersonofconsiderableinfluenceovertheirlivesandeconomicwell-being.Becauseofhisfluencyintheirlanguage,hewasinclosetouchwithcampactivitiesandgossip.Hewasalsothelocaljusticeofthepeacebuthadfewopportunitiestoappearinthatrole.

AswascommoninvirtuallyallcommunitiesintheCanadianArctic,theHBCstoreinPondInletservedasbothasocialandaneconomiccentre.AlmosteverywomaninthesettlementInuitorEuro-Canadianmadeatleastonevisittoiteveryday,oftenregardlessofwhethershe

hadanyspecificpurchasesinmind.Atanytimeofday,ifitwasopen,clustersofpeoplecouldbefoundstandingabouttalkinginthestoreoronthefrontsteps.Camppeoplewouldusuallydrivetheirdogsupontotheiceinfrontofthestoreandgoinforavisit(andtowarmthemselves)beforetheyhadevenunpackedtheirgearboxes.(Gearboxeswerediscardedproducecontainersthatwouldbetiedontotherearofasledandusedtocarrytheteakettle,theprimusstove,oftenahunkofbannock,andanyotheritemsthetravellerwantedeasilyaccessible.)Becausethemanagerwasusuallyinthestore,andsophysicallypresenteveniflargelysociallyinvisibleatsuchtimes,he

wasoftenthefirstEuro-Canadiantopickupnewsfromthecamps.

IwilldiscusstheRCMPdetachmentatsomewhatgreaterlengththantheothersbecauseitwastheagencythatconcernedmemostthatyear.Anotherreasonforgivingitspecialattention,however,isthatthepolicehadmoreofanacculturativeinfluenceoncamplifeofthetimethandidotherEuro-Canadians,andthisinfluenceextendedbeyondthestrictlylegal.ThePondInletdetachmenthadoriginallybeenacentreforpoliceactivityintheentireregionofthehighnortheasternArctic,afteritsestablishmentfollowingtheJanescase.Ithadbeenstaffedwithseveralconstablesandofficers,butin1963therewasonlytheoneofficerinresidenceformostoftheyear,eventhoughitwasstilltheadministrativecentrefornorthernBaffinIsland,withjurisdictionoverClydeRivertotheeastandArcticBaytothewest.

Assuggestedearlier,theresponsibilitiesofRCMPpersonnelintheArctic,atleastbeforethedevelopmentoftheDNANR,werevariedandextendedfarbeyondthelimitedroleofpeaceofficer.TheyweresuccinctlyputbyVanNorman(1951:111),aformerofficerwhoservedaterminPondInletintheearly1950s:

AtthisposttheRCMPistheonlyGovernmentdepartmentstationed,andconsequentlyuponitspersonnelfallthedutieswhichotherGovernmentdepartmentsrequireperformed.Familyallowanceandoldagepensionadministration,reportingongameconditions,registrationofbirths,deathsandmarriages,postoffice,issuingcoalminingpermits,collectingroyaltiesonexportingfurs,issuinggeneralhuntinglicenses,recordingweather,plusthenormaldutiesinvolvingenforcementoftheNorthwestTerritoriesOrdinancesandCriminalCode,patrollingbydogteamstovariousEskimocampstodeterminenativelivingconditions,andsuchremainingdutieswhichtheGovernmentdeemsadvisabletoenforce.

VanNormanwentontosaythathisowndutiesasalawenforcementofficerwerelimitedbecausethelocalInuitwere,inhiswords,"fairlyselfreliant,lawabidingpeople".Asimilarsentimentwasexpressed

byoneofhispredecessors,whostatedin1931that"theEskimosareakindlypeopleandperfectlyallrightifyoutreatthemdecently"(Robertson,1934:186).ThesearequitedifferentviewsfromthatexpressedbytheindividualwhohadurgedmissionizationoftheInuittomakethemintohonesttraders.

ThenormalactivitiesanddutiesofresidentpoliceinPondInletchangedverylittlebetweenthetimeofVanNorman'swriting

andtheadventoftheDNANR.TheNSOwhoestablishedthePondInletDNANRoperationhadapparentlybeenhesitanttoappropriatethemanynon-policedutiesoftheRCMPinthesettlement,buthissuccessorwasconvincedthattheywerepartofhismandate,andsoheassumedresponsibilityforsuchmattersastheadministrationofwelfarepaymentsandtheissuingofcoallicencesshortlyafterhisarrival.(TheTununermiuthadforseveraldecadesminedasmalldepositofsoftcoallocatedontheSalmonRiver,fiveorsomilesfromthesettlement,andsoldittotheHBCandtheRCMP.Thiswasterminatedin1965becauseofthereadyavailabilityofotherformsoffuel.)Thepolice'sresentmentoftheseactionshasalreadybeenmentioned.

Theregistrationofwhatanthropologiststerm"lifecrises,"suchasbirths,deaths,andmarriages,continuedtobetheresponsibilityofthepolice,andwhenamissionarywasnotinresidencetheymightactuallyperformamarriageceremony.Theyalsokeptcurrentthe"disclist"forthearea,ayearlylistingofallInuitfamiliesandindividualsinthedistrictalongwiththenumberassignedtoeachoneasanidentifyingmarkerforbureaucraticpurposes.TheInuittraditionallyhadseveralpersonalnames,someofwhichweresecret,butdidnotusefamilyorsurnames.Thelist,whichmanyEuro-Canadianobserversconsideredde-humanizinginitsimpersonality,allowedpoliceandotherstokeeptrackofindividuals.

TheRCMPwereservantsofthefederalgovernment,althoughtheywereexpectedtoalsoenforceordinancesoftheGovernmentoftheNorthwestTerritories.In1963,however,anewordinanceauthorizedthecommissioneroftheNWTtoactuallycontractfortheservicesoftheRCMP.FormallytitledtheRoyalCanadianMountedPoliceAgreementOrdinance,itstatedthat

thecommissionermay,onbehalfoftheGovernmentoftheNorthwest

Territories,enterintoanagreementwiththeGovernmentofCanada,underandforthepurposesoftheRoyalCanadianMountedPoliceAct,toprovidefortheuseoforemploymentoftheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice,oraportionthereof,inaidingtheadministrationofjusticeintheTerritories,andincarryingintoeffectthelawsinforcethereinuponsuchtermsandconditionsasmaybecontainedintheagreement.(OrdinancesoftheNorthwestTerritories,1963:82)

Inpractice,asidefromextremelyinfrequentseriouscrimessuchasmurder,mostlawsenforcedbytheRCMPintheeasternArcticwereTerritorialordinancessuchasthegamelawsandpublichealth

ordinances,andwithmostoftheTununermiutstilllivingincampslittleenergywasexpendedinenforcingeventhese.(Gameandpublichealthordinanceswhenviolated,wereviolatedinacamparea,farremovedfromtheeyesofthepolice.)OneoftheresidentRCMPofficersin1963gavethefollowingresponsewhenIaskedhimaboutcriminalproblemsamongtheTununermiut:

Thereisnocrimehereatall.Ofcourse,therearesomelawswhichtheEskimoshavedifficultyinunderstanding,andsobreak.Forexample,theyaren'ttoogoodabouttyinguptheirdogswhenthey'reinthesettlement.You'veseendogsrunningaroundloose.Thesameistrueofsomeofthegamelaws.Theyhadtroubleunderstandingthem,butnowtheyknowandobservethem.Theyareverytrustworthy.Forexample,Iliketokeeparecordofhowmanycaribouthereareinanygivenarea.Iwanttoknowhowmanyhuntershavehuntedanyoneherd,soI'veaskedthementotellmewhentheyhuntcaribouandtellmewherethey'regoing.Then,whensomeonecomesinandtellsmethatheisgoinghunting,Icansuggestthathenothuntinacertainplacebecauseithasbeenover-hunted.Now,thepeoplekeeprecordontheirown.Theyarequicktounderstandtheideaofconservation.ThebestIhaveeverheardof.(Personalcommunication)

Thisparticularofficer,whohadbeenstationedinPondInletforseveralyears,hadwhatmightbetermedaliberalattitudetowardslawenforcement.Herecognizedtheimportanceofwhatanthropologistshavecalledcustomarylaw,andmadeuseofitwhenimposingsanctionsonviolatorsofnot-too-seriousordinances.Forexample,hetriedtotakeintoaccountthecircumstancesunderwhichaviolationoccurred,andwhetheritseemedtobereasonablebehaviourintraditionalInuitterms.Also,heoftenemployedtraditionalsanctionsratherthanformallycharginganindividual.Shamingwasatraditionalformofsanction,andhemightapproachamaninacampwhowasknowntohaveviolatedsomeordinancesand"callhimdown"infrontofhispeers.

ThispatternofinterpretingCanadianlawsintermsoftraditional

practiceshadbeenestablishedbyprecedentthroughthecourtdecisionsofJusticeJackSissons,thefirstjusticeoftheTerritorialCourtoftheNorthwestTerritories,andcontinuedinthelate1960sthroughthetenureofhissuccessor,JusticeWilliamMorrow.JusticeMorrowoncetoldmethathetriedtoavoidsendinganInuktoasouthernprison,becauseinhisopiniontherewere

nohardenedInuitcriminalsandhedidnotwantto"producethefirstone."(personalcommunication).

TheresidentofficerinPondInletwentonleaveforanextendedperiodoftimein1964,andhistemporaryreplacementtookafarmoreformalandorthodoxapproachtolawenforcement.This,Ibelieve,exemplifiestheproblemsofhavingoneindividualfillaspecificposition,suchasthatofpoliceofficer.ChangingrolebehaviourinspecificpositionsmusthavebeenconfusingfortheInuitintheirattemptstounderstandCanadianinstitutions.

However,criminalactivitiesasdefinedbyCanadianlawwereindeedinfrequentamongtheTununermiutintheearly1960s,andthepoliceofficers'timewastakenupwithotherdutiesnotusuallythoughtofascentraltothepolicerole.Perhapsthemostimportantofthesewasinthemedicalrealm.TherewasasmallnursingstationinPondInletbutnoresidentnurse,andthenearesthospitalwasinFrobisherBay,fartothesouth.ThepolicehadofferedlaymedicalservicetoInuitinbothcampsandthesettlementfordecades,andoccasionallyevenactedasmidwivesincasesofdifficultbirths.TheyhadbeeninstructedinbasicmedicalskillsduringtheirRCMPtraining,andbuiltonthatthroughpracticalexperienceinthefield.TheofficerinPondInletwoulddelivermedicalkitsconsistingofbandages,ointments,andsoontoallcampsonhisperiodictoursofthem,andexplaintotheheadmenhowthecontentsweretobeused.(Thiswasnotalwaysasuccessfulexercise.AccidentswerecommoninInuitcamps,astheyareinanysettingwheresmallchildrenarefound.Irecallwatchingthecontentsofonesuchkit,whichhadbeendeliveredtoAullativik,usedupwithintwoweeks.Everybloodynoseorscratchedkneereceivedpromptandthoroughattentionduringthatbriefperiod,butthereaftersuchminoremergencieswerelefttothehealingpowersofnatureuntilanewkitwasdelivered.)Whenanyoneinacamporthesettlementwasinvolvedinanaccident,wasseriouslyill,orhadtroublewith

pregnancyoranimpendingbirth,friendsorrelativeswouldmakeeveryeffortpossibletobringthemtothepolicedetachmentforassistance,orwouldsendamessagetothepolice,confidentthatifweatherconditionspermitted,ahousecallwouldbemade.Ifthematterwasextremelyserious,thepolicewouldattempttohaveanaircraftsentinfromFrobisherBaytoevacuatetheindividual.Weatherconditionsoftenmadethisimpossible,however,andinthoseinstancesthepoliceactedaslaymedicalpractitioners.

TheactivitiesofthepoliceinPondInletbeforethearrivaloftheDNANRwereobviouslydiverse,then,withactuallawenforcementbeingonlyasmallpart.WiththeDNANRlegallyusurping

manyoftheirresponsibilitiesintheearly1960s,itisunderstandablethattheRCMPcametobeknown,andindeedtoconsiderthemselves,as"theforgottenmenoftheArctic."Iheardpoliceofficersusetheexpressioninwryifnotbittertonesonmorethanoneoccasion.IncreasinglytheirrolewastobecomeprimarilythatofasymbolofCanadiansovereigntyinitsArcticregions.Atthesametime,withcentralizationandrapidchange,theirfunctionaspolicewouldalsoincreasinglybecalledintoplay.

TheMittimatalikmiut

Ostensibly,theEuro-CanadianagenciesinPondInletweretheretoprovideservicesfortheInuit,eventhoughtheInuithadsurvivedforamilleniumorsowithoutthoseservices.ButtheEuro-Canadianswereinwhatwasforthemanalienenvironment,andsotheyinturnrequiredtheservicesofInuitworkerstomaintaintheiroperations.AfewTununermiutlivedinthesettlementbecauseofinfirmitiesoradvancedage,butmostoftheMittimatalikmiutworkedforEuro-Canadians.TheonlyagencythatdidnothaveatleastonepaidInuitemployeewastheRomanCatholicmission,buteveryInuitintheareawasreadytoofferassistancetotheCatholicmissionaryifitwasneeded.

TheAnglicanmissionhadanInukservingascatechist.Hesupportedhimselfandhisfamilyprimarilythroughhunting,butalsoworkedpart-timeforthemissionary.Hisduties,beyondassistinginservices,weretoprovidefood(obtainedthroughhunting)forthemissiondogteam;actasaguideforthemissionarywhenhevisitedcampsorArcticBay,whichwasalsoanAnglicansettlementbutdidnothavearesidentminister;andtocarryoutmenialtaskssuchasdisposingofthemissiongarbageandtoiletbagsandkeepingthecoalbinfilled.JimmyMuckpahbecamethecatechistshortlyafterIleftPondInletinthesummerof1964,andsobeganwhatwastobearapidprocess

culminatinginhisordinationthreeyearslaterasanAnglicanpriest.HereceivedhistheologicaltraininginPangnirtung.

TwoInuitmenworkedfortheRCMPasspecialconstables.TheirfunctionswerebasicallytoactasguidesandorderliesfortheEuro-Canadianconstables.TheywereissuedmodifiedversionsoftheRCMPuniform(or,atleast,thematerials,whichwouldbemadeintogarmentsbytheirwives)andwereprovidedwithprivatehouses.Thelatterwerelocatedadjacenttothedetachment,whichhousedtheEuro-Canadianpolice.Oneofthespecialconstables,thewell-knownKayak,wasaTununermiutwhohadworkedwith

theforceforalmosttwentyyears.KayakwasattachedtoseveraldifferentdetachmentsduringhistimewiththeRCMPbeforehereturnedtohisownpeople.HisfellowspecialconstablewasanindividualfromPortHarrisonwhohadbeenstationedatGriseFiordbeforebeingtransferredtoPondInlet.(GriseFiordisasettlementonEllesmereIslandthatcomprisesInuitfromPondInletandPortHarrison.ThePortHarrisonpeoplewererelocatedthereostensiblybecauseofgameshortagesintheirindigenousarea,withthosefromPondInletbeingbroughtintoteachthemtohuntinthehighArcticterrain.ThePortHarrisonpeoplehavechargedthatmorepoliticalmotiveswerebehindthefederalgovernment'sdecisiontousethemasthebasisforahighArcticsettlementatatimewhenCanadiansovereigntyinthenorthernregionswasbeingchallenged.)

ThespecialconstablefromPortHarrisonfoundhimselfandhisfamilytoberathersociallyisolatedfromtheTununermiut,althoughtheydidformallianceswithsomeofthelatter.This,Ibelieve,wasanexpressionoftraditionalInuitethnicity.Itwasdifficultforindividualsfromoneofthemoreembrasivemiutgroupstoacceptpeoplewhoseidentitywaswithanexternalmiutgroup.SeveralyearslaterIobservedthissamemanifestationofwhatthesociologiststerm"boundarymaintenance"inRankinInlet,whichhadbeensettledbyfamiliesbroughtinfromanumberofdifferentsettlementareas.Theytendedtomaintaintheirsocialdistancefromoneanother.Kayak'shome,incontrasttothatofhisco-worker,wasalmostalwaysfilledwithvisitorsfromcampswhowereinthesettlementtotradeorforotherreasons,andwithMittimatalikmiut.

Aretiredspecialconstable,JoePanikpakutsuk,alsolivedinthesettlementwithhisfamily.BecauseofafrozenlungsufferedwhilestillwiththeRCMPhewasunabletoenduretherigoursofcamplife.Joe'sdaughterwasalocalcelebrityatthetime,forshewastheannouncerforaCBCInuktitutradioprogram,whichwasreceived

everyWednesdayeveningandbroughtallotheractivitiestoastandstillaspeoplecongregatedaboutradiostolistenattentively.IfeltthatJoewalkedafigurativetightrope,inthatheseemedtowanttoexpresshisInuitmaleidentitywhileatthesametime,giventhathewasasettlementdwellerwithoutformalemployment,thatstatuswasinsomerespectsquestionable.Therewereseveralotherformerspecialconstablesinthearea,buttheyalllivedinthecamps;Ibelievethatitwasimportantforthemtore-establishtheirInuitidentitiesafterlongperiodsofidentificationwithaEuro-Canadianagency.

TheBay'sfull-timeInuitclerk,Mercosak,hadworkedforthe

companyforseveralyearsandwasstillwithitwhenIreturnedtenyearslater.Hishomewasontheedgeofthesettlement,andlikeKayak'swasalmostalwaysfilledwithvisitors.Heandhiswifeweregenialhosts.Theresidentmanagerwasunmarried,andanInuitwomanworkedashousekeeperinhisresidencewhileherhusbandhadcasualemploymentdoingjobsabouttheHBCcomplex.Alongwiththeseemployees,usuallytwoormoremenwouldbefoundmakingrepairstobuildings,transportinggoodsfromoneofthewarehousestothestore,anddoingotherworkonapart-timebasis.Thesecasuallabourerswereusuallycampmenwhowouldreturntotheircampswhentheiremploymentterminated.Eachyearbeforesealiftseveralwomenwouldbehiredtopacksealskinsfortransportationtothesouthonthesupplyship.

Thesepositionsweresemi-traditionalones;theyhadexistedforseveraldecades.TheBay,theRCMP,andthemissionarieshadalwaysneededInuittoassistthemintheiractivities.ThisemploymentpicturewastochangedramaticallywiththearrivaloftheDNANR,however,althoughin1963therewasonlyonefull-timeemployeeoftheagencywhoselong-termjobsecurityseemedviable.ThiswasDanielee,atwenty-four-year-oldmanwhohadbeensent''out,"tousetheArcticexpression,toreceivetraininginthesouthasaheavyequipmentoperator.HehadbeenhiredbythefirstNSOtobestationedinPondInlet,andwhenhewashireditwasanticipatedthatintimehewouldbepromotedtoassistantNSO.AssuchhewouldworkcloselywitheitheranNSOoranareaadministrator.Hewasoriginally,then,destinedtobecomeabureaucrat,butthiswasnottotranspire.TheadministratorwhoreplacedtheNSOdecidedthatDanieleewastooyoungforthepositionandwastoolackinginpoliticalinfluence.Thepromotiondidnothappen,andthesameadministratordescribedDanielee'spositionasbeingthatof"simplyatractordriverandmaintenanceman."Heworkedunderthedirectsupervisionofthe

Euro-Canadianmechanic,andifhedidnothaveprestigebeforehand,hesurelyacquireditfromhisworkwithheavyequipmentandhisassociationwiththeindividualwhoseskillsweresoadmiredbyotherTununermiut.

Inspiteofhismissedpromotion,Danieleewasthehighest-paidInuitinthesettlement.HeandhisyoungfamilylivedinarelativelyspaciousDNANRhousethatwastheequal,intermsoffloorspaceandfurnishings,ofseveralofthoseinhabitedbyEuro-Canadians.Asafull-timeemployeeofDNANR,hereceived,alongwithhissalary,thesamesizeofyearlyfoodrationasEuro-Canadianemployees,althoughitscompositionreflectedsomewhatdifferentfoodpreferences.Danieleesupplementedtherationwithlargefoodpurchases

fromFrobisherBayandMontreal,sentinbyaircraft.Danieleetrulywalkedathinline,forhewasemployedby,andsoidentifiedwith,theupstartDNANR,andyetheandhiswifewererarelyinvitedtoattendthelargersocialfunctionsheldatthehomesofhisEuro-Canadianco-workers.Evenwhensuchinvitationswereextended,theywererarelyacceptedheorhiswifewouldfindaconvenientexcusefornotattending.(Theywereprivatelyinvitedtothehomeoftheadministratorfrequently,butthatwasdifferentfromattending,orbeinginvitedtoattend,thelargergatherings.)Danieleemaynothavehadmuchpoliticalinfluence,butitwasveryimportanttohimthathissocialpositionwithintheTununermiutsocietyberetained.Amajorreasonforthelargeexpendituresonfoodwastoenablehimandhiswifetolavishlyentertaincamppeoplevisitingthesettlement.Heoftenfoundhimselfindifficultywithboththemechanicandtheadministratorforsleepinglateafterall-nightgatheringsathishomeoflandpeoplewhowerenotboundbyEuro-Canadianworkroutines.Insummerinparticular,asthemidnightsuncircledthesky,Tununermiutwouldignorethediurnalcycle,andDanieleewasoftencaughtbetweentwoworldsinhisattempttostandwithafootinboth.

Atthesametimetwoothermenwereworkingonafull-timebutneverthelesstemporarybasisforDNANR,andithadbeenanticipatedthateventuallybothwouldbegivenpermanentemployment.One,whowasthesonofacampheadmanwhohadworkedfortheRCMPasaspecialconstabletwentyorsoyearsearlier,wasbeingtrainedtotakeonthepositionofassistanttotheadministratorthathadbeendeniedDanielee.Inthemeantime,hisactualdutieswerelargelymenial,consistingofdisposingoftoiletandgarbagebagsfromhomesandofficesandpickingupafterthemechanicandDanielee.Theadministratordescribedhisdiversetasksinthefollowingway:

Hisjobistotakecareofthegarbage,sewageanddocarpentryandotherjobs.He'salsotheschooljanitor.HewriteslettersformeinEskimo,

distributesfamilyallowancechequestothesettlementpeople,fetchespeopleformewhenIwantthem,andactsasaspyforme.Youknow,hetellsmewherepeopleare,whattheyaredoing,andsoon.(Personalcommunication)

Tragically,beforeKaunakhadcompletedhisfirstyearofemployment,andbeforehecouldtakeonthepromotion,hediedattheageofthirtyofaheartdisorder.HewasreplacedbyoneofthemostpoliticallypowerfulmenamongtheTununermiut.Maktarwas

themaleheadoftheonlyRomanCatholicfamilyinthearea,andhadinthepastbeenahighlyrespectedcampheadman.Hisappointmentwastohavemajorconsequencesforlaterpoliticaldevelopmentsinthesettlement.

Theotherfull-timeDNANRemployeehadoriginallybeenhiredastheschooljanitor,butofficialconfirmationofthishadnotbeenreceivedfromtheregionalheadquartersinFrobisherBaybythetimeIleftthefield.Hedidsomejanitorialworkandalsoassistedonacrewinvolvedinconstructingapowerlinethroughthesettlement.Otherindividualswerehiredsporadicallytoworkonconstructioncrewsandatotheractivities.Allthreefull-timeInuitemployeeswereprovidedwithDNANRhousing,forwhichtheypaidrelativelylowrents.Danieleehadorderedalargethree-bedroomhouseforhimself,however,whichwasexpectedtoarriveonthe1964sealift.

TheDNANRwasinvolvedthatyearinrapidexpansionoftheirfacilities,andformostofthefallandwinteracrewoffourEuro-Canadiantradesmenandtheirforemanlivedinthesettlementwhileworkingontheconstructionofaschool,twostudenthostels,andanewhousefortheequipmentmechanic.Fortwomonthsacrewofthreemenjoinedthegroupwhilebuildingthefirstroadthroughthesettlement.Theforemanofthefirstcrewarrivedseveralweeksbeforehismen,andduringthattimeusedInuitworkers.Asensitiveindividualwhowascommittedtonorthernliving,heworkedhardtotraintheInuit,intheshorttimeavailable,incarpentryandotherskills.Theyweremainlycamppeople,andreturnedtothelandassoonastheregularcrewarrived.

CampchildrenwhoattendedthefederaldayschoolinPondInletrequiredaccommodationduringtheschoolyear;tomeetthisneedtheDNANRprovidedthetwohostelsmentionedearlier,althoughonlyoneofthemwasusedthatyear.AnInuitcouplehadbeenhiredtoact

ashostelparents;thewifepreparedmealsandherhusbandworkedascaretaker.

Finally,younggirlslivinginthesettlementoftenworkedasbabysittersforEuro-Canadianfamilies,andafewolderwomenfoundpart-timeemploymentasdomesticsinEuro-Canadianhomes.

RelationsbetweenTununermiutandEuro-Canadians

Ihavealreadyidentifiedsomeofthecontextsinwhichsocialinteractionbetweencamppeople,Mittimatalikmiut,andEuro-Canadiansoccurred.Thesewerelimited,andtoaconsiderableextent

institutionalizedoratleastformalized,possiblytothecomfortofbothInuitandEuro-Canadians.Moreinformalrelationshipsalsotookplace,ofcourse.SexualliaisonsbetweenInuitwomenandEuro-Canadianmenhadlongbeencommon,andthepatterncontinued,althoughperhapsmorediscreetly.Forexample,therewereoccasionswhenEuro-Canadiansworkingonconstructioncrewsweresummarily"sentsouth"bytheRCMPortheiremployersbecauseofallegedsexualinvolvementswithunder-agedInuitwomen.

ForasettlementsuchasPondInlettofunction,informationhadtoflowbackandforthbetweentheInuitandEuro-Canadians.ThesomewhatformalizedcontextsIdescribedearlieroftenprovidedthesettingsforthisexchangeofinformation.BoththeRCMPofficerandtheHBCtraderatthetimewerefluentinInuktitut.TheRCMPwouldreceiveinformationaboutactivitiesinthecampswhen,aswasthecustom,campmenvisitedthedetachmentwhileinthesettlement.TheHBCmanagerwasprivytoinformationthroughinformalconversationsheldinthestoreorhishome,andbybeingattherightplaceattherighttimewhencampgossipwasbeingpassedaboutwithinhishearing.Possiblyhehadbettercontrolofinformationaboutcampactivitiesbecausesomuchofitwaspassedontohiminadvertently,whereasthediscussionsheldinthepolicedetachmentweremoresusceptibleto"informationmanagement,"orselectivetransmission.Mypoint,though,issimplythatinbothsettingsthestoreandthedetachmenttherewereregularopportunitiesforinformationalinteraction.Alsoinbothsettings,however,acertainelementofinstitutionalizationwaspresent,inthatinfactcamppeoplewererarelyinvitedtovisittheBaymanager'sresidence,orthelivingquartersattachedtothepoliceoffice.ThevisitsoftheInuitwerelimitedtotheformalandbureaucraticsettingsoftheoffice.TheBaymanagerhadhishousekeeperandclerkassourcesofinformation,ofcourse,andpolicehadtheirspecialconstables,butneithersourcewas

immunefromengagingininformationmanagement.NeithertheBaymanagernorthepoliceofficerwasaregularvisitortothehomesoftheMittimatalikmiut,althoughthepoliceofficertookperiodicwalksthroughthesettlement,atwhichtimeshemightmakebriefvisitstoseveralInuithomes.

Thesepatternsofinteractionwerenottheresultofdiscriminatoryattitudesonthepartofindividualmanagersorofficers,butratherhadbeeninstitutionalizedoverseveraldecades,andwerefairlytypicalofpatternsfoundinothersettlements.Perhapsthisformality,entrenchedinanewsetoftraditions,facilitatedtheInuitintheirdealingswiththepoliceandtraders,forthestructures

allowedthemtoanticipatebehaviour.SomeoftheTununermiutmayhavepreferredmoreinformality,butmyimpressionwasthatmostwerecomfortablewiththestructures.Weoftenappreciatethatwithwhichwearefamiliar,evenifitisagainstourownbestinterestinthelongrun.Thepatterns,ofcourse,aretypicallycolonial.

Turningtothemissionaries,wefindmoreinformalityinrelationswiththeTununermiut.TheRomanCatholicmissionary,althoughhehadonlyonefamilyinhiscongregation,didnotlackforcompany:Anglicanswouldregularlyvisithim.TheCatholicpriestswhoworkedintheCanadianArcticusuallybecamefluentinInuktitutandpossessedahighregardforandknowledgeoftraditionalInuitsocietyandculture.TheCatholicmissionaryinPondInletwasprobablyprivytomoreofthecampgossipthananyotherEuro-Canadian.ThesmallresidenceattachedtothemissionwasrarelyemptyofInuitvisitorssharingteaandbiscuitswiththepriest,anditdidnotseemtobotherthemthatherepresentedadifferentdenominationalfaithfromthattowhichtheyhadpledgedallegiance.

WhiletheCatholicmissionwasregularlyvisitedbyindividuals,theAnglicanmissionwasaliteralbeehiveofgroupactivities.ThenewmissionaryandhiswifemadefrequentvisitstothehomesoftheMittimatalikmiut,andbothsidesseemedtobecomfortablewiththese.Themissionresidencewasalmostneveremptyofvisitors,presentforformalorinformalactivities.Theresidentmissionarywasextremelyconcernedwithwhatheconsideredarapidrateofsecularizationamonghisflock,andheregardedtheDNANRasanewimpetustotheprocess.Hehaddeterminedtotrytooffsetit,byorganizingsomanychurch-relatedactivitiesthatparishionerswouldhavelittletimeforthe"workofthedevil";andtosomeextenthesucceeded.ChurchserviceswereheldonSundaysandWednesdays,andduringtheremainderoftheweeksomethingwasalwayshappeningatthemission.Thereseemedtobeanever-endingprocessionofwomen

walkingbackandforthtothemission,prayerbooksinhand,withchildrenclutchingthetailsoftheirmothers'parkasorwarminsidetheinnerhoodsontheirbacks.Manyactivitieswereorganizedbythemissionary'swifeexpresslyforwomen,suchasBiblestudyclassesandsewingcircles.Atprayerserviceswomenwereinattendancebutdidnotvocallyparticipate,asmengavetestimoniesandprayedforhuntingsuccessandgoodhealthfortheirfamilies.

AlloftheMittimatalikmiutandanycamppeoplevisitingthesettlementattendedthedifferentfunctionsheldattheAnglican

mission,butthesewerenottotallysuccessfulincombattingthesecularizationthatwasofsuchconcerntothemissionary.Danceswereheldregularlyintheone-roomdayschool,andalthoughthemissionarystronglyexpressedhisdisapprovaloftheevents,everyonewhoattendedhisservicesalsowenttothedances.Overtheyearofmyobservations,attendanceatmissionfunctionsdwindled,aseveningactivitiesgraduallysettledbackintoapatternofhomevisitsbackandforth.ButthemissioncontinuedtoattractthemoredevoutandperhapssomewhowerebecomingalienatedfromInuitlife,andchurchservicesonSundayscontinuedtodrawfullhouses.

WhatIhavedescribedinthelastfewpageswas,withtheexceptionofthenewlyinstitutedmiddle-of-the-weekmeetingsattheAnglicanmission,theinstitutionalizedpatternofsocialinteractionbetweenEuro-CanadiansandMittimatalikmiutinthesettlementduringthecontact-traditionalperiod.ItwaswithinthisframeworkthattheDNANRcontingenthadtocarveoutanicheforitself,andthiscontexttowhichittriedtoadapt.Initially,boththeteachersandtheareaadministratortriedtocreateamoreinformalpattern.TheadministratorandhiswifesparednoefforttomaketheirhomeaplacethatInuitwouldfeelfreetovisitatanytimeofthedayorevening.Forawhiletheyweresuccessful,ashadbeentheAnglicanmissionaryandhisownwife,andseveraloftheoldermenandwomenfromboththecampsandthesettlementwoulddropintodiscussgovernmentbusinesswiththeadministratorinhishomeratherthanhisofficenextdoor.Somesimplycamebytosocializeandshareapotoftea.However,myownimpressionswerethattheyoftenfeltuncomfortableinthesetting,inspiteoftheirovertimpressionsofbeingatease.Significantly,someofthepoliticallypowerfulcampmennevervisited.Asthatyearofchangeprogressed,suchvisitsbecamelessandlessfrequent.Afewstalwartscontinuedthepractice,justasafewmencontinuedtousethesauna,andtheopeninvitation

continuedtobeextended,butincreasinglytheformalvisitsthatprevailedwiththepoliceandHBCalsoprevailedhere.Youngchildrenwouldplaywiththeadministrator'schildrenandtheirtoys,andsomeoftheyoungerwomeninthesettlementwouldhelphiswifeplanGirlGuideactivitiesorothersocialfunctions,butevenhereInoticedthatthewomenseemedtobetenseanduncomfortable.Thesamewastruewithinthehomesoftheteachers,whichintimewerealmostnevervisitedbyInuit.

Withtheexceptionoftheadministratorandhiswife,noneoftheDNANREuro-CanadianemployeesmadearegularpracticeofvisitingMittimatalikmiuthomes.Thearenasinwhichtheyinter-

actedwithInuitwerethoseoftheworkplace,suchastheschoolorthepowerhouse,orextracurricularcontextssuchasBoyScoutmeetings.

Althoughthemissioneveningmeetingsbegantodropoffinattendance,Inuitindividualsandfamiliescontinuedtovisitthemissionary'shome.Thathewassuccessful,andtheadministratorwasnot,eventhoughhecouldnotspeakInuktitutwhiletheadministratorwasfluentinit,isattributabletoroleperceptions.PreviousAnglicanmissionariesmaynothavebeenassociallyaccessible,andperhapsevenintrusive,asthenewman,buthisrolehadneverthelessbeenwellestablishedbyhispredecessors,andsoitwasnotdifficultforhimtomodifyitscharacteristicswhilestillworkingwithinitstraditionalandinstitutionalizedstructure.Theadministratorandhiscolleagueswerecreatingnewrolesandnewroledefinitions.Theadministrator,forexample,refusedtoacceptthebasiccharacteristicsofthewell-definedbehaviouralsettingsusedbytheotherEuro-CanadianagencieswithwhichtheTununermiutwerefamiliar.Hethus,inmyopinion,madeitdifficultforthemtoaccepthisnewformofinteraction.Hewas,perhaps,breakingtoosharplywithtraditions.TheTununermiuthadbeenexposedinthepasttoonlyasmallnumberofEuro-Canadianrolesandinstitutions,andbothhisbehaviourandhispositionweredifficulttofitintotheexistingstructure.Also,ofcourse,herepresentedanewformofauthority,anditwasaformofauthorityaboutwhichtheywereuncertainandconfused.

InthischapterIhaveattemptedtodelineatethestructuralfeaturesofTununermiutinteractionswithinthesettlementofPondInletduringthecontact-traditionalperiod,andthestructuralchangesthatresultedfromtheDNANR'sappearanceonthescene.IhavealsomentionedsomeofthewaysinwhichcamppeoplerelatedtotheMittimatalikut.TheTununermiutalsomaintainedrelationshipswithpeopleinothersettlements:goingbacktopre-contacttimes,TununermiutregularlyvisitedInuitoftheIgloolik,ArcticBay,andClydeRiverareas.More

recently,peoplefromthePondInletareahadbeenrelocatedinbothResoluteBayandGriseFiord.Inthecaseoftheformer,theyhadbeentakentoResolutetoservicetheRoyalCanadianAirForcebaseandDepartmentofTransportweatherstation,andinthelatter,asmentionedearlier,TununermiuthadbeenrelocatedtoGriseFiordtohelpthePortHarrisonevacueestoadapttohuntingconditionsinthehighArctic.Whenpossible,letterswritteninsyllabicsweresentbackandforthbetweenrelativesandfriendsinPondInletandtheothertwosettlements.Iwasunabletocollectdemographicdataonmar-

riageandotheralliancesbetweenTununermiutandthepeoplesofIgloolik,ArcticBay,andClydeRiver,butmypointhereisthatcontactsandtiesbetweentheTununermiutandotherInuitpopulationsexisted,andextendedbackoverseveralcenturies.Iwasstruck,tenyearsaftermyfirstvisit,whenonleavingthesettlementofPondInletbyaircraftforResoluteBay,IwasaccompaniedbyayoungInuitcouplewhowereontheirwaytovisitrelativesinArcticBay.However,inspiteoftheserelationswithothers,theTununermiutconsideredthemselvestobethe"true"Inuit.TheywereconvincedthatnootherpeopleoftheArcticspokeInuktitutaswellastheydid,or,figuratively,stoodastall.EthnicityandethnicpridewasarealityamongtheInuit,andhadlongbeenso.

Note

1IusethemalepronounwhenreferringtoNSOsandareaadministratorsbecauseinthe1960snowomenwereappointedtotheposition.

AChangingPoliticalParadigm,andtheImpactofNewStatuses"Ican'treallyrecallnowwhatprocessledmetoaskMaktarifhewantedthejob.Iknewhewasacampboss,andIknewhewasoneoftheverybesthuntersinthearea."ThisexcerptfromaletterfromtheindividualwhohadbeenareaadministratorinPondInletin196364,aresponsetoaquestionabouthisreasonsforhiringMaktar,capturestheessentialsofpoliticalpoweramongtheTununermiutincontact-traditionaltimes.MaktarhadadifferentreligiousaffiliationfromhisfellowTununermiutheandhisfamilywereRomanCatholicbuthewasanexcellenthunterandproviderandheheldthepositionofheadman.Hewasamanofsubstantialinfluenceandauthority,althoughhehadnorealpowertoforceotherstoaccepthisdecisions.Therewereotherslikehim,ofhisgeneration,whohadsimilarinfluencebutwerenotheadmen.Qamaniq,ofAullativik,wasone.Becausehedidnotoccupythepositionofheadman,hisauthoritywasnotperceivedbytheadministratorandotherEuro-Canadians.Hadthecentralizationperiodnotmaterialized,Qamaniqwouldhavebecomeheadmanintime,succeedinghisfather.AnthropologistswhohavestudiedbandsocietiessuchasthatoftheInuithavelongclaimedthattheyarehighlyegalitarian.Iagreewiththistoalargeextent,butnotentirely;inthischapterIwillattempttodemonstratethatcertainindividualssuchasMaktarandQamaniqdirectedthelivesofotherstoafargreaterextentthantheanthropologicalliteraturehasrecognized,andthattheirinfluencewasenhancedduringthecontact-traditionalperiod.

Intraditionaltimes,beforecontactwiththe"outside"worldwasestablished,authoritywasheldbytheshamans,orAngakoks,andbandheadmen,orIsumataqs.Attimesthetworoleswerecombined,

buttypicallywerediscretefromoneanother.Theshamanprobablyhadmoreofwhatwecalltruepowerthandidtheheadman,becauseindividualsfearedtheshaman.ReligionwastraditionallythemajorforceinInuitlife,andshamanshadcontrolover

membersofthespiritworldasourceofpowernotavailabletotheheadmen,whodependedontheirowncapacitiesashuntersandseculardecision-makersforvalidationoftheirrighttoinfluencethebehaviourofothers.Afewbadchoicesonthepartoftheheadmancouldcausehimtoloseanyinfluencehemighthavehad,buttheshaman'sstatuswasnotdependentuponsuchunpredictablefactorsas,forexample,achoiceofhuntinggroundsorthewhimsoftheweather.Also,theshamancouldenforcesanctionsimposedonindividualswhohadviolatedtaboos,buttheheadmanhadnosuchpower.

Itisimpossibletodaytodeterminetheexactintent,butthereislittledoubtthattheroleofheadmanwasinfluenced,andhisauthoritystrengthened,throughtheearlycontactswithoutsiders,or,inthecaseoftheTununermiut,withScottishwhalers.AshappenedwithmanyAmericanandCanadianInuitpopulations,certainindividualswererecognizedbytheoutsidersasspokespersonsfortheirpeople.ItwasdifficultforEuropeanstounderstandthestructureofnon-stratifiedsocieties.Intradingforfreshfood,skins,andsoon,theScotswhoworkedthehighArcticwatersdealtwithindividualswhowerelikelytheheadmenofthebands,andwhobecame,inasense,brokersbetweentheirownpeopleandthewhalers.Thisofferedthepossibilityofgainingcontroloverrelationswiththewhalers,andaccesstotheirtradegoods,onwhichInuitsoquicklybecamedependent.Thepositionoftheheadmanwhoplayedtheroleofbroker,then,wasstabilizedtoamarkeddegree,andanewdimensionwasaddedtotheheadman'smeansofstatusvalidation.TheappointmentofMaktartoapositionwiththeDNANRbecausehewasaheadmanisarecentexampleofthispractice.

Nevertheless,prestigeacquiredthroughhuntingskillsandsounddecision-making,aswellasdemonstrationofthetraditionalvalueofsharingofmeat,continuedtoformthebasisfortheinfluenceandauthorityofheadmen.Individualbandmemberswerestillfreetopack

theirbelongingsandmovetoadifferentbandiftheylostrespectfortheirheadman,andmyinformantstoldmethatithadnotbeenuncommontodoso.However,theestablishmentofpermanenttradingposts,andthetendencytowardsfairlypermanentresidenceinstablecampslocatedneartheposts,musthavealsoenhancedthepositionofheadmen,forindividualshadanewcommitmenttoaspecificplaceofresidence.

Thepresenceofwhalers,then,andlatertheestablishmentofayear-roundtradingpostatPondInlet,bothhadeffectsonthepoliticalstructureofTununermiutbands.Themostsignificant

event,however,wasthearrivalofmissionaries,andthesubsequentconversionofthepeopletoChristianity.Itwasthisthatenabledtheheadmantotakeonsomeofthecharacteristicsofshamans,andsotoincreasetheirauthoritysubstantially.ReligionhadalwaysbeencentraltotheTununermiut;inearlierchaptersIdescribedthehighdegreeofreligiositythatcharacterizedthemduringthecontact-traditionalperiod.Livinginamaterialworldthatwashighlyunpredictable,thepeopleneededasenseofcontrolovernature,andthis,inmyopinion,iswhatreligionprovided.Obeyingthepropertabooswasonewayofensuringthatthespiritsofanimalshunted,orthespiritswhocontrolledthem,werenotoffended.ThefervouranddevotionbroughttothetraditionalanimisticandshamanisticreligionweretransferredtoChristianity,andthemissionaries,whethertheywereawareofitornot,wereseenaspowerfulshamanswhohadpersonalrelationshipswiththemostpowerfulspirithelperofthemallJesusChrist.Religiouslifeinthecampswasnotasstructuredasthatinthesettlement,buttheintensityofreligiousfeelingdemonstratedbycampdwellerswasasintenseasthatofthesettlementpeople.

MostofmyobservationsaboutChristianityaspractisedinthecampsweremadeinAullativik,butIbelievethatwhatIsawtherewasrepresentativeofpracticesinotherTununermiutcamps.TwiceeachSundayeveryonewhowasnotawayhuntingorvisitingthesettlementwouldcrowdintoJimmyMuckpah'shouseforservices.Menwhowereoffhuntingwouldholdtheirownprayerserviceinatentorsnowhouse,andspendtherestofthedayplayingcardsanddrinkingtea.Theservicesheldinthecampwereprecededbyprayermeetingsthatwereattendedonlybymen.Eachonewouldrecounthissinsofthepastweekandaskforforgivenessandspiritualdirection.ThesemonologuesweresimilartotheimpassionedtestimonialsmorecommonlyidentifiedwithPentecostalevangelicismthanwithAnglicanism.Atestimonialmightgoonforaslongasfifteenminutes,

withallheadsbowedinprayerduringit.AnglicantheologianstellmethepracticeisnotinfacttypicallyAnglican,butduringtheyearthatIobservedit,Iassumedthatitwasandsosimplytookitforgranted.NowIwonderwhetheritmaynothavebeenanexampleofsyncreticblendingoftraditionalreligiousbehaviourwithelementsofChristianity,perhapswithitsrootsinshamanisticseances.Ifso,thepracticewouldstrengthenmyargumentabouttheheadman'snewroleusurpingthepositionoftheshaman.

Afterthemen'smeetingwasconcluded,thewomenandchildrenwouldjointhem,eachwomanbringingwithheraprayer

book.TheserviceswereledbyArniatsiark,theheadman,althoughhewouldoccasionallyallowoneoftheyoungermentolead.Theserviceitselfwashighlyformal,withhymn-singingandreadingoftheliturgy,afterwhichfamilieswouldreturntotheirownhomesforteaandbannock.

ItwasonlyintheexerciseofhisreligiousleadershipthatIeverobservedArniatsiarksternlydisciplinehisfellowcampresidents.Theyweremembersofhiscampbutwerealso,inasense,his''flock,"andhefeltresponsiblefortheirspiritualwell-being.Ononeoccasion,forexample,hebecamequiteconcernedbecausehefeltthattherateofabsenteeismfromSundaymorningserviceshadreachedalarmingproportions.HewenttoeachhouseinthecampandinformedthementhatinthefuturetheyweretoattendserviceseveryweekorelseleaveAullativik.Icanonlyguessathowhewouldhavefollowedthroughonhisthreattobanishbacksliders,forthenextSundayeveryoneattendedbothservices,andcontinuedtodosoforseveralmoreweeks.

Inmyview,theaboveobservationscoalesceintheclaimthattheroleoftheheadman,aftertheintroductionofChristianity,wasblendedwiththatofshaman.Inhisroleaslayministerinthecamp,theheadmanhadtakenonanewbasisfortheexerciseofauthority,basedontheperceivedabilitytocalluponthespiritofJesusChrist,ratherthantraditionalspirithelpersashadbeenthecasewiththeshamans.Also,unliketheTununermiut'srelationswithothercontactagencies,thosetheheadmanhadwiththemissiongavehimalmostcompleteautonomyofaction.HeinterpretedChristianityforhisownpeopleintheirownterms.Thiswasinsomewaysmerelyanartifactoflivingintheisolatedcamps,ofcourse,beyondtheconstantscrutinyoftheresidentmissionary.However,theAnglicanchurchhasahistoryintheCanadianArcticoftrying,morethananyothercontactagency,toturnitsworkovertotheInuitthemselvesforcontrolandgoaldefinition.Itisnosurprise,therefore,thatithasbeenmoresuccessful

inachievingtheaimtowhichallagencieshavegivenlipservice:toworkthemselvesoutoftheirjobs;tobereplacedbyInuit.AsIwritethis,thereisanactiverumourinAnglicanchurchcirclesaboutthelikelyappointmentofanInukasthenextBishopoftheArctic.

Unfortunately,Idonotknowtowhatextenttheheadmenqualaymissionariesactivelysoughttodisplacethetraditionalshaman.Whethertheythoughtoftheirnewpositionasameansofacquiringpowerornot,infactexactlythatoccurred,withtheconsequencethatthepowerrelationshipsinthecampsweredramaticallychanged.Ialsodonotknowwhetherthemissionariesactivelypro-

motedtheprocess,seeingitasawaytoridthemselvesoftheproblemofshamans,oriftheywereevenawareofit.

Inspiteofthechangesinthepowerbaseofheadmenbroughtaboutbythecontact-traditionalperiod,individualprestigeinthecampswasstillacquiredthroughdemonstrationofthetraditionalvirtues,suchaseffectivedecision-making,huntingskill,andsharingoffood.Butanewbasisonwhichprestigecouldbeacquiredcameaboutasaresultofthecontact-traditionalperiod,andIthinkitsdevelopmentisofcrucialimportanceinunderstandinglaterpoliticaleventsamongtheTununermiutandotherInuitoftheCanadianArctic.

Attheendofthelastchapter,speakingoftheTununermiut'srelationshipwithotherInuitpopulations,Ireferredtotheir"ethnic"status.Thisuseof"ethnic"isadmittedlyasomewhatpopularizedone(whichstill,Ibelieve,meetsthebasiccriteriaofmostanthropologicaldefinitions);"ethnicity"morestrictlyreferstoapopulationwithasenseofitsowndistinctidentity,existingwithinalargersocialenvironmentthatsurroundsandtoaconsiderableextentdominatesit,atleasteconomically.Inthatsense,theTununermiutweretrulyanethnicpopulationduringthecontact-traditionalperiodinvolvedastheywerewithinthelargercontextofCanadiansocietyandtheywouldbecomeevenmoresoduringthecentralizationperiodthatfollowed.

Amajorcharacteristicofethnicityisanattemptonthepartoftheethnicpopulationtoretain,andperhapsportraytothelargersociety,itscontinuingdistinctiveness.MembersengageinwhatGeraldBerremanhascalled"impression-management"(Berreman,1962).Thisinvolvestheadoptionofspecificposturestowardsbothmembersoftheirowngroupandmembersofthelargersociety.FortheTununermiutthismeant,duringthecontact-traditionalperiod,thedisplayingofwhatmightbetermedan"Inuit-orientation."Thatis,

individuals,andparticularlyoneswhohadworkedforoneofthecontactagenciesinthesettlement,wouldself-consciouslydemonstratethattheywerestilltrueInuitinthefullestsense.Perhapsthepointwastodemonstratethattheyhadnotbeencontaminatedbyassociationwithoutsidersandwageemployment.Inanyevent,wheneveryoneyouknowisInuit,thereisnoneedtomakeanissueofyourInuitidentity,althoughtryingtomanifestvaluedInuitbehaviour,suchassuccessathunting,wouldbeanadvantageinacquiringprestige.Inthenewcontextofethnicity,however,itbecameimportanttoshowthatonewasstillanInuit,andthecapacitytodosobecameinitsrightameansofacquiringprestige.Therewereseveralstrategiesemployedtodothis.

PerhapstheexampleofQamaniq,thesonofArniatsiark,whowasheadmaninAullativik,willbestillustrateonesuchstrategy.Iftheperiodofcentralizationhadnotoccurred,ringingtheknellforcamplife,Qamaniqwouldlikelyhaveassumedhisfather'spositionintime.Todoso,however,hewouldalsohavehadtodelicatelybalancedifferentaspectsofhislife-style.Hewasverymuchaninnovator,asIhavesuggestedearlier,andintimewastobecomeanentrepreneur.ThereisnoquestionthathewasinfluencedbyandappreciativeofmanyaspectsofEuro-Canadianlife.QamaniqwasforquiteawhiletheonlymaninAullativikwhoownedahigh-powered.222riflewithatelescopicscope;heworeanexpensive"Siwash"sweater,whichmadehimlookmorelikeaNorthwestCoastIndianthananInuk;andhehadmadebedsforhisfamily,preferringthemtothetraditionalsleepingplatform.Heevencreatedhisownradiostationforhiscamp.Hewasadeptatrepairingwatchesandclocks,anddidrepairworkformanyoftheTununermiutinthearea.Washe,then,basicallyorientedtowardstheoutsideworld,whichcontinuedtoencroachupontheTununermiut?Ibelievethathewasessentiallyapragmatist,andwhenitsuitedhimhewasmorethanpreparedtoselectivelyadoptmaterialitemsfromthatworld.Hewasalso,andconsciouslyso,aheadmaninthemaking.Hedemonstratedthetraditionalvirtuesinelegantfashion.Whenhehuntedwithothermen,itwasQamaniqwhomadethetellingdecisions,andhewasanexcellenthunter.(Ofcourse,hisriflegavehimadistinctadvantageovertheothermen,whousedthebulkyLee-Enfield.303s.)Qamaniq'sreputationextendedfarbeyondAullativik;hewashighlyrespectedbymeninothercamps.

How,then,didQamaniqwalkthetight-ropebetweenthetwocultures?Hedidsobyacceptingthematerialbenefitsofthecontactsituationwhilerefusingtobecometooinvolvedinthesocialworldoftheoutsiders.HepractisedsocialavoidanceinhisdealingswithEuro-Canadians,andheurgedotherstodosoaswell.WhenJimmy

MuckpahacceptedajobwiththeHBCinPondInlet,Qamaniqurgedhimtoquit,whichJimmydid.IrecallmanyoccasionswhenEuro-CanadiansinthesettlementwouldmakereferencetoQamaniqinpuzzledterms.Hewasanenigmatothem.Mostconsideredhimtobeaquiet,somewhatwithdrawnindividualwho,wheninthesettlement,wouldconducthisbusinessandthenreturnhomeasquicklyaspossible.Tothem,hewasnotthedynamicandstrong-willedpersonalitythathewasamongtheTununermiut,andhewascertainlynotconsideredaleader.

Qamaniq'savoidanceofextendedEuro-Canadiancontactswas,

Iamconvinced,theresultofaconsciouseffortonhisparttomaintainhisstatuswithinTununermiutsociety:astatuspredicatedintraditionalterms,butalsomodifiedbecauseoftherealitiesofthecontactsituation.Thatis,hispostureenabledhim,orsohehoped,toperpetuateinhisownpersonandtodemonstratetootherstheautonomousandvitallife-stylethatwastheInuitway.Itenabledhimtomaintainstatuswhilealsotakingfromthecontactsituationthosethingshedesired.

TherearemanyexamplesoftheproblemsindividualshadinmaintainingInuit-orientationwhilealsoworkingforcontactagencies.ThepersonwhoperhapshadmostdifficultydoingthiswasthepreviouslymentionedDanielee,whohadthebest-payingjobofanyoftheTununermiut.Hespentalargeportionofhissalaryonfoodstuffssothathecouldprovidetraditionalhospitalitytocamppeoplevisitingthesettlement,butmyimpressionwasthathehadvirtuallyabandonedhopeofretaininganyhighstatusamongtheTununermiut.Inasense,despitehiseconomicefforts,hehadsteppedoverthethinlinebetweenthetwosocieties;buthissituationwasextreme.Otherschosetoleaveagencyemploymentandreturntotheland:itwasnecessaryforthemtorevalidatethemselvesandtheirInuit-orientation.

OneformerwageworkerwasKudluk,whowasheadmaninIllukisaat,theonlycampatthattimesituatedonBylotIsland.AlthoughKudlukhadworkedfortheRCMPasaspecialconstablesomeyearsearlier,hewasahighlyinfluentialpersonintermsoftheratheramorphouscamppoliticalsystem,andamanofconsiderableprestige.Hishousewassparselyfurnished:heretherewerenobedsorexpensiveradios,butrather,simpleausterity.TherewasnoevidenceofthematerialbenefitsofhisearlierworkwiththeRCMP.

Althoughhiscampwasrelativelyclosetothesettlement,Kudlukmadeonlyinfrequentvisitstoit,andthoseforspecificpurposessuch

astradingorvisitingtheAnglicanmission.HewasconsideredbybothTununermiutandEuro-Canadianstobeanexcellenthunterandamanofquietdignity,whosecamp,althoughsmall,waswellmaintained.Hewascharacteristicofseveraloldermenlivinginthecampswhohadhadexperienceworkingforcontactagenciesinthepast,andhadthenrejectedthesebackgroundsinordertoreaffirmtheirInuit-orientation.TheyseemedtoconsciouslyrepudiateanyacculturativeinfluencesotherthantheirreligiousconversiontoChristianity.

Someoftheseindividualshad,likeKudluk,becomecampheadmen.Thesefoundthetwonewsourcesofprestigeandtherefore

influenceavailabletothem:demonstrationofanInuit-orientationandtheroleoflayminister.InsomerespectstheybecamerolemodelsforyoungermensuchasQamaniq,whoalsosoughttoemphasizetheirInuitidentity,butthelatter,becausetheyhadnotbeentaintedbycloseassociationwithEuro-Canadians,couldbemoreopenlyacceptingofthematerialbenefitsofferedbytheoutsideworld.BothgenerationswhoadoptedthestanceofInuit-orientationseemedtometobeattemptingtocreateanewInuitpoliticalrealitythatwascontinuouswiththepastbutalsofilledtheapparentpowervacuuminwhichtheincreasingnumberofInuitwhoworkedforEuro-Canadianagenciesfoundthemselves.ThiswastobecomeveryimportantwhentheTununermiutdiscoveredinthecentralizationperiodthattheirtraditionalwayoflifewasrapidlyeroding.Inuit-orientationbecameamechanismforperpetuating,ifnotawayoflife,atleastasenseofcontinuity.

TheEmergenceofaNewGenerationofLeaders

Threeyoungmenwereemergingasleadersintheperiodjustpriortocentralization,whentheTununermiutmovedenmasseintothesettlement.OneofthemwasQamaniq,whomwehavealreadydiscussed.Hehadtakenoneextremeposition,whichwastoemphasizehisInuit-orientationbyrefusingtoenterthesocialrealmoftheEuro-Canadians,andhemaintainedthispositionevenafterthecentralizationperiodoccurredandhefoundwageemploymentinPondInlet.

Kaunak,thesonofKudlukofIllukisaat,whomwemetearlier,wasasecond.ThesonofacampheadmanwhohadonceworkedfortheRCMP,Kaunakwasalsomarriedtothedaughterofaformerspecialconstable,JoePanikpakutasak,whohadbeenunabletoreturntothelandafterretirementbecauseofpoorhealth.Hissister-in-lawwasoneofthefewTununermiuttohavemadeacompletebreakwithher

peoplebyworkingforawhileasanairlinestewardessbeforetakingupresidenceinMontreal.Kaunakhimselfhadbeenhiredbytheareaadministratorandwasbeingtrainedforthepositionofspecialassistant,whenhepassedawayquitesuddenly.Kaunakbridgedthetwoworldsinwhichhelivedsuccessfully,althoughperhapssomewhatprecariously.InhisdemeanourhedemonstratedanInuit-orientation:hishomeinthesettlementwassimplyfurnished,andhemaintainedadogteamandhuntedwheneverhehadfreetime.WhileDanielee,whoalsoworkedfortheDNANR,had,likeQamaniq,embracedthematerialbenefitsofwagelabour,Kaunakledanausterelife.Thereisofcoursenowayofknowing

how,hadhelived,hemighthavemaintainedhispositionanddevelopedapowerbaseinthechangingpoliticalvortex.

WhenKaunakdied,theareaadministratorreplacedhimwithMaktar,amemberoftheonlyRomanCatholicfamilyamongtheTununermiutofthetime,andoneofthebesthuntersinthearea.Hisreligiousaffiliationseemsnottohavehurthispoliticalposition,forhewasheadmaninhisowncampatthetimehewashired.Mostoftheresidentsofthatcampwerecloserelativesofhis,though,andalsoCatholic.Nevertheless,hewashighlyregardedbyalloftheTununermiutmen.IbelievethatheacceptedthepositionbecauseitwouldallowhimtoliveneartheRomanCatholicmission,andinfacthesoughtconsentoftheresidentpriestbeforehedidso.Itwasmyimpressionthathealsohadpoliticalobjectivesinmind.

MaktarhadearnedhiscredentialsasanInuit-orientedcampleaderandhadestablishedhimselfwithinthetraditionalpoliticalstructure.Atthesametime,heseemedtobecognizantofthedevelopmentsoccurringinthesettlementandwasabletoforecastthedemiseofcamplifeandtheexodusofcamppeopletoPondInlet.Hewantedtohavesomeinfluenceonfuturedevelopmentsanddirections,andthebestplacetodothatwasthesettlementitself.LikeKaunak,Maktarmaintainedademeanouroftraditionalitywhilealsoworkingfull-timefortheDNANR.HehadafirmpositionintheInuitstructure,andwastocreateapositionforhimselfinthestructuretocome.Duringthecentralizationperiod,forexample,whenelectionstocommunitycouncilswerecalled,Maktarwouldbeinapositiontorunforoffice,andtodososuccessfully.

Therewereatthattime,then,twoseparateandyetrelatedpoliticalprocessesoccurringamongtheTununermiut.Ontheonehand,therewerethedevelopmentsontheland,whichwerebeginningtolooklikethebasisforanincipientrevitalizationmovementwithinthecontact-

traditionalvalues.ThoseadoptingthisstanceexpresseditinpartbyactivelyavoidingcloseidentificationwithEuro-Canadiansociety.IdonotbelievethatthismovementwasrecognizedbymanyoftheEuro-Canadians,whooftenmadethehoarycolonialisticmistakeofassumingthatindividualswhomadesocialovertonestothemwerealsoindividualswhohadhighprestigeinthetraditionalcontext.Theywerevictimsofasophisticatedformofimpression-management.

Notallcamppeopleacceptedthisquasi-revitalizationorientation,butwhilestilllivinginthecampstheyweretoagreatextentundertheinfluenceifnotauthorityoftheirheadmenandothers

likeQamaniqwhoweredecision-makers.Idonotwishtoimplythatthese"leaders"wereconsciouslyconspiringagainstEuro-Canadianinfluencesorinanyrespectsawthemselvesasconstitutingaunitedfront.Indeed,aswasthecasewithQamaniqandMaktar,therewasoftenasubtleformofcompetitionbetweenthem.Therewasinthecamps,then,abasisforfactionalism,butmorecogently,anincipientideologicalcohesionandincreasingsupportfortheincipientmovement.TheunderlyingpoliticalsystemoftheTununermiut,whichhadbeenignoredbymostoutsideobservers,wasbeingbroughtoutandobjectified,inmyopinion.AtthattimeIpredictedthegrowthofatruerevitalizationmovementontheland,andtheemergenceofanethoswhichwasmore"traditional"than"contact"innature.Itdidoccurinmanyrespects,butinthesettlementratherthanthecamps.Itemergedseveralyearslater,anditsgoalsweremoreclearlyinaccordwiththoseofotherminoritypeoplesstrugglingforself-determinationthantheywerewiththeperpetuationofatraditionalwayoflife.

Thesecondprocess,orperhapsdirectionisabetterterm,wassimilarinmanyrespectstowhatVallee(1962)characterizedforBakerLakeastheorientationoftheKabloonamiut.Theindividualsandfamilieswhoadoptedthisorientation,andsofosteredthisprocess,accordingtoValleewerethosewhobecauseoftypeofemployment,personalcharacteristics,orsimplypersonalpreferenceshadformedandnurturedaffiliationswithEuro-Canadians.ThereweresomeKabloonamiutinthecampsandthesettlementofPondInletintheearly1960s.NotallworkedforEuro-Canadianagencies,andcertainlysome,whohadsuchemployment,werenotofthistype.However,therewasdefinitelyacorrelationbetweenwageemploymentandtheadoptionofaKabloonamiutstance.

InthesettlementtheKabloonamiut,ifImaycontinuetoborrowVallee'sterm,wereindividualswhohadadoptedthestancenotsomuchoutofpreferenceasoutofnecessity.Theyincludedthetwo

RCMPSpecialconstables;awidowwhoworkedasahousekeeperinthehomeoftheareaadministrator;theretiredspecialconstable,JoePanikpakutsak;andafewothers.Mostofthesehadhadtheposturethrustuponthembyvirtueoftheirjobs,ortheirinabilitytoengageintraditionalactivities.Forthosewhohadjobs,thenatureoftheworkrequiredcloseinteractionwithEuro-Canadians,anditwasfeltnecessarytodisplaythedemeaningbehaviouraltraitsthatnativeemployeeshavesooftenhadtoassumeincolonialsituations.Theiremployersmaynothaverequiredsuchbehaviour,butthesubservientnatureoftheemploymentseemedtotheincumbentstodemandit.Theseindividualsusuallyhadlost

statuswithintheInuitpopulation.CamppeopleoftenridiculedthembehindtheirbacksandconsideredthemtohavelostoneofthemostprizedqualitiesofInuitlifeindependence.BeingsociallysegregatedfromtheInuitcommunities,theywereincreasinglyforcedtoturntoEuro-Canadiansforsocialgratification.TheymightattempttocreatenewbehaviouralsettingsinwhichtheycouldinteractwithEuro-Canadiansby,forexample,developingvisitingpatternswithEuro-Canadianssuchastheteachers,whocouldnotspeakInuktitut.TherewerealsosomeelderlyindividualslivinginthecampswhoseemedtoenjoybeingwiththeEuro-Canadiansandvisitingthemintheirhomes.Suchpersonswerepastthestageoflifewhereprestigeisimportant,andbesides,theyhadachievedahighenoughstatusthroughlonglivesoflivingonthehandthattheywerenotthreatenedorstigmatizedbythisbehaviour.

SomeoftheKabloonamiut,then,wouldconsciouslyseekoutsituationsinwhichtheywouldbeforcedtousethelittleEnglishskillstheypossessed.ThiswasincompletecontradictiontothelinguisticbehaviourofthosewhohadadoptedanInuit-orientation.AlloftheTununermiutwholivedinthesettlementhadsomefacilityinEnglish,howeverminimal,andinfactthiswasanecessityforthosewhoworkedfortheDNANR,foronlytheareaadministratorcouldspeakInuktitut.ManyofthecamppeoplealsohadsomeabilitytospeakEnglish.However,almostallrefusedtousetheirEnglishskillsverbally.Ibelievethatthiswasadeliberateposture,nottakenoutofsomesenseofembarrassmentovertheirinadequaciestograspthelanguage.IrecallseveraltimeswhenwomenwhohadworkedforEuro-CanadianagenciessatlisteningattentivelytoEnglishconversationsandthenlookedupquizzicallywhenaskedaquestioninthatlanguage.ItmaybethatthisdisavowalofEnglishwastheirwayofdemonstratinganInuit-orientationandshowingthattheyhadnotbeenconvertedtotheEuro-Canadianways,eventhoughtheyhad

workedinthesettlement.However,thismanipulationoflanguagewastobecomeamajormeansofretainingInuitidentityonapersonallevelandcohesiononasocietaloneinthesoon-to-be-experiencedcentralizationperiod.

ImayhavebelabouredthisdiscussionofdifferentpoliticalcurrentsrunningthroughTununermiutsocietyneartheendofthecontact-traditionalperiod,andIhavetoadmitthatthetypologiesandcategoriesIhavepresentedwerenotasclearcutasImayseemtobesuggesting.Nevertheless,changesinpoliticalbehaviourwereoccurringamongthepeople,andlikeotherchangestheyhadexperiencedinrecenttimes,thesewereresponsestoalieninfluences.

TherevitalizationmovementIhavetriedtodescribewasnota"returntotheland"movement,formostofthepeoplestilllivedincamps.ThefactthattheydidmoveintothesettlementslessthanfiveyearsafterthetimeIamdescribingheremaysuggestthatthemovementwasnevermuchofarealityinanysense.Iwoulddisagree;therewasanewandobjectifiedconceptionofInuitidentitybeingformed,anditwouldbecarriedalongwiththecamppeopleastheymovedintoPondInlet,tookupwageemployment,andacceptedgovernmentalhousing,formalinstructionfortheirchildren,newfoods,andalltherestoftheparaphernaliathatwerepartofthecentralizationperiod.

Therevitalizationmovementwasofanintellectualnature,andtheseedsplantedduringitsformativestageswouldblossomintoasenseofInuitconsciousnessthatwouldcarrytheTununermiutthroughaperiodofchangemoredramaticthananytheyhadyetfaced.Themovementwasnotsomuchcharacterizedbytheideaof"letusreturnto"asoneof"letusholdonto."Whatwasforgedduringthecontact-traditionalperiod,then,wouldinmyopinionshapemanydevelopmentsduringthecentralizationperiod.

TheSettlementTenYearsLaterDuringthedecadethatelapsedbetweenmytwofieldtripstoPondInlet,Itemporarilyshiftedmyintereststostudythedevelopmentofsingle-industrytownsinnorthernCanada,butIalsoconductedresearchwiththeInuitpopulationsofRankinInletandYellowknifeintheNorthwestTerritories.SeveralTununermiuthadtakenupgovernmentpositionsinOttawa,workingonlanguageprojects,andImaintainedclosecontactwiththemduringtheinterveningperiod,aswellaskeepingupcorrespondencewithpeopleinthesettlementofPondInletitself.Ihadbeenprepared,then,toencounterchanges,andIhadsomeideaoftheeffectsoftheterminationofcamplifeontheTununermiut,butmyfirstdaybackinthesettlementbroughtmemoresurprisesthanIcouldpossiblyhaveanticipated.

Onceagain,Iarrivedwithoutanypreviousnoticebeinggiventoresidents.Ishouldhavewrittenahead,buthadneglectedtodoso.OnthistripIdidnothavetoarrangeforacharterfromResoluteBay,becausetherewereregularlyscheduledflightsbetweenitandPondInlet.TheaircraftwaspilotedbyayoungInuk,andtherewereseveralpassengersbesidesmyself.ThesewereInuitreturningfromvisitstothesouthandgovernmentscientistsandbureaucrats.WhenwearrivedinPondInlet,insteadoflandingonthegrassyplainbehindthesettlement,theaircraftsetdownonanewlyconstructedairstripattheendofwhichwasasmallterminal.

Eventhoughincomingaircraftwerenolongeranovelty,andmailwasdeliveredonaregularbasis,itseemedthattheentirecommunityturnedouttomeetus.Peoplewerecurioustoseewhomightbeontheplaneandeagerforanopportunitytobreakthemonotonyofalongsummerevening.Atfirst,asIlookedoverthecrowd,Irecognizednoone,butthenIspottedafamiliarface.Iwalkedovertomyoldfriend

Qamaniq,whostoodbesidehiswife,andextendedmyhandingreeting.IdidnotexpectthestartledlookonhisfacewhenIdidso,buthisamazementturnedouttobeunderstandable:hehadheardarumourthatIhaddied.Ihaveneverbeensurewhetherhethoughthewasseeingaghost,or

whetherhewassimplytakenabackatseeingsomeonewholookedsomuchlikeme.Hiswife,Koonoo,wasfirsttorecognizeme.Weshookhandsandtriedtocarryonabriefconversation.Qamaniqdidnothavetousethetechniqueofimpression-managementtoavoidspeakingEnglish,forhehadneverfeltmovedtolearnit;andIhadforgottenmostofmyInuktitut.Butwewereabletocommunicateinastumblingfashion,andIaskedhimfordirectionstothetransientcentre,whereIwastostay.Hesurprisedmebyofferingmearideinhisautomobile.Igratefullyaccepted.InthesamedayIwastobebothflowninanaircraft,anddriveninacar,byInuitmenastrikingdifferencefromthedaysofdogteams.

Koonoo,whowasdressedinafashionablevinyljacket,tookthechildrenwhowerewiththemhome,andQamaniqdrovemetothecentre.Severaldaysofheavyrainshadturnedthesteeproaddownthehillfromthelandingstriptothesettlementintoathick,oozygumbo.AsthesmallblackFiatslitheredfromsidetoside,IwonderedbrieflywhetherIhadbeenwiseinacceptingtheride,butQamaniqhandledthecarwithskillandaplomb,andwesoonarrivedsafelyatthetransientcentre.Beforeleaving,Qamaniqinvitedmetovisithishomethatafternoonafterwork,givingmethestreetnameandnumberofhisaddress,andtellingmetophonehimifIhadtroublefindingit.IhadexperiencedthefirstofmanyshocksIwouldreceiveduringthenextfewdays.MyfriendQamaniq,thehunterandmanoftheland,nowlivedinPondInletinahousethathadastreetnumberandatelephone,workedatfull-timewageemploymentthathadregularhours,andownedhisowncar.Ilaterlearnedthatheusedhiscarasataxi,transportingvisitorsfromtheairstriptothetransientcentre.

ThefollowingdayIwalkedslowlythroughthegreatlyexpandedsettlement,meetingoldfriendsandacquaintancesalongtheway,andtryingtoabsorbthemanyvisualchanges.Therocky,tundracoveredhillbeyondthestreamthathadearliermarkedtheedgeofthe

settlementwasnowcoveredwithsmallhomes,aschool,alargenursingstation,andsundryotherbuildings.ThiswastheDNANRsectionofthecommunity,whichhadbeguntotakesomesortofraggedshapetenyearsbefore.Attheotherend,the''old"settlementwasbutlittlechanged.FatherRousselierestilllivedinthesmallquartersattachedtohismissionchurch.TheHBCresidenceandtheRCMPdetachmentstillstoodclosetooneanother,surroundedbyneatlymanicuredgrassthatwaslushlygreenaftertherainsofthepastfewdays.(ThissamerainhadturnedtheDNANRarea,whichwasnotlandscaped,intoahugemudpuddle.)TheHBCstorehadbeenexpanded,andtheAnglicanmissionnow

AnewsectionofPondInlet.1973.

haditsownchurchbuilding,butinspiteofthesechangesIfeltthatIhadsteppedbackintimeasIwalkedthroughthispartofthesettlement.

ThatafternoonIbeganthewalkupthehilltoQamaniq'shouse,butonthewayIwasstoppedbyahandsomeyoungmanwithlong,blackhairandmodishsunglasses.HeaskedmeinvirtuallyunaccentedEnglishifIwasonmywaytoQamaniq'shouse,andifso,wouldIlikearidethere.Iwasquicktoaccept,forthehillwassteepandIwasoutofcondition.Ihadnotnoticedthecarparkedalongsidethepath,butweclimbedintoitanddrovetherestoftheway.NotuntilIenteredthehouseandwasintroducedtohimdidIrealizethattheyoungmanwasTimothy,Qamaniq'soldestson,whohadbeenasix-year-oldchildwhenIlastsawhim.MymindflittedbacktotheAullativikofadecadebefore,andtotheimageofasmallboyposingforapictureinfrontofhisfather'shouseandholdinginhisarmshistwofavouritetoys,asealembryothathisfatherhadcutfromthestomachofananimalhehadkilled,andaskinnedcarcassofafox.Bothhadtakensometimetorot,foreachnighthewouldleavethemintheoutersnowhouseattachedtohisfather'sdwelling,wherethey

wouldfreezeashardasrock,tobeplayedwithagainthefollowingday.Timothyactedasmyinterpreterduringmyvisitthatevening,

andbeforeIhadbeentherelonghetoldmethathisfatherwishedmetostayfordinner.Afterhavingaccepted,Iwasofferedawhiskeyandwaterbeforethemeal.Wethensharedadeliciousmealoffriedarcticchar,adelicacyIhadnotenjoyedforseveralyears.Insteadofcookingitoverasoapstonekudlik,Qamaniq'swifeusedherfairlymodernstove.SpeakingthroughTimothy,sheapologizedfornotservingvegetableswiththefish,explainingthattheHBCwasverylowonsupplieswhilethemanagerawaitedsealift.

Thethree-bedroombungalowstoodonthecrestofthehighhillthatsweptacrossthebackofthesettlement,attheendofalong,crescent-shapedstreet,andoverlookedalarge,grassyexpanseyoungstersusedasaplayingfield.InthedistancewasastunningviewacrossEclipseSoundofBylotIslandwithitshighpeaksandglaciers.Icouldnothelpthinkingtomyself,"LeaveittoQamaniqtogetthebestlocationinthesettlementforhisownhome!"Hisfather,Arniatsiark,whohadbeenheadmaninAullativik,livednextdoor,andbesideArniatsiarkwasthehomeofKadloo,whohadalsolivedinAullativikin1963.Thecloseproximityofthesethreeresidencesdidnotmean,Ilaterdiscovered,thatcamppeoplehadformedtheirownlittlecommunitieswhentheymovedintothesettlement,buttherehadbeensometendencytoselectresidencesclosetofamiliesfromthesamecamps.Qamaniq'syoungerbrother,Samuellee,whohadlivedinAullativiktheyearbeforeIspentmytimethere,livedatsomedistancefromQamaniqandtheirfather.Hiswifewaspostmistress,however,andthatmayhaveinfluencedhischoiceoflocation.

Duringdinnerthatevening,QamaniqaskedmeifIwouldliketostaywithhimandhisfamilywhileIwasinthesettlement.Iwasworriedbecause,althoughhishousewasfarmorespaciousthantheoneinwhichIhadlivedwithhiminAullativikadecadebefore,wehadallagedtenyearsintheinterim;itmightbedifficultforhiswifetoputupwithanoutsider,and,possiblymoreimportantly,withfivechildren

ranginginagesfromfourtosixteenlivinginthesamehouse,IwassureIwouldbeaninconveniencetoallconcerned.ItoldhimthatwhileIappreciatedtheofferandwouldverymuchliketomovein,Iwouldthinkontheideaforaday.

Thetransientcentrewascrowdedwithvisitingscientists,aBelltelephonecrewandtheirpilots,anauditorfromtheTerritorialgovernmentwhohadarrivedonthesameplaneasI,ateamofscubadiversfromYellowknifewhowereinterestedinfindingnarwhalskeletons,andageographerfromGermany.TheHBCstorewasoutoffood,andthemanagerwaseagerlyanticipatingsealiftand,withit,newsupplies.Thecrewsandmostofthescientists

hadtheirownfoodreservesandwereeatingwell.Ihadasupplyoffreeze-driedfoodsthatIhadbroughtwithmeforemergencyuse,butIdoubtedthattheywouldlastforseveralweeks.Aconstructioncrewwastoarriveatanytimetobeginworkonanewschool,andsoconditionsinthetransientcentrewere,althoughcomfortableenough,lessthanperfect.TheeveningspentwithQamaniqandhisfamilyhadremindedmeofthewarmthandsenseofintimacythatoneexperiencesinanInuithome.Possibly,Canadianruralfamilylifebeforefamilysizesbegantodwindlehadasimilarintimacybutwithout,Iwouldthink,theconstantvisitingbackandforth,dayandnight,thatcharacterizesandhastraditionallycharacterizedInuithomelife.Aftersomethought,therefore,IdecidedtoacceptQamaniq'sinvitation,andthefollowingdayhepickedupmybagsanddrovemetohishouse.IwasproperlyembarrassedwhenIrealizedthatIwastobegivenaroomofmyown,andthechildrenwouldbemadetosleepinthelargerroomtogether,astenyearsbeforeIhadbeenaccordednosuchamenities;butthediewascastandIdidnotregretit.Ihopetheydidnoteither.TherewasnoarguingwithQamaniq.

ManyofthethingsIwillsayaboutthecommunityasIfounditthatsecondtimewillhavetobesuperficialandratherimpressionistic,forIwasn'ttherelongenoughtogainthedepthIhadhopedfor,andalso,muchofmytimewasspentworkingwithfilesandrecordsofcommunityassociations,whichhadtobedoneinthegovernmentofficebuilding.However,Idobelievethat,becauseoftherelationshipIwasfortunateenoughtodevelopwiththeTununermiuttenyearsbefore,Istillhadsomerapport.OlderpeoplewouldstopmeonthestreetorintheHBCstoreandaskifIwasnotthepersonwhohadlivedwithJimmyMuckpahatAullativik.Itwasgoodtoberemembered.And,livingwithQamaniq,Iwasdailyinthecentreofoneofthemainarenasofinteractioninthesettlement.Forbothofthesereasons,Ihadfreeaccesstomosthomesinthesettlement.

Becauseofthefoodshortage,Ionceagainadaptedto"landfood,"orseal,caribou,andfish,fortheseweretheonlyfoodsavailabletothepeople.

AHomeintheSettlement

AshorttourthroughQamaniq'shomewillillustratesomeofthematerialchangestheTununermiuthadexperienced.Thefrontdoor,whichfacedoutontothesettlementbelow,wasnotusedasanentrance,asitwasseveralfeetabovegroundlevelandnoconnectingstairshadbeenbuilt.Oneenteredbythesidedoor.Outside

thatdoor,onthesmallporch,stoodafreezerfilledwitharcticcharandcariboumeat.Asmallentryhallopenedontheleftintothecombinedkitchen/livingroomandontherighttoasmallstorageroom.Themainroomfacedoutononeside,overthesettlement,andthebedroomswereattheoppositeendofitfromtheentryhall.Thebathroomseparatedthemasterbedroomfromtheothertwo.

Rifles,clothing,andoddsandendswerekeptinthestoreroom.Onentering,peoplewouldusuallyremovetheirshoesorbootsandleavethemintheentryhall.Thebathroomhadasinkandatoiletbutnorunningwater.Discardedwaterrandownthedrainandunderthehousewhereitspilledontotheground.The"honeybag"toilethadanairventontheback.Therewasalargemirrorabovethesink,andonthewallacrosstheroomwereprotrudingshelvescoveredwithshavingequipmentandassortedtoiletries.Awringerwashingmachinestoodinacornerandwasbroughtintothekitchenareawhenwashingneededtobedone.Ashorthallwayranfromthebathroomtothemainroom,andononesideofitwasthefurnace.

Thekitchen/livingroomwasdominatedbyatable,placedsquarelyinitsmiddle,andfourkitchenchairs.ThedayafterImovedintoherhome,Koonoocutoutandattachednewplasticcoversforthechairs,whichaccentuatedthefamily'srecentlyadoptedconcernwithEuro-Canadianexpressionsofhospitalityandcausedmefurtherembarrassment.Alarge,black,oil-burningstovestoodalongtheoutsidewall,andtherewasalwaysahugethree-orfour-galloncontainerofwatersittingontherearofit.Wheneverwaterwastakenforwashing,itwasimmediatelyreplaced.Twofullporcelainteapotswereever-presentononesideofthestove,andanyonewhodesiredcouldhelpthemselvesatanytime.(Incontact-traditionaltimeslooseteawasused,andtheteakettle,whichalsoservedastheteapot,wasrarelyemptied.Whiteleaveswouldcontinuallyfilterintothecupsalongwiththehotliquid.In1974teabagswereused.Tenyears

beforetheywouldhavebeenanunattainableluxuryonallbutspecialoccasions.)Inthecornerbytheoutsidedoorstoodthewatertank,andbesideitthemodernrefrigerator.Nexttotherefrigeratorwasthelargekitchensink,andabovethesink,onbothsidesofthecorner,werehighcupboards.Alongthewallbesidethesinkwasanarborite-coveredcounterwithextracupboardsanddrawersbelow.Sittingonthecountermostofthetimewereanelectrickettleandelectricfryingpan.Thecupboardswerewellstockedwithtableware,pots,andpansandthedrawerswithsilverwareandcarvingutensils.Inonecupboard,

salt,pepper,andassortedspiceswerekept.Brightnewcanistersstoodonthecounterbesidetheelectrickettle.Oneofthecupboardswasfilledwithtwelvebreadpans.Koonoomadeexcellentraisedbread,whichshesoldtoEuro-Canadianfamiliesinthesettlement.Althoughtheyoungerchildrenpreferredthislighterbread,shestillmadebannockforQamaniqandherself.

Attheotherendoftheroomwasachesterfieldthatwasregularlycoveredwithchildren'sjackets,comicbooks,andtoys.Acrossfromthechesterfieldwasamatchingchair,andbehindthechairaclosetusedforoutergarments.Ahighbookcasestoodbesidethischairandwasfilledtooverflowingwithknick-knacks,souvenirs,andneatlystackedpilesofoutdoormagazinesandmailordercatalogues.Sportinggoodscatalogueswerekeptinaseparatepilefromthedepartmentstoreones,andbothwerekeptseparatefromservicemanualsandautomotivecatalogues.Afewbookswerescatteredamongthepiles,andtwofirst-aidkitswerekeptonthelowershelf.Onthetopshelfstoodashort-wavebandradiothatwasusedeachafternoonandeveningtolistentothelocalInuktitut-languageradiostation,withacassettetaperecorderbesideit.Nexttothesewerethealarmclock,which,Ifound,rangitsalarmatunpredictabletimes,andseveralboxesofcassettetapes.Onthewallsoftheroomhungacuckooclock,twocalendars,abarometer,religiousplaques,andpostersadvertisingscenicplacesofinterestinMontreal,whichQamaniqandKoonoohadvisitedtwice.Beneaththewindowthatlookedoutoverthesettlementstoodasmalltelephonestand,andontopofitperchedthemostheavilyuseditemintheroomthetelephone.

Inoneofthechildren'sbedroomstherewasasetofmetalbunkbeds,andintheotheraheavywoodensetmadebyQamaniq.ThedayImovedinwithhisfamily,andwhileIwasoutofthehouse,hesawedthelatterinhalf,movedtheresultingtwobedsintothelargerofthechildren'srooms,andputthemetalbunkbedsintothesmallerone

whereIwastosleep.Iusedtheupperoneasastorageplace.Bothsetsofbedshadnew,verycomfortablemattresses.Therewasachestofdrawersineachoftheserooms,andtwointhemasterbedroom.Eachbedroomhadacloset,whichwasusedtostoresuitcasesandotheritemsaswellasclothing.Themasterbedroomhadalargedoublebed.

TheappearanceofQamaniq'shomeinPondInletin1974,withitsmanyandvariedfurnishings,wouldleadonetobelievethathislife-stylehadchangeddramaticallysincehelefthisresidenceinAullativik;andindeedithad.Activitieswithinthehomewerenolongercharacterizedbytherandomnessandfreedomthat

hadtypifiedlifeinacampdwelling,butwereinsteadregulatedbytheclock.Oldermalesofpost-schoolagehadtokeepregularworkinghours,andsmallchildrenhadtobeupinthemorningstoprepareforschool.Thetraditionaluseoftimeduringthesummermonths,whenthecirclingmidnightsunallowedcontinuousoutdooractivity,wasretainedtosomedegree,althoughwithinthenewstructuresitalmostbecameaburdenforindividualstodoso.Womenwouldstayupallnight,forexample,andthensendtheirchildrenofftoschoolbeforeretiringthemselvesinthemorninghours.Menmightspendallnightdrinkingcoffeeandsocializingwithoneanother,astheywouldhavedoneadecadebeforewhileplanningahunt,butthentheywouldhavetoprepareforworkinthemorning.Qamaniq,whowasnowaheavyequipmentoperator,toldmeononeoccasionthathefailedtounderstandwhyhecouldnotdohisallottedworkandputinhiseighthoursaftermidnight.HehadbeenunsuccessfulinconvincinghisEuro-Canadianforemanofthevalidityofhisargument,eventhoughhewasfullypreparedtodojustasgoodajob,andathoursthatwouldallowformoretimetointeractwithhisfriends.

Evenwiththesechanges,however,theauraofsociabilitythathadpermeatedhomesinthecampswasstillveryapparentinQamaniq'shomeinthesettlement.Thetelephone,whichpermittedanextensionofit,bylinkingthehomewithothers,wasrarelyidle.

Qamaniq,whomIhadthoughtdestinedtobecomeaheadman,hadtrulygonethroughmanychangessinceIhadlastseenhim.ShortlyafterIleftPondInletin1964,hewasselectedtogotoBritishColumbiaforseveralmonthsoftrainingasaheavyequipmentoperator.Atthetime,hehadbeenconsideringfollowingthemassmigrationoftheTununermiuttoPondInlet,andwhilehewasawayontraininghisfamilymadethemovetothesettlement.Beforereturninghome,hespentseveralmonthsworkingasanapprenticeinFrobisherBay.Itseemsthathisentireorientationtolifehadbeen

modifiedbytheseexperiences,butmorelikelytheapparentchangesinstyleweremerelyvariationsonthethemeofhisexistingpersonalityandmotivations.Alwaysapragmatist,hehadseentheinevitabilityofthemajorresidentialandeconomicchangesthatweretobepartofcentralization,anddecidedtomaximizehisownpositionwithinthenewlyemergingsystem.HisInuitorientationdidnotchange,inspiteofovertappearances.InthesettlementheinteractedonlywithotherInuit,exceptinwork-relatedsituations.DuringtheseveralweeksIlivedwithhisfamily,notasingleotherEuro-Canadianenteredthehome.YoungInuitvisitinghischildrenwereusuallystartledtofindmethere,formy

FormerlyasourceoffreshwaterforPondIntlet.1973.

presencewasthebreakingofavisitingpattern.(Iwasflattered,ofcourse,tohavebeenmadeanexception.)

Fornineyears,QamaniqhadworkedwiththelocalDepartmentofPublicWorks(DPW)inPondInlet.AshortwhilebeforeIreturnedtothesettlement,hehadtakenhiswifeandoldestsononatriptoMontreal.Thesonhadgonealongasinterpreterforhisstillvirtuallymonolingualparents.TheDPWinPondInletwasunderthejurisdictionoftheterritorialgovernment,andasanemployee,Qamaniqwaseligibleforsuchtripstothesouthatgovernmentexpense,justaswereEuro-Canadians,whowouldusethemtovisitrelatives.HehadtakenatriptoMontrealoncebefore,andwhilehetoldmethathehadfoundittoowarm,hehadenjoyedtheadventure.Onthissecondjourney,hevisitedaFiatdealerand,havingearlierpurchasedaFiatautomobilethathadbeenshippednorthbyboat,heboughthimselfaprofessionalpartscatalogue.Thiswouldenablehimtoorderreplacementsforanybrokenorworn-outpartsthathewasnotabletorepairhimself.ItisinterestingthattheonlyotherautomobileinPondInletin1974wasaVolkswagenthathadbeenabandonedbyitsEuro-Canadianownerbecausehewasunabletomaintainit.Qamaniq'svehiclewasalwaysinrunningorder,unlesshewasawaitingashipmentofparts.Thatsameyearhewonthelocalshootingcompetition,demonstratingthatheretainedtheskillshehadhonedduringhishuntingdays,andbehadthengonetoFrobisherBayfortheregionalcompetition.

Ididwonderthatfirstevening,asIsharedadrinkanddinnerwithQamaniqinhissettlementhome,whetherhehadalsochangedasanindividual.Hishousewastypicalofothersinthesettlement,andIthoughtofotherTununermiutsittingdownformealsintheirhousesthatsameevening,wonderinghowtheyhadfaredduringthepastdecadeandwhethertheyhadmadethetransitionaswellasQamaniqandhisfamilyseemedtohavedone.

ThatsameeveningIwenttothehousenextdoortopaymyrespectstoArniatsiark,Qamaniq'sfatherandheadmaninAullativikadecadeearlier.IbroughtwithmesomesnapshotsofcamplifeandofArniatsiark'schildrenwhentheywereyounger.Theelderlyleader,whowasemployedasahousepainterinthesettlement,seemedatfirstnottorecognizethescenesandtheindividualsinthem.Hiswifeidentifiedthemforhim,andthentookpleasureintheimagesofanearliertime,butIalsosensedanattitudeoffatalismasheperusedthem,asifhehadlongbeforeacceptedthatthelifeofthecamps,andofhunters,wasonlyasetofmemories.Hisoldestson,whowashomeonleavefromajobonanoilrig

ononeofthemorenortherlyislands,toldmeduringmyvisitofhisownlife.Wheneverhewashome,hesaid,hewouldtakehisrifleandgooutonthelandtohunt.WhenIlastsawhim,hewasayouthwhowasbeinginitiatedintotheroleofhunterbyhisuncleQamaniq.Hehadbeenproudofhisnewstatus,andnow,tenyearslater,washoldingontoitinhisownway.LaterintheeveningIreturnedtoQamaniq'shome,andafteracupofteaandasliceofhomemadebreadfellasleeptodreamofmynewlyreclaimedfriendsintheirpreviouslife.

IhadreturnedtoPondInlettostudytheevolutionofpoliticalandquasi-politicalstructuresthathadfollowedtheformationofaSettlementCouncilin1965.ConvincedasIwasthattherehadbeenmorepoliticallymotivatedbehaviouramongthetraditionalTununermiutthanthegeneralizedanthropologicalimageofInuitwouldadmit,Iexpectedthatpoliticalskillswouldbeemployedinthenewstructuresinthesettlement,perhapsininnovativeways.(Toanticipatealaterdiscussion:myhypothesisseemstohavebeenprovencorrect.)

TheCouncilwasoneofseveralorganizationsformed,theothersbeingtheToonoonik-SahoonikCooperative,theHuntersandTrappersAssociation,andtheHousingAssociation.Sinceitsinception,theCouncilhadbeenundertheultimateauthorityofthesettlementmanager(anewtideforthepositionofareaadministrator),andinitsformativeyearshadbeenregardedbyEuro-Canadiansinthesettlementasatokenandpowerlessorganization.Theperceptionhadsomevalidity,forultimatelyalldecisionshadtoberatifiedbythemanager,whointurnhadtoseekapprovalfromhisownsuperiorsinFrobisherBay,Ottawa,orYellowknife.Toanticipate,however,itsmembers,mostofwhomwereInuit,werestrugglingtocreateamoreautonomousbasefortheiractivities,whetherdecision-makingorimplementationofdecisions.

WhatweretheeventsleadingtotheseenormouschangesthatcompletelytransformedthelivesoftheTununermiutandotherInuitacrosstheCanadianArctic,inthe1960sand1970s?TheexperienceofArniatsiark'soldestsonwasnotunusualamonghispeers,formanyoftheyouthofPondInlethadfoundemploymentwithPan-Arctic,anoilexplorationcompany,andworkedonrigsseveralhundredmilesnorthoftheirhomes.Afterworkingonthesitesfortwentydays,theywouldbeflownhomefortendaysofrestandrecuperationandthentransportedbacktotherig.Iftheywerenotlivingintheatomicage,thesesonsofhunterswereatleastfirmlyentrenchedinthe"jetage,"andseemedbyandlargetohaveadaptedtothetransitioneffectively.Someoftheyoung

menunfortunatelycameintocontactwithsoftdrugssuchasmarijuanawhileworkingonrigs,andafewreturnedhomewithdrugsandintroducedtheiryoungersiblingstothem;butingeneraltheyseemedtometobehandlingtheirmodifiedlife-stylewell.

AfewdaysafterIhadtakenupresidenceinQamaniq'shome,ItalkedwithayoungInukfromArcticBaywhowaspassingthroughPondInletonhiswayhometorelaxafterhisstintontherigs.Hewasbotharticulateandbitter.WhenIaskedhimaboutthemovementintothesettlementsfromthecamps,heclaimedthatthepeoplehadbeenforcedtomovebygovernmentalpressure.Hewasconvincedthattheolderpeople,andcampheadmeninparticular,hadbeentoldthatunlesstheymovedtothesettlementmanyeconomicbenefitstheyenjoyed,suchasfamilyallowancesandoldagepensions,wouldnolongerbeavailabletothem.Ihaddonepreviousresearchinsettingswhereaboriginalpeopleshadbeenforcedtorelocatebysubtleuseofgovernmentalpressurecombinedwithresidents'lackofunderstandingoftheirrightstorefusethemove;andsoIwastemptedtoacceptthisexplanation.InolongerthinkthattheimpetusforcentralizationwasfortheTununermiutquiteascontrivedasIbelievedthatevening,butIdothinkthattheTununermiutwhoacceptedcentralizationdidsowithoutfullunderstandingoftheimplications.Certainly,therelocationwasfosteredbyrepresentativesofthegovernmentsofCanadaandtheNorthwestTerritories.

Onemajorfactorleadingtocentralizationwasthehome-buildingprogram.BeforeIlefttheareain1964afewprefabricatedhouseshadbeenbuiltincamps,butprimarilyinthosenearesttothesettlement.Shortlyafter,however,newInuithousingwasonlymadeavailableinPondInletitself.(IhaveonlymyInuitinformants'wordforthis,asIwasunabletoobtainanygovernmentinformationonhousingpoliciesofthetime.)PeopledesiredthebetterhousingandinmanycaseswerepreparedtomovetoPondInletforit.Withtheacquisitionof

snowmobiles,mencouldliveinthesettlementandstillcontinuetohuntoverlargeterritories.Mostexpectedtocontinuethecontact-traditionalwayoflifewhilelivinginthesettlements.

AsecondfactorwastheincreasingenrolmentofchildreninthefederaldayschoolinPondInlet.Parentsdidnotentirelyapproveofhavingtheirchildrenliveformonthseachyearingovernment-managedhostels,yettheywereunabletokeepthemoutofschool(foreconomicreasons:todosowouldhavemeantforfeitingtheirfamilyallowancecheques).Amoveintothesettlementmeantthatfamilieswhohadchildreninschoolwouldnotbedisrupted,

astheschool-agedchildrencouldliveathome.

JobsbecameincreasinglyavailableinthesettlementastheDNANRoperationsgrew,andwiththem,theEuro-Canadianpersonnelrequiredtomanagethem.InuitwereneededtoservicetheneedsofthisgrowingEuro-Canadianpopulation,andmanyofthelandpeoplewhowereorientedtowardsaninvolvementinthe''outside"worldacceptedtheemploymentopportunitiesthatsprangup.

TheTununermiuthadtraditionallyroamedoveravastareaoftheCanadianeasternArctic,buttheywerenumericallysmall.In1963therewereonlyfifty-sixhouseholdsamongthem,andasfamiliesmovedintothesettlement,thecampsbecamemoreandmoresparselypopulated.Opportunitiesforvisitingbetweenkinsmenwereeroded,andsoonothersfollowedthemovementtoPondInlet;thus,intime,anirreversibleprocesswassetinmotion.Thereasonsmusthavebeenmorecomplexthanthesefewparagraphssuggest,butIbelievethatwhatIhavelistedwerethemajorfactors.Iturnnowtoconsequences.

ManyofthemenwhohadmovedintothesettlementfoundemploymentwiththeToonoonik-SahoonikCooperative,whichforseveralyearshadprovidedmunicipalservicesinPondInlet.ThecoophadcontractswiththeSettlementCounciltoprovidesewageandgarbagepickupandremoval,andwaterandicedeliverytoallhomesinthesettlement.Itssewageandgarbageservicecontractof197374readinpart:

TheCooperativeherebyagreestoprovidetheMunicipalServiceofsewage-garbagepickupandremovalforallTerritorialandFederalGovernmentbuildings,DepartmentofNationalHealthandWelfarebuilding,northernrentalhouses,staffhouses,Hudson'sBayCompanybuildings,andallotherbuildingsasdirectedbythePondInletSettlementCouncilandtheSettlementManagerorhisrepresentative....

..."Honeybags"shallbecollecteddailyexceptSundayfromabove

buildingsandtakentothedump.Garbageshallbecollectedthreetimesweekly.(Servicecontract,Toonoonik-SahoonikCooperativefor19734)

ShortlybeforeIarrivedin1974,therehadbeenacontroversyoverwhetherthecoopshouldcontinuetoprovidetheseservices.ItwasthepolicyoftheNorthwestTerritories'regionaldepartmentoflocalgovernmentthatallcontractsbegiventothelowestbidderinanopencompetition.ThatyeartheSettlementCouncilhaditselfsubmittedabid.Severalcouncillorsfeltthatiftheyweretooperate

asa"real"municipalgovernment,theyshouldprovidetheservicesthatwererequiredbythecommunity.However,theirbidwashigherthanthatofthecoop,andafteraflurryoflettersandphonecallsbetweenthesettlementmanagerandseniorofficialsintheregionalDepartmentofPublicWorks,theCouncilwasforcedtoawardthecontracttothecoop.Thisdecisiongeneratedextremebitterness:councillorsopenlyquestionedwhethertheywereadecision-makingbodyormerelythepawnofEuro-Canadianadministrators.Theincumbentsettlementmanagerstronglysupportedthecouncil'spositionandwasreprimandedfordoingso.Councillorswereactivelymovingtowardstheacquisitionof"hamlet"statusforPondInlet,whichwouldmakeitafarmoreself-governingcommunityatthemunicipallevel,andtherejectionoftheirbidwasinterpretedasarejectionofthisaspiration.However,severalofthem,includingthechair,toldmethattheyplannedtotryagainthefollowingyear,andtheyearafterthat,untiltheyweresuccessful.AtthetimeIwritethis,PondInlethasbeenahamletforseveralyears.

Traditionalsourcesofemploymentstillexisted,suchastheHBC.InsteadofoneInuitclerk,theBaynowhadseveralfull-timeInuitemployees.Someoftheyoungermenfoundworkintheschoolasteachingassistants,andinthelowergradeswereactuallygivinginstructionintheInuktitut.TheyhadreceivedtraininginYellowknifebeforetakingthesepositions.

Severalmen,includingQamaniq,hadreceivedtrainingasheavyequipmentoperatorsandworkedonroadbuildingandrepair,construction,andsoon.IntheabsenceofaresidentEuro-Canadianmechanic,Danielleewasinchargeofthesemenandtheirworkactivities.TwoyoungmenwhospokeEnglishfairlywellworkedasclerksinthegovernmentofficebuilding,underthedirectsupervisionofthesettlementmanager,andanother,whoalsoworkedunderthedirectionofthemanager,actedassecretaryfortheInuit-managed

HousingAssociation.TheInuitwomanwhoworkedinthesamebuildingasassistanttotheresidentsocialworkerwasmarriedtoaEuro-Canadianschoolteacher.AllfourhadhadseveralyearsofformaleducationinPondInletandresidentialschoolsinChurchill,Manitoba,orFrobisherBay,NorthwestTerritories.Onewasthesonofaformercampheadman,andanotherthesonofaformerRCMPspecialconstable.DiscussionsIhadwiththemindicatedthatallwereambivalentaboutofficework,butthemen,inparticular,enjoyedthejobsecurityprovidedbycivilserviceemployment.

SomeoftheoldermenhadcasualemploymentwiththeDe-

Familiesawaitingdepartureofchildrenforresidentialschool.PondInlet1973.

SomeoftheoldermenhadcasualemploymentwiththeDepartmentofPublicWorksdoingoddjobsaroundthesettlement.IwasstruckonedaytoseeArniatsiark,whohadbeenheadmaninAullativiktenyearsearlier,standingontheroofofahousewithoneofhissons-in-lawapplyinganewcoatoftar.Heworecoverallsandabaseballcap.Likehisoil-riggerson,though,Arniatsiarkalsohuntedwhentheopportunitypresenteditself.

Withwageemploymentsoprevalentinthesettlement,andmostchildrenofschoolageattendingthefederaldayschoolinPondInletortheresidentialhighschoolinFrobisherBay,theTununermiutwereobviouslyboundbyEuro-Canadianconceptionsoftimeinawaythattheyhadnotbeentenyearsbefore.Nevertheless,inthehomeenvironment,traditionalpatternsoftimeallocationwerestillpractised,leadingtoadisjointedsituationthatwasattimeshardonindividuals.

OneofthelocalEuro-Canadianschoolteacherstoldmethatnoneoftheteachersscheduledimportantactivitiesforthefirsthalfhourofeachschoolday.Studentswouldwakeupsleepy-eyedafteroftenonly

anhourorsoofsleep,grabahunkofbannock,hurriedlydrinkacupoftea,andthenrushacrossthesettlementtoschool,usuallyarrivingatleastfifteenminuteslate.Stillthey

visitingaswell,wouldthenreturntobedforanextrahourortwoofsleep.Thechildrenwouldoftengobacktotheirbedsassoonasschoolfinishedfortheday.

Menusuallyfacedthesameprobleminthemornings.Qamaniq,whoworkedunderthesupervisionofDaniellee,oncesaidtome,"Idon'talwaysgettoworkontime.SometimesIstayuptoolateatnight.Itold[Daniellee],'Youcanfiremeanytime.That'sOK.'Buthesaid,'No,Iwon'tfireyou.YouareanEskimo,likeme.'"(Theoldermenstillusedtheterm"Eskimo.")Danielleerecalledtheproblemshehadexperiencedyearsbeforewhen,afterentertainingcamppeopleinhisownhomeallnight,hehadhaddifficultyarrivingatworkontimethefollowingmorningandhadregularlybeenreprimandedbyhisEuro-Canadiansupervisor.DanielleewouldoftenphoneQamaniqandotherDPWemployeesinthemorningtoawakenthem.However,thesemenalsoworkedregularlyonweekendsandoftenreturnedtoworkafterdinner.

Despitehisrelianceonwageemploymentandenjoymentofthematerialbenefitsitprovided,Qamaniqwasnotpreparedtobecomesubservientandlosehischerishedindependence.OnanotheroccasionherecalledworkinginFrobisherBayforaEuro-Canadianforemanwhohadcriticizedhiswork.Qamaniqhadreplied,"Howlonghaveyoubeeninthenorth?Ihavebeenhereallmylife.Thisismycountry.Howlonghaveyoubeenhere?"

Insummer,whenthesunneverreallysets,Tununermiutsleepingtimeshadalwaysbeenunregulated.Childrenwouldsleepwhentheyfeltlikeit,andtheirsleepingtimesdidnotnecessarilycoincidewiththoseoftheirparents.Smallchildrenwouldbesupervisedbyoldersiblingswhileparentsslept.Ingeneral,then,despitethedemandsofjobandschool,thatpatternwasperpetuatedinthetransformedPondInlet.Phoneswouldringatanytimeofthenight,andpeoplewould

comeandgo,visitingfriendsandrelativesuntiltheearlyhoursofthemorning.But,exceptforthesoundsofmenwhohadtobe"onthejob,"schoolchildren,andEuro-Canadians,aheavysilencelayoverthesettlementfromnineo'clockuntilalmostnooneachday.

Traditionalpatternsofchild-traininghadalsobeenpreserved,andtherefusaltosternlyregulatesleepinghoursis,ofcourse,anexampleofthat.Smallchildrencontinuedtoliveinatotallypermissiveenvironment.Ifachildplacedhimorherselfinadangeroussituation,forexample,suchasclimbingonatallchairthathadbeenplacedontopofachesterfieldandstretchingtotouchtheceiling,watchingparentswouldstandbyreadytoavoidamishap,butwouldnotinterferewiththechild'sactivity.Oldergirlswere

stillresponsiblefortheiryoungersiblings,anditwasnotuncommontoseegirlsinearlyadolescencestandingaboutinamautiks(thewoman'sparka)withinfantsiblingssnuggledintothehoods,andkeepingasharpwatchonyoungerbrothersandsistersplayingattheirfeet.

Younggirlskeptoutofthewayofbrothers,whetherayearorsoyounger,thesameage,orolder,buttheywouldgiggleorsmileknowinglywhenmakingdisplaysofdeferencetomaleegos.Boys,ontheotherhand,wereasdemandingofattentionastheyhadbeenincamps.Isawnoevidenceofthewitheringawayofmalechild-trainingpracticesthatIhadwitnessedinAullativikyearsbefore,inwhichboyswereabruptlyexpectedtobemen,butIwasn'tinvolvedinenoughsettingsthatincludedyoungmalestomakethoroughobservations.

VerbalcommunicationinTununermiuthomeswasalmostexclusivelyintheInuktitut,eventhoughmostchildrenofschoolagewerefluentinEnglish.Theoldergenerationshad,inmostinstances,nomorecommandofEnglishthantheyhadtenyearsbefore.AfewyoungmarriedwomenwhohadworkedforsomeyearsfortheHBC,ormorerecentlyascooksorhousekeepersinthetransientcentre,werefairlyfluentandweremorewillingthanotherstouseEnglish,buttherewerenotmanyofthese.EvenpeoplewhotenyearsbeforehadbeenorientedtowardsEuro-CanadiansocietyspokelittleEnglish.Mostwomen,inparticular,wereasunwillingtodisplayanycommandofEnglishascampwomenhadbeenin196364,anditisdoubtfulwhethertheirfluencywasinfactmuchgreater,giventhelackofpractice.

AlthoughtheyhadacceptedformalEuro-Canadianeducation,manyoftheolderpeoplewerestillskepticalofwhetheranyvaluesmightbederivedfromit.Oneelderlywoman,whowasveryprominentinthe

politicalstructureofthesettlement,toldmewithsomevehemencethatshewastiredofhearingEuro-Canadianssayherchildrenneedededucation."Ofcoursetheyhavetogotoschool,"shesaid."Ourchildrennolongerknowhowtohunt,andwhentheyshouldbelearningtohunt,theyarestuckinschool.So,becausetheydon'tknowhowtoliveasInuits,theymustkeepongoingtoschool.Thereisnootherwaytoday."

Herdaughter,whohadspenttwoyearsintheresidentialschoolinChurchill,Manitoba,wastypicalofmanyofhergenerationwhohadnotlikedthatexperience,andinparticularhadnotappreciatedbeing"treatedlikechildren."Theinfluenceofthe"rockgeneration"hadbeenfeltinPondInlet,andadolescentspreferredtoweartheirhairlong,butintheresidentialschool,theyclaimed,

thehairofbothboysandgirlshadbeencutshort.Theyhadbeenplacedintogroups,Iwastold,designedas"mixers"tohelpinadjustingtotheschoolenvironment,butinfacttheyhadbeenmixedwithchildrenfromothersettlementsratherthanwiththeirownfriendsandrelatives,andthisonlyintensifiedtheirisolationandloneliness.Anecdotesofthistypewerequicklyelicitedfrommostyoungpeoplewhohadspenttimeinresidentialhighschools.Regardlessoftherationalebehindtheseprograms,theydidcontributetofeelingsofestrangementfromtheoutsideworldamongyouths,andwillundoubtedlyinfluencelong-rangepoliticaldevelopmentinInuitcommunitiessuchasPondInlet.AhighlevelofreligiosityhadcontinuedamongtheTununermiutalmostundiminishedthroughtheyears.PondInlethaddevelopedareputationintheCanadianArcticasaparticularlyreligiouscommunity.However,theyoungerpeopledidnotshowthesamedegreeoffervourastheirparentsandgrandparents,andonlyafewattendedchurchservicesregularly.Aseriesofeventsthatoccurredinthesettlementin1973illustratesomeconsequencesofhavingareputationasa"religiouscommunity."

OnAugust25,1973,theHMCSProtecteur,flagshipoftheCanadianfleet,castanchorinfrontofthesettlement.ThepurposeofitsvisittoPondInletandothereasternArcticsettlementswastoreinforcetheimageandrealityofCanadiansovereigntyinitsArcticwaters.InseveralrespectsthevisitwasdifferentfromregularyearlyvisitsbygovernmentshipssuchastheC.D.Howeinsofaras,onitssecondday,beforeanyoftheEuro-Canadianresidentshadbeeninvitedonboard,themembersoftheSettlementCouncilwereinvitedforlunchwiththecaptainandhisofficers.Anafternoonpartywaslaterheldfortheentirecommunity,atwhichhotdogs,cakes,andsoftdrinkswereservedbycrewmembersandgamesheldforchildren.Thatevening,apartywasheldintheofficer'swardroomforEuro-Canadians,sothebreakwithtraditionwasnotcomplete.Iwasinterestedtohearthe

commentsmadeatthegatheringbyahelicopternavigatorwhohadattendedthedancethecommunityhadheldtheeveningbeforetohonourthevisitors.(ThereasongivenfortheexclusionofInuitfromtheeveningget-togetheronboardshipwasthatalcoholicbeveragesweretobeserved,andharmfulorembarrassingconsequencesmightresultfromthebehaviourofdrunkenInuit.Icouldn'thelpbutberemindedoftenyearsbeforewhenasimilarrationalewasgivenforexcludingInuitfromEuro-Canadianparties.)Thenavigatorhadnotenjoyedhimselfatthedance.Twoformercampheadmenhadgivenpresentationsoftraditionaldrumdancing,butasneitherhadusedadrum

forseveraldecades,theperformancesevokedmorelaughterandgigglingthanrespectfromtheaudience.Theoldmengenerouslyjoinedintheaudienceresponse,andafterformalgreetingshadbeenexchangedbetweenthecaptainoftheProtecteurandsettlementdignitaries,thedancecommenced.

Severalmembersofthecrewhadfortifiedthemselvesgenerouslywithalcoholbeforegoingashore,andafewhad,illegally,broughtbottlestothedancewiththem.Astheeveningworeon,visitstotheschoolwashroombecamemoreandmorefrequent,butnoone,tomyknowledgecrewmemberorInuitbecamenoticeablyintoxicated.SinceitwasSaturdaynightanddancingwasnotpemittedonSundays,thedanceterminatedatmidnightinsteadofcontinuingthroughthenight,asmightotherwisehavehappened.

Thefollowingeveningatthepartyonboardship,severalofficerscomplainedthattheeveningbefore,thesamerecordinghadbeenplayedseveraltimesinsuccession.Thenavigator,whomIreferredtoearlier,saidatonepoint,"Thisissupposedtobeaveryreligiouscommunity.Youcan'ttellmethat,becauseIsawthemlastnight.Halfofthemweredrunkdidn'tyouseethematthedancewhentheygotcarriedawayandbegantoplaythesamerecordoverandoveragain?ThatwaswhenIleft!"IrepliedthattherewasvirtuallynoliquorinthesettlementexceptinthehomesoftheEuro-Canadians,astheInuitwhodidimbibehadbeenwaitingfordaysforanaircraftfromResoluteBaywithnewsupplies,butithadnotyetarrived,soanyalcoholdrunkatthedancehadbeenbroughtashorebycrewmembers.Hedeniedthatthishadhappenedandclosedtheconversationbystatingemphatically,"Thereislotsofliquorinthesettlement,andIknowit,becauseIsawthem,andtheyweredrunk.Playingthesamerecordoverandoverisdrunkenbehaviour."Actually,itisanoldtraditiondatingbacktotimeswhenTununermiutownedonlyafewrecords.Atanyrate,somuchforthereligiousreputationthe

Tununermiuthadenjoyed.Thenavigatorandfellowofficersspentmuchoftheevening''tossingfordrinks."

TheimpactofthemissionariesontheTununermiutwasstilldramatic,however,althoughearlierconcernsaboutsecularizationfollowinguponmodernizationhadprovensomewhatwellfounded,atleastasconcernsyouth.SeveralTununermiuthadbeenordainedasAnglicanministersandhadtheirownparishes.NoahNashook,residentministerinIgloolik,wasoneofthefirstCanadianInuittobeordained.TheAnglicanmissionaryinGjoaHavenwasaTununermiut,andJimmyMuckpah,withwhomIhadlivedten

yearsbefore,wasministerinEskimoPoint.AllhadtheirtheologicaltraininginPangnirtung.ConversationsIhadwiththemissionaryinPondInletin1973indicatedthatthePondInletpeoplewhohadreceivedthistraininghadbeenextremelyinfluentialwiththeirfellowtrainees.HeidentifiedJimmyMuckpahinparticular.DespiteJimmy'shuntingskills,Ihadnotknownhimasamanwhodominatedothers,andsoIattributedhisinfluencetotheintensereligiousattitudeshehaddemonstratedyearsbefore.Inthesummerof1973,twootherTununermiut,BenjaminArreakandJonasAllooloo,werestudyingfortheministryinPangnirtung.InResoluteBay,whichwasbythenamixedInuitcommunityofpeoplefromPondInletandSpenceBay,thelaypreacherwasaformerAullativikmiut,Kadloo,whohadalreadyleftforResolutebeforeIarrivedin1963.

TwomenhademergedasleadersofPondInlet'sAnglicanmission:TimothyKadluandKoonookPitseeolok.KadloohadbeenheadmanattheBylotIslandcamp,Illukisaat,tenyearsearlier,andIhadmistakenlyidentifiedhimasapotentialleaderofarevitalizationmovementbecauseofhisrejectionofEuro-Canadianlifestyles.HewasstillhighlyrespectedbyhisfellowTununermiut,andhestilldidnotlivealifeofconspicuousconsumption,buthehadjoinedtheexodusfromthelandtothesettlementand,asidefromabriefperiodofactivityinlocalsettlementpolitics,hadsettleddowninhisoldagetoalifeofreligiousinvolvement.Therewas,then,acertaincontinuitybetweenhisearlierperiodasalaypreacherinhiscampandhispresentposition.Thechangeshad,Ibelieve,understandablybeentoofastforhim,andhehadadaptedbyholdingontobeliefsintegraltohim.

Pitseeolok,theeldestsonofaheadman,hadbeenaclosefriendofJimmyMuckpahandafirstcousinofhiswife,Elisapee;heworkedasaclerkintheHBCstorebutwasalsocatechistforthemission.Atall,handsomemanofhuskybuild,heregularlygavetheweeklysermonat

servicesintheAnglicanmissionbuthewasnotactiveinothersettlementorganizations.IfinditeasytospeculatethattheAnglicanswhowereactivelyinvolvedwiththemission'sactivitiesrepresentedoneformofTununermiuteffortstopreserveelementsofthecontact-traditionalperiodinatimeofrapidchange,whethertheydidsoconsciouslyornot,butpossiblyIamtoopronetolookforvestigesofthatearliertime.

Ontheotherhand,youngleaderswereemerginginthemissionwhowerenotfromcampbackgrounds.Oneofthese,ayoungmanwhowasaspecialconstablewiththeRCMPandwhosefatherhadbeenaspecialconstableforadecadeormore,mayberepre-

sentativeofaneffortonthepartofEuro-Canadian-orientedTununermiuttoregainthecommunitystatuslostwhencamppeopledominatedthelocalpoliticalstructure.Themissionhadbecome,incertainrespects,then,alocusforinvolvementofTununermiutofseveralstripes,becauseoftheroleithadplayedintheacculturativeprocesstheyhadexperiencedovertime,andthepossibilitiesitprovidedforabalancebetweenthetwoworldsthatthemorereligiousmalesfoundthemselvestornbetween.

Womenwereveryactiveinmissionactivities;accordingtotheresidentAnglicanmissionary,moresothanmen.Insomecases,thewomenhadhusbandswhohadlowstatusinthecommunity,buttherewereotherreasonsaswellforfemaleinvolvement.Tenyearsbefore,campwomenhad,whenmenwereabsent,displayedconsiderablemotivationtointeractwithoneanother.Theyenjoyedoneanother'scompanyandtookpleasureinbeingtogetheronewomanmakinganewparkaforachild,anothermakingbannockforherfamily,andotherssimplysittingcloseandparticipatinginthetalk.Onceestablishedwithinthesettlement,theyseemedtofindthatthemissionofferedanarenaforcontinuingtheseinteractions,andafocusfortheirenergies.Thiswasanarenafromwhichtheywerenotexcluded,onethatencouragedtheirinvolvementandregularattendance.However,theywerealsonotsystematicallyexcludedfromthepoliticalarena,andmanyweremorethanwillingtostriveforpoliticalposition.

TheoverallimpressiononereceivedofPondInletin1973,asIhavesuggestedearlier,wassimilartowhatonewouldhavegainedfromavisittosmallprairietownsandvillagesintheCanadianwestorruralOntarioorfishingvillagesintheMaritimes.TheHudson'sBayCompanystorewaslikeatypicalgeneralstore,sellingeverythingfromyardgoodstofishingequipmenttocandy,andwasvisitedeachdaybyvirtuallyeverywomaninthesettlement,whocametohearthelatestgossipaswellastobrowsethroughthedisplays.TheAnglican

missionwasthesocialcentreofthecommunityinmanyrespects,andmostpeoplestillretainedatleastavestigialtiewiththefundamentalisttheologyitsupported.Therewereafewdogteamschainedtostakesatoneendofthesettlement,butmostmenownedsnowmobiles.(Severaldogswerekeptas"pets"butspentmostoftheirlivestiedtoshortropesoutsidethehomesoftheirowners.TheyweretheoffspringofdogsthathadbeenbroughtnorthtothesettlementbyEuro-Canadians.)Childrenmovedfreelybackandforthbetweenhouses,eatinglunchathomeoneday,atthehomeofanauntthenext,andatthehomeofaschoolfriendonthethird.Menwhohademploymentintheset-

tlementwouldwalkhomeforteaatmorningandafternoonbreaktimes,bringingwiththemfellowworkers,andtheywouldsitaroundkitchentablessmokinganddrinkingteauntilitwastimetoreturntowork.

Amajorinnovationinthesettlementwasthecommunity-ownedand-operatedradiostation.Thisstationhadhadachequeredhistory,anditsrighttoexisthasbeendebatedintheCanadianParliamentanddiscussedinTimemagazine.Inthemid-1960saDutchequipmentmechanicwiththeDNANRwhowasashort-waveradiohobbyistbegantousehisowntransmittertoplayrecordings,whichwerepickedupbylocalradios.Inasense,hewasoperatinga"pirate"radiostationonthe"ham"band.Whenheleftthesettlement,asEuro-Canadiansusuallydointime,hesoldhisequipmenttosomeTununermiut,whocontinuedthepracticeofbroadcastingrecordingsandalsobegantointerspersethemwithmessagesandconversation.Repeatedattemptstoclosedownthe"station"wereunsuccessful,andintimethequestionwhetheritshouldbelegalizedornotwasdebatedinParliament.Herewasacaseofgrassroots,almostindigenousdevelopmentofatechnicaloperationthatwasincreasinglyofbenefittothecommunityinwhichitwaslocated.TheCBCstationinFrobisherBaygavestrongwrittenandmoralsupporttotheoperatorsofthePondInletstation,andeventuallyitwasgivenalicense.

AyoungTununermiutmanwhohadgrownupinthesettlementwasappointedstationmanagerinthespringof1968andsenttoFrobisherBayfortraininginstationmanagement.Itwasnotlongbeforedisagreementsbetweentheyoungmanagerandthedirectorsofthestationledtohisdismissal,butbythattimethestation'sfuturewassecure.Ithadbecomeapermanentpartofsettlementlife.

In1973therewereseveralpart-timeannouncerswhoworkedthemicrophoneandturntableeachnoonandevening.Onewas

Arnaviapik,aformerheadman,whoshowedanamazingtalentforadaptation.Arnaviapikwasaged,buthehadregularemploymentasadiskjockeywiththelocalradiostation,andhisvoicecouldbehearddailyineveryInuithomeinthesettlement,introducingrecordsandpassingongossipandotherinformation.

Themusicplayedatthestationtendedtobeheavilyweightedtowardscountryandwestern,butingeneraldependedonthewhimsandtastesoftheindividualannouncer.Newsofapproachingaircraftwasannounced,aswerecommunityeventsandotheractivitiesandhappenings.Newswasbroadcastaboutpeoplewhowereoutofthesettlementandhadwrittentofriendsorrelatives,and

notificationwasgiventoindividualswhohadreceivedbutnotcollectedmail.(Oneoftheannouncers,ayoungerbrotherofQamaniq,wasmarriedtothelocalpostmistress,andthepostofficewasattachedtotheirhome.)AllbroadcastingwasdoneinInuktitut,whichprobablydisturbedEuro-Canadians,whoregularlyheardrecordingsinterruptedbyannouncementsinalanguagemostcouldnotunderstand.RadioswerestillimportantandcentralitemsinTununermiuthomes,andthelocalPondInletstationwasaconsolidatingforceinthecommunity.Wheninoperation,itcouldbeheardinalmosteveryInuithomeinthesettlement.

Theancientpatternofreciprocity,whichhaslongbeenadominantthemeinInuitcultureandsocialrelationships,wasvitallyretainedinthetransformedPondInlet.Thiswasparticularlynoticeableduringthelatterpartofthesummerof1973,whilethecommunityresidentsawaitedthearrivalofsupplyshipsandthecelebrativetimeofsealift.AsImentionedearlier,becausetheHBCstorewasdepletedofallfoodstuffsotherthanafewnonessentialitems,thepeoplewereonceagaindependenton"land"food.Whenmenhadtimeintheeveningsoronweekends,theywouldgooutintheircanoestohuntsealortravelinlandinsearchofcaribou.Inparticular,workersforPan-Arcticwouldmakeuseoftheirrest-and-recuperationperiodstohuntandfish.Manyofthemen,however,nolongerownedcanoes.(WhenQamaniqandIdiscussedtheideaofareturntriptoAullativik,hesaidthathewouldhavetorentacanoeifwedecidedtogo.Intheend,itwasnotpossibletorentone,asallwerebeingusedforhunting.)Menwhodidhavemeat,however,werequicktoshareitwithothers.

IrecallseveraltimeswhenwomenormenwouldturnupatQamaniq'sdoorwithahunkofsealorcariboumeat,whichtheywouldsetonthefloorandthenleave.Similarly,onthetwooccasionswhenQamaniqreturnedfromeveninghuntswithfreshsealmeathetravelledwithDanielleeinthelatter'scanoehedistributedsectionsto

hiskinsmen.Theregularitywithwhichchildrenateatthehomesofrelativesandfriendsisanothermeasureofreciprocity.(ElsewhereIhavedescribedthemannerinwhichalcoholhasbecomeamechanismfortheperpetuationoftraditionalrelationsbasedonreciprocity[Matthiasson1974]).DuringtheshortsecondtimeIhadinPondInletitwasimpossibletotracethenetworksofindividualsandgroupsinvolvedinthesepatternsofreciprocity;mypointissimplythatwehavehereonemoreexampleoftheperpetuationofculturalformsinatownsettingformsthatpre-datethecontact-traditionalperiodinTununermiuthistory.Thesepatternswereinfactresourcesthatcouldbedrawnupon

intimesofcrisis,suchasafoodshortage,andallowedforcontinuityinacontextofdrasticchange.

ThePoliticalScene

In1963PondInlet'sareaadministratorconsideredthatitwasstilltooearlytoformaSettlementorCommunityCouncil,andinsteadputhisenergiesintodevelopingalocalco-operative.By1973bothhadbeenformedandhadundergoneseveralphasesofgrowthandchange.Mymainreasonsforreturningtothesettlementwastoexaminepoliticalchangeandtheemergenceor,possiblymoreproperly,theevolutionofTununermiut-basedpoliticalleadership.Iwasparticularlyinterestedinwhetherthesepoliticaldevelopments,ifinfacttheyhadoccurred,hadbeenoutgrowthsof,ormaintainedcontinuitywith,thepoliticalsystemsthathadoperatedinthecampstenyearsbefore.IwasalsointerestedintherolethattheEuro-Canadian-orientedTununermiutoftenyearsbeforehadplayedinanypoliticalreshapings.

ThefourorganizationsinPondInletthatwereovertlypoliticalweretheCommunityCouncil,composedofsixpersons;theToonoonik-SahoonikCooperative,withaseven-personboardofdirectors;theHuntersandTrappersAssociation,whichhadasix-personexecutiveboard;andtheHousingAssociation,comprisingsixexecutivemembersandaclerk.TheCommunityCouncilwasthemostopenlypolitical.Undertheclosesupervisionofareaadministrators(whowerelaterreplacedbysettlementmanagers)and,morerecently,theadulteducationdirector,theCouncilhadneverthelessdisplayedoveritsshortlifeacapacityfordecision-makingthatbeliesthepopularnotionofsuchsocietiesashavingtotallydiffuseandnon-hierarchicalpoliticalsystems.(Theadulteducationdirectorin1973,aEuro-Canadianashadbeenallofhispredecessors,wasanelectedmemberoftheCouncil.)

TheCouncilwasformedin1965,theCooperativein1969,theHousingAssociationin1970,andtheHuntersandTrappersAssociationthefollowingyear.ThefirstchairofthefirstthreeorganizationswasMaktar,amanofimmensetraditionalprestige,whohadworkedforseveralyearsfortheDNANR.HewaschairoftheCommunityCouncilforthreeyearsandthenvice-chairforfouryears.Themenwhoreplacedhiminthesepositionswereclosepersonalfriendsofhiswhowouldregularlyseekhisadviceonmajordecisions.Maktar,althoughaRomanCatholicinanAnglicancommunity,bridgedthetwoworldsoftheland-orientedpeoplesofthelastdecadeandthosewhofoundsatisfactioninallegiances

withEuro-Canadians,perhapsmoreeffectivelythananyotherTununermiut.ThefirstchairoftheHuntersandTrappersAssociationwasJohnTongak,thesonofTimothyKadlu,whohadbeenaheadmanadecadebeforeandwhoIhadthoughtmightleadarevitalizationmovement.

ForabriefperiodthoseTununermiutorientedtowardsEuro-Canadianstyleshadbecomedominantinpoliticalorganizations,buttheirinfluencewastemporaryandtheyweresoonreplacedbycamppeoplewhohadattainedprestigeandstatusthroughconventionalmeansashunters,providers,anddecision-makers.Formercampheadmentookabriefturnasparticipantsintheseorganizations,but,probablybecauseoftheirage,theywerereplacedbyyoungermen.Strangelyenough,tomeatleast,Qamaniqwasnotinvolvedintheleadershipofanyoftheseorganizations,althoughhisnamewasoftenputforwardasanomineeforoneoranother.Iattributethistohislong-standingrivalrywithMaktar.Maktar'searliermovementintothesettlementseemstohaveputhiminapositionofadvantageoverQamaniq.HisleadershipinoneorganizationcoupledwiththesupportofresidentEuro-CanadianscarriedoverintohisbidsforprominentpositionsintheCo-operativeandHousingAssociation.However,itwashisstatusasa"traditional"Inuitthatmadepossiblehisretentionofthesepositions.

Daniellee,thelong-termDNANRemployee,hadalwaysmaintainedhisrelationshipwiththepeoplelivingincamps,andthismadeitpossibleforhimtomovefromvice-chairoftheCo-operativeinitsthirdyeartoChairfor1972and1973.LikeMaktar,hehadspannedthedistancebetweenthetwoworldsoftheTununermiut.HisaloofhandlingofcontactswithEuro-Canadianshad"paidoff";bymaintaininghispostureashisownman,hehadretainedhisstatusinthetraditionalTununermiuthierarchy.Itmustberememberedthatpositionsintheseorganizationsareelected.Euro-Canadiansretain

ultimaterightstomanipulatethedecisionsmadebythesebodies,butthemoreinsightfulonesrecognizedthatthepoliticalacumendisplayedbyInuitmemberswasanindicationoffuturetrends,andgavetheirsupporttothedecisionsthatcameoutofmeetings.Certainly,theincumbentsettlementmanagerin1973didhisbesttorespectcouncildecisions.

Women'splaceinthepoliticalscenehadbeenlittleinfluencedbyanyofthedevelopmentsofthecontact-traditionalperiod.Oncethepopulationhadmovedintothesettlementandnewpoliticalorganizationswerefollowed,however,womenbegantoputforththeirconceptionoftheirplaceinthepoliticalrealm.Thatplacewasnotinconsequential.SulaKubla,themotherofMaktarand

PaulKoolerk(thentheelectedmemberoftheTerritorialCouncilforthehighArctic),wasthemostprominent.Irememberachanceencounterwithheroneevening:sherememberedmebutwasn'tsurewherewehadmetbefore.Paul,whohadbecomeaclosefriendofmyselfandmyfamilyduringtheseveralyearshehadlivedinOttawa,wasawayatYellowknifeforasetofcommitteemeetingsandsowasnotavailabletohelpusrekindleourfriendship.Sheinvitedmeinforacupofteaandwesatandenjoyedoneanother'scompanyasshetoldmeabouttheeffectsofrapidchangeamongtheTununermiut,mostofwhichannoyedanddisturbedher.Shehadbeenontheboardofdirectorsoftheco-operativeforthepastthreeyears.

AnoldersisterofQamaniqhadalsobeeninterestedinelectoralofficebutwasnotimmediatelysuccessful.HernameappearedonseveralballotformsfortheCouncilandtheCo-operative.In1971shewaselectedtotheboardofdirectorsoftheCo-operativeandcontinuedinthatcapacityforthenexttwoyears.Overtime,sheandSulaKublawerejoinedbyseveralotherwomen.

TheHousingAssociationwasinmanyrespectsasimportantinthelifeofPondInletastheCouncil.Itdefinitelyhadmoreautonomy.Housesinthesettlementwereavailabletoresidentsonarentalbasis,anditwasthemembersoftheHousingAssociationwhodeterminedwhowouldlivewhereandwhattheirrentalfeeswouldbe.Ingeneral,thosemembersemployedfairandequitablemethodsofreachingtheirdecisions:thepossessorofawell-paidjobmightpaytwiceasmucheachmonthasawidowwithalargefamily,eventhoughherhousewastwicethesizeofhis.In1973,threeofthesixmembersoftheHousingAssociationwerewomen.

TheHuntersandTrappersAssociationhadonlybeenoperativeforthreeyearsin1973,butitwasrapidlygainingprominenceinthesettlement'spoliticalaffairs.Itsexecutivewascomposedlargelyof

youngmen,anditwasundertheclosetutelageofElijahErkloo,itssecretary-treasurer,whohadspentseveralyearsinOttawaactingasaninterpreterfortheDNANRandasassistantonaprojectforthedevelopmentofanewRomanorthographyfortheInuitlanguage.HelaterresidedforafewyearsinFrobisherBay.OneofthefirstTununermiuttoleavetheArctic,onhisreturntoPondInletElijahhadbeeninstrumentalinestablishinginterestina"returntonature."Heenjoyedtakinggroupsofyoungboysoutduringsummermonthsonhuntingandfishingexpeditionsandteachingthemlandlore.WorkingwiththeAdultEducationProgramasanassistantdirectorgavehimopportunitiestoindulgehimselfintheseactivities,andenabledhimtoworkcloselywiththeHuntersand

TrappersAssociation.OneoftheparticularinterestsofmembersoftheAssociationwasthequestionofaboriginallandrights,whichwastobecomethemajorInuitpoliticaltopicinthefollowingdecades.

Inthetimethatelapsedbetween1963and1973,theTununermiutdidnotexperiencetherevitalizationmovementIhadpredicted.Eventsduringthattimehadbeentoofastmovingandcataclysmictoallowforsuchadevelopment.However,thingswerebeginningtostabilize,andwiththisstabilizationwasemerginganewinterestinthepast.TheactivitiesofindividualssuchasElijahErklooandorganizationssuchastheHuntersandTrappersAssociationwerenottheonlyexamplesofthatinterest:menhuntedonweekendsandeveningsnotonlybecausetheirfamiliesneededthemeat,butalsobecausetheytookprideinhuntingandfoundpersonalsatisfactioninit.Daniellee,whowasentitledtoayearlypaidvacationinMontrealforhimselfandhisfamily,toldmethatheplanned,inthesummerof1973,totakehisfamilyoutonthelandonacombinedcampingandhuntingtrip.Hewantedthepeaceandtranquilityofasojournontheland,ratherthanthefastpaceofMontreal.Hissentimentswerenotatypical(althoughthefactthathiswifehaddiedafewyearsearlier,avictimofatoo-rapidpaceofacculturation,probablyplayednosmallpartinhiscontinuedattachmenttotraditionalvalues).

Thecontact-traditionalperiodhadpassed,andafteronemoretimesofforcedchangebroughtaboutbycontactwiththeoutsideworld,theTununermiutwereregroupingtheirresources.Theirmenworkedonoilrigsbuthuntedintheirsparetime.Thesemenmovedeasilybetweencommutinghundredsofmilesbackandforthfromtheirworksites,tosolitarywalksovervaststretchesoficeinsearchoftheseal,theanimalthattheirfathersandgrandfathershadhunted.MensuchasElijahErklooandPaulKoolerk,whohadexperiencedtheoutsideworldandrejectedit,returnedtoPondInletandbecamenew-styleleaders,workingcloselywithmenwhohadonlymovedfromcamps

tosettlementbuthadbroughtwiththemthepoliticalskillstheyhadacquiredinamoretraditionalsetting.

PaulwasthefirstInuktobeelectedtotheCounciloftheNorthwestTerritoriesfromthehighArctic.Hewasnotthelast.HesucceededprimarilythroughInuitsupport.PondInlethassincebecomeahamlet,anditscommunityCouncilamunicipalgovernment,abletoactinamoreautonomousfashion.Itsmembershavedrawnontraditionalformsofpoliticalbehaviourintheirdeliberations,butalsohaveattheirdisposaltheskillstheyhaveinherited

fromthecontactsituation.Theiryoungpeopleknowwhotheyare.TheyareTununermiut,andalthoughtheyareirrevocablyapartofthemodernworld,theyarestillthesonsofhunters.Eventhecentralizationperiodhasnowbeentranscended.

WhenIleftPondInletin1963ItravelledtoResoluteBayonboardtheC.D.Howe.ThefewInuitonboardwithmeweregoingfortuberculosistreatmentinsouthernhospitals.Theytravelledinthelowerdecksoftheship,inisolation,andwerefilledwithfear(althoughtheydisguisedit)attheseeminglyinterminabletimeseparationtheyfacedfromtheirfamiliesandfriends.WhenIleftin1973ItravelledbyaircrafttoResoluteBay.WithmeontheflightwereseveralyoungTununermiutwhowerejourneyingonaholidaytoArcticBaywheretheywouldvisitrelatives.AsIwatchedthemstepfromtheplane,Ithoughtbacktotheearliertime.Theoldmenwhohadbeencampheadmenpreferredthepast.Theseyoungmenandwomenseemedincontrolofthepresent.Thefuturewasanotherstory,anditisbeingrealizedtoday.TheTununermiut,likeInuitacrosstheCanadianarctic,seemtobeonceagainincontroloftheirowndestiny,andIwishthemwell.

Epilogue

ChangesinIdentityandPolitics

IhavetriedtodescribeaperiodofrapidandprofoundchangeundergonebytheTununermiut,duringwhichtheyexperiencedamassuprootingandmigrationtothesettlement,anditsattendanttransformationoftheirpersonallives.ThecontextwithinwhichthesechangesoccurredwasnotcreatedbytheTununermiutthemselvesitwasimposedfromwithout.Thepeoplehadtorespondtoitand,astheymovedintothesettlement,tolearntocopewithinstitutionswithwhichtheyhadpreviouslybeenonlysomewhatfamiliar.Someobserversmayclaimthatthemovewasaconsciousone,andthattheychosethenewwaysoflife.Inpart,ofcourse,thatistrue.Perhapstheycouldhaveresistedthepulltothesettlement.Whatismoreimportant,inmyopinion,isthattheyhandledthemoveintheirownways,ratherthanbeingpassivelymanipulatedbyoutsideforces.

InthetextIhaveforthemostpartshiedawayfromdiscussionofanthropologicalissuesoftheoryandmethodology,butabriefexaminationofoneofthoseissuesisappropriatehere.TheissueconcernsacculturationstudiesonesthatfocusonsocietiesaffectedbyexternalinterventionfrommilitarilymorepowerfulsocietieswhichwerepopularinanthropologyduringthetimetheTununermiutandotherCanadianInuitweremovingintosettlements.Mostanthropologiststodayrecognizethatculturalsystemsaredynamicandinconstantflux,andthathumans,ratherthanbeingblownaboutbythewindsofchange,arecreativeandcanexercisesomefreedomintheirresponses.Thatis,theycanbebothflexibleandcreative.Socialandculturalchangefromthisperspectiveareindeedcreativeprocesses.IsubmitthattheTununermiutusedtheirownfreedomin

determininghowtheywouldmanagetownliving.Todaysuchastatementisalmosttrite,butitdoesnotfitthetenetsofmostoftheearlywritersonacculturation.

Still,freedomandcreativityinthissensearenotwithoutlimits.Inmanysituationsofthefairlyrecentpast,theheavyhandofcolonialadministrationhasforcedchangeindirectionsthathavebeensharplycircumscribed.TheabruptchangesexperiencedbytheTununermiut,aswellasallotherInuitpopulationsacrossArcticCanadaduringthesecondhalfofthiscentury,seemedharbingersofanewandmoreconstrictingcolonialyoke.

Duringthecontact-traditionalperiod,therehadcertainlybeenacolonialqualitytotheTununermiut'srelationwiththeRCMP,missionaries,andtraders.Atthesametime,theTununermiutcontinuedtoliveonthelandandsomaintainedconsiderablecontrolovertheirownlives.Theywereinfacteconomicallydependentuponthetradersinthisinstance,theHBCandtheyhadacceptedChristianityandpaidatleasttitularhomagetotheauthorityofthepolice.Butoutontheland,inthecampsorwhileonhuntingtrips,theywereunderthesurveillanceofnooneexceptotherInuit.

Atthetimeoftherelocation,mostobserverstookapessimisticview,predictingthatInuitsocietywouldfallapartasthepeoplesettledintosettlementlife.Demoralizationandtheerosionofindividualself-esteemweresuretobetheconsequences.Acculturationtheoryofthatperiodsupportedsuchaprediction,andpublishedstudiesprovidedmanyempiricalexamples.Itwasgenerallyacceptedthatnohumansocietycouldforlongwithstandtheon-slaughtofanalienandcoloniallyorientedforce.Aboriginalsocietieswerethoughttobenomatchforcolonialsystems,andseemeddoomedtoeitherassimilateintothelargersocietyordisintegrate.Eithereventualitywouldleadtothesubordinatesociety'slossofitstraditionalbasisforself-determinationanditsculturalcollapse.Culturesweregenerallyregarded,then,asfragileentities;traditiononitsownwasnotenoughtosustainculturalidentityandviability.

IdonotthinkthatIstatethecasetoostrongly.MuchoftheanthropologyoftheCanadianArcticthatwaswritteninthe1960sand1970sreflectedthispessimisticanddoom-sayingperspective.Theethnographicaccountswerevalid,butwhentheirauthorslookedtothefuturetheprospectforInuitculturewasgrimitwasonlyamatteroftimebeforeitdisappeared.

Onenotableexceptiontothistheoreticalstance,andonethatdealtwiththeNorthAmericanArctic,wasanarticlebyNormanChance(Chance,1960).Icanrecall,asagraduatestudentatCornellUniversity,anencounterwithLauristonSharp,whoasmuchasanyonehadcreatedthepessimisticstancewithhispublicationsonculturalbreakdownamongaboriginalAustralians.HetoldmeinanexcitedwayonedaythatChancehadpublishedacasein

whichanaboriginalpopulationhadbeenabletocopeeffectivelywithrapidacculturation.OtherworksonArcticNorthAmericansofthetimetendedtoignoreChance'swork.Perhapsthedataoftheethnographersforcedthemtomakedirepredictions,butIamconvincedthatitwasmoretheintellectualclimateofanthropologyofthetime,andthewidelyacceptedacculturationparadigm.

Forawhile,Isharedthenegativeperspectivemyself,althougheveninthelate1960sIfeltuncomfortablewiththeposition.MyownthoughtsaboutthefutureoftheInuitwerepredicatedonmyexperienceslivinginacampunderthetutelageofmenandwomenofwhomIstoodinrealawe.Theywerenotlikely,inmyopinion,tosinkunderthenewregimeimposedbyOttawaandYellowknifeeveniftheydidleavetheland.Iexpectedthattherewouldbecasualtieswiththeadjustmentstosettlementlife,butIwasalsoconvincedthatthepeoplewouldpersevereand,intheend,survive.

Onatleastoneoccasion,myoptimismledmeastray:IpublishedanarticleinwhichIarguedthattheTununermiuthadlearnedtousealcoholicbeveragesinawaythatdidnotnecessarilyinvolveregularabuse(Matthiasson,1974).Iclaimedthattheyhadcometotreatalcoholasascarceresourceusedmuchasmeathadbeeninmoretraditionaltimes.Intheyearinwhichthisarticlewaspublished,therewerefouralcohol-relateddeathsinPondInlet.Istillbelieveinmyoriginalthesis,butIhadobviouslymissedthedarkersideoftheTununermiut'sintroductiontoalcohol.

Grantedthetragicallyhighhumancoststothemofaccesstoalcoholandotherdrugs,theTununermiuthavedemonstratedtheircharacteristicingenuitybycreatingnovelwaystodecreasethatprice.Atthetimeofwriting,thereexistinPondInletbothaCommunityAlcoholEducationProgramandanAlcoholEducationCommittee,bothofwhichregulatetheavailabilityofalcoholtocommunity

residents.Theywereestablishedaftertheholdingoftwoliquorplebiscites,in1975and1977,whencitizenshadbecomeincreasinglyconcernedaboutalcoholanddrugabuse.Asaresult,anyonewhowishestobringalcoholintothecommunitymustfirstappearbeforethecommitteeandconvincemembersthatheorshedoesnothaveanalcoholproblem.Thosewithidentifiedproblems,andthosewhoareknowntosupplyliquortosuchpersons,areinterdictedandthusdeniedtherighttoconsumealcohollegally.

Inasmall,isolatedcommunitysuchasPondInletitisrelativelysimpletoenforcesuchregulations,forliquormustbebroughtinbyair,andtheRCMPcanmeetallincomingaircraftandinspectbaggage.Whetherornottheregulationsassistincontrollingthemakingofhomebrewis,Iamafraid,anotherquestion,anditis

lesseasytokeepoutsoftdrugssuchasmarijuana.Nevertheless,thegeneraloptimismIhadfeltaboutTununermiutresponsestotheintroductionofalcoholmaynothavebeencompletelywithoutfoundation,althoughittookthecreationofaninnovativeprogramtoworkthroughtheproblems.Abuseofalcoholandotherdrugsasawayofcopingwithrapidchangeinacculturativesituationsisnotuncommon.IhavebeentoldthatotherInuitcommunitiesareconsideringadoptingthePondInletmodelofalcoholcontrol.

InhiswidelyreadethnographyonsocialandeconomicchangeamongtheInuitofSugluk,NelsonGraburn(1969)epitomizedthenegativepredictionsaboutInuitlifeinthesettlements.Whileheobviouslywassaddenedbythedestructionofawayoflife,heseemedtobesayingthatthecolonialforcesweresostructuredandpowerfulthattheInuitwouldhavelittleopportunitytoregainpoliticalcontroloftheirownlives.Onthecontrary,Isubmit,theformationofacommitteetodealwithinternalproblemsofalcoholanddrugusereflectsasenseofpoliticalself-determinationamongthepeopleofPondInlet.OtherresponsesoftheTununermiutthatIhavechronicledherealsoraisequestionsaboutGraburn'sconclusions,althoughofcourse,thepan-Inuitmovementdidnotemergeuntilwellafterthebookwaspublished.

TheEmergenceofaNewPoliticalParadigm

Thenamesbywhichwerefertoourselvesorotherscanalsobeusedtomanipulateouridentityandtoalignwithorisolateourselvesfromothers,aswellastorationalizeourtreatmentofothers.WhenIlivedwiththeAullativikmiutinthe1960stheyreferredtothemselvesasEskimos,asdidalloftheTununermiut.Bythe1970smanyofthemhadceasedtousetheterm,whichwasnowconsideredpejorative.(Itsetymologicaloriginshavealwaysbeenmurky,althoughmanysourcesclaimthatitmeans''eatersofrawmeat.")Itwas,ofcourse,replaced

inbothsingularandpluralbyInukandInuit,for"aperson,"and"thepeople."Thechangeinterminologyofself-referencehad,Iamconvinced,enormouspoliticalsignificance.

Noteveryoneacceptedthechangereadily,andinsomeinstancesitwasneveradopted.Oneelderlymanwhohadlivedvirtuallyallofhislifeinthecampstoldmein1973,"IwasbornanEskimoandIwilldieanEskimo."However,hiswastobecomeaminorityposition.Othersevenofhisgenerationsoonsawthepoliticalsignificanceofrejectingtheterm,andcertainlythatman'schildrenandgrandchildrendid.

Thischange,whichwassoimportantintheconstructionofnewindividualandgroupidentities,wastheworkofTheInuitTapirisatofCanada(ITC),orInuitBrotherhood,aneworganizationthatsoughttocreateapan-Inuitconsciousness.TheITCwasexternaltotheTununermiut,butwhenitofferedthemanewpoliticalagendatheyresponded,andintheprocesstookfurtherstepstowardsarenewedsenseofself-determination.

FormedinOttawain1971afterameetingthatgatheredtogetherInuitfromacrossCanadaandfrommanywalksoflife,theITCbeganasaneducationalorganizationbutovertimebecameincreasinglypoliticalinitsoverallpolicyandspecificobjectives.NotlongafteritsformationitbecameperhapsthemostpotentpoliticalforceintheNorthwestTerritories.

UntiltheformationoftheITC,Tununermiutcontactswiththeworldoutsidetheirownterritoryonesthat,aswehaveseen,ledtomanyinternaladjustmentshadbeenwithnon-Inuit.Nowtheywouldencounteranewforcefromtheoutside.ItwasonewithrootsintheArctic,andthepersonnelwhocarrieditforwardwerethemselvesInuit.ThesenewencroacherspreachedapoliticalideologyonethatsoughtunificationofallCanadianInuitwithinacommonpurposeandconsciousness.Thetraditionalboundariesofthelarger-miutgroupsweretobebrokendownandreplacedbyasenseofsharedidentity.Oneoftheirprimarygoals,whichwasputforwardnotlongaftertheformationoftheITC,wastheestablishmentofanew,ethnically-basedterritorywithintheCanadianhighArctic,whichwouldbelargelyanInuitdomain.

Nunavut,thatnewJerusalemoftheArctic,maywellbecomeareality,andifitdoesitwillencompassapproximatelyone-fifthofthelandmassofCanada.TheconcepthasbeenshepherdedbytheTungavikFederationofNunavut,anauxiliaryoftheITC.Usinggeographers,

anthropologists,andlawyers,theFederationhasdevelopedastrongcase,andatthetimeofwritinghasbeenratifiedinprincipalbythefederalgovernmentandtheCounciloftheNorthwestTerritories.Aplebisciteonpartitionwasheldin1992intheNorthwestTerritories;thevotewasstronglyinfavourofpartitioninNunavutitself,butoveralltherewasonlyaslimmajorityinfavourofit.IntheMackenziedistrict,someoppositiontopartitionwasbasedoneconomicconcernsrelatedtothelossofresourcesinNunavut,whileotheroppositionemanatedfromtheDenenation,whichperceivedthattheproposedboundaryinthewesternArcticislandsinfringedontheirlandclaimsandsovereignty.

TheITChasnotmaintaineditsholdonallInuit.Ashappens

inmanyorganizations,splinteringhasbeencommonamongCanadianaboriginalpoliticalassociations.In1973theInuvialuitofthewesternregionsbrokeofffromITCandbegannegotiatinglandclaimsontheirown.Theyreachedamajoragreementwiththefederalgovernmentin1984,butitsconditionsaremuchlessbroadthanthoseenvisionedintheconceptofNunavut.

Inspiteofpoliticalfactionalism,theITC'sinfluenceonmostCanadianInuit,includingtheTununermiut,hasbeenconsiderable.Ithasdonemuchmorethanprovidethemwithanewname,althoughthatwasextremelyimportantsymbolically.Italsogavethemanation-widepowerbaseintheirowneffortstowardslocalformsofself-determination.TheITC,then,hasbeenamajorfactorintheTununermiut'sabilitytowithstandthenegativeeffectsofcolonialism.

IbelievethataftertheirrelocationtoPondInlettheTununermiutemployedatraditionalresponsetotheirchangedcircumstances;thatis,initiallytheyadopteda"waitandsee"posture,whichinvolvedstudyingthenewparametersoftheirlivesandthoughtfullyexaminingdifferentlong-rangeoptions.Itmayhavebeenthisstancethatmisledsomeobserversintomakingpessimisticpredictionsabouttheirfuture.Theydidnotatfirstseemtobetakingcontrolofmatters.Thistendencytostandbackandevaluatealternativesbeforeactingis,inmyopinion,atraitfirmlyrootedinInuitchild-trainingpracticesandexpressedinadultpersonality.(McConnell[1976]hasdescribedthispatterninsomewhatdifferentterms.)

WiththeadventoftheITC,acourseofactionwaspresentedand,forthemostpart,acceptedbytheTununermiut.TheITCrole,acrucialone,wastopoliticallymobilizetheTununermiut.HoweverandthisismoreastatementoffaiththanoffactIsuggestthattheTununermiutwouldintimehavecreatedtheirownrevitalizationmovementwithorwithouttheITC,Thebeginningsofsuchamovementwereapparent

intheearly1970s.PerhapswhatwastakingplacewassimilartoeventsamongIndianstothesouth,whoareturningtotheireldersforknowledgeoftradition.TheTununermiutmaynothavecontinuedtoelectformercampbossestoformalleadershiproles,buttheyrecognizedtheirimportanceaslinkswiththepast.

Atthesametimeastheybeganeffortstoretainpartsoftraditionalcultureinthesettlementcontext,individualsbegantotakeadvantageofneweconomicopportunities.ThereisevidenceofthisintheseveralyoungTununermiutwhobecameentrepreneurs.Qamaniqandhistaxiserviceisanotableexample.

IamsuggestingthatevenwithouttheITC,althoughitcertainlywasanasset,theTununermiutmighthaveadoptedthepostureofethnicityontheirown.Thisisnotonlyaposture,butalsoastrategyoneinwhichapopulationthatisasmallpartofamuchlargerpoliticalandeconomicsystemstrivestomaintainfeaturesofitstraditionalidentity,whileatthesametimetakingadvantageoftheperceivedbenefitsthelargersystemoffers.Thepositioninvolvesselectivity;somefeaturesoftheoldandthenewareselectedforretentionanduseandforgedintoanewsynthesis,andsomeelementsofbotharerejected.Itinvolvesapopulation'sassumingresponsibilityforthecontoursoftheirownculturalexistence.

Nevertheless,theITChasbeenofenormousassistancetotheTununermiutastheyhavecreatedtheirownethnicidentitywithinCanada.Ifnothingelse,itpluggedthisrelativelyisolatedcommunityintoanetworkofsimilarcommunitieswithlikeaspirationsstretchingacrossArcticCanada.

ALargerMatrixInuitamongOtherAboriginals

TheaboriginalpeoplesofCanadabothInuitandIndianhavelongbeenhiddenfromview,andwhenpresentedtothelargerpopulation,theyoftenappearinstereotypicalterms.TheInuit,forexample,havebeendescribedinmanyelementaryandsecondaryschooltextbooksasaquaintandromanticpeoplewholiveinsnowhousesandeatrawmeat.Untilrecently,fewCanadiansfromthesouthvisitedthehighArctic,andthatwaspossiblyadvantageoustotheInuit.EvenafterhugeamountsoffederalresourceswerepumpedintotheArcticduringthetimesdescribedherein,theaverageCanadianknewlittleornothingaboutthoseexpenditures,theireffects,orthepeoplewhoexperiencedthoseeffects.IhavefoundthatCanadianuniversitystudentsoftendonotknowthedifferencebetweentheYukonandNorthwestTerritories,orwheretoplaceBaffinIslandonamapof

Canada.

Indians,ontheotherhand,liveinregionsofthecountrythathaveseendensesettlementbyoutsiders,yethavetypicallybeencloisteredawayonisolatedreservesorghetto-izedinthecities.ThevariedIndianPopulationshavelongbeenthetargetofdiscriminatoryattitudesheldbyCanadianswho,inmostcases,haveneverknowinglymetapersonofIndianancestry.

Therealitiesoflifeforbothaboriginalpeopleshavelongbeenhiddenfromsocietalview,then,andfewCanadianshaveseemedtocaremuchaboutthat.Allthisbegantochangeinthe1980s,anditwasamostdramatictimeforIndians.

AmajorshiftintheCanadiancollectiveconsciousnesswaspartoftheseevents,and,inmyopinionconstitutedamajorcatalystthatis,Canadiansbegantothinkoftheirnationasmulticultural.Wavesofimmigrantsfromnon-EuropeanpartsoftheworldhadbeguntofloodintoCanadaandhadbecomevocalabouttheirrighttoretaintheirculturalidentities.Thefederalgovernmentandprofessionalsocialobserversrealizedaswellthattheoriginalimmigrants,mostofwhomhadcomefromEurope,hadnot"meltedtogether."Instead,theyhadcarvedoutethnicnichesforthemselvesinwhatwascomingtobecalledtheCanadianmosaic.Thatwhich"was"wastransformedintothatwhich''shouldbe,"andsoonethnicdiversitybecamenotonlyasociologicalfactbutsomethingencouragedbygoverningbodiesatfederalandprovinciallevels.Newfundingsourcesforethnicgroupswereestablished,alongwithagenciestoadministerthem.

Isuggestthataboriginalpeopleslookedatthesenewpoliciesandthemulticulturalideologybehindthemandaskedabouttheirownplaceinthemosaic.Theirconclusionwaseasilyreachedtheyhadbeenleftoutonceagain.Theirexclusionmayreflectanunderlyingassumptionlongheldbythefederalgovernment,anditsagenciesgearedtodealwithaboriginal"problems,"thatintimebothIndianandInukwouldbeabsorbedintothelargersociety.Theirpoliciesseemedtobedirectedtowardsthisend.Obviouslyassimilationhasnotyethappened.

Inresponsetothisnewideology,aboriginalorganizationswereestablishedatalllevels,fromthelocaltothenational.Matterswere,ofcourse,morecomplexthanIhaveindicatedhere,buttheideaofethnicself-determinationwaswithoutdoubtoneimportantfactorspurringaboriginalpeoplestoformandjustifytheirownindigenousassociations.Suchorganizationsproliferatedduringthe1970sand1980s,withtheITCbeingoneofthem.However,theiractivitiesdidnotcapturethepublicimagination,otherthansporadically,until1990,

whentwoeventscatapultedaboriginalpeoplesontocentrestage.

ThefirsteventwastheblockingoftheMeechLakeAccord,aproposaltocreateanewrelationshipbetweenthefederalandprovincialgovernments.Thedetailsarenotrelevanthere,butinthepopularmindtheAccord'sfailurewasduetotheactionsofElijahHarper,theonlyaboriginalmemberoftheManitobalegislature.DayafterdaythemediareportedonHarper'srefusaltovoteinfavourofratification.Hisstatedreasonforoppositionwasthatthebilldidnottakeintoaccountaboriginalconcerns,andaboriginalleadershadnotbeenincludedindeliberationsbetweenthefederal

governmentandtheprovinces.HebecameanationalheroandasymbolicleaderofthemovementforgreaterrecognitionofaboriginalrightsinCanada.

ThesecondeventwastheconfrontationatOka,Quebec.AdisputehadarisenbetweenresidentsoftheKahnawakeMohawkreserveandamunicipalityadjacenttoit,overaproposedgolfcourse.TheMohawksclaimedthatthelandonwhichthecoursewastobeconstructedwasatraditionalburialground.Whenaresolutioncouldnotbereached,theMohawkWarriorSocietyformedablockadeofoverturnedautomobilesandcreatedastandoff.Again,Imustglossoverthedetailsofacomplexandmanylayeredsituation,buttheconfrontationwentonforsometimeandreceivednightlyattentionfromthenationaltelevisionnetworks.

Suddenly,aboriginalpeoplesinCanadawerenolongerhiddenaway;becauseofthesetwoevents,theywerethemainsubjectofthenews.Nativeleaderswereinbothinstancesinterviewedregularly,andforthefirsttimetheaverageCanadiancouldseethemashighlyarticulateandintelligentmenandwomen,whethertheywerethesupportersofElijahHarper,dressedinbusinesssuits,ortheWarriorsandtheirwomensupportersatOka,cladinguerillagarbandwearingmasks.Thesewerewhollycontrastingimages,butbothwonnation-widesympathy.Theirarguments,presentedthroughthemedia,werefoundtobecompellingand,formanylisteners,convincing.Thepersonviewinglate-nightnewsmaynothavefullyunderstoodtheintricaciesoftheissues,andmayhavesympathizedwiththeIndiansbecauseofhisorherownfrustrationswithfederalpoliciesandtheplaceofQuebecinCanada.Bethatasitmay,mypointisthattherewasanoutpouringofsupport.Thosesameleaders,havingatleasttemporarilycapturedtheinterestofthemedia,publiclyvowedthatneveragainwouldtheirpeopleandtheirconcernsbehiddenfrompublicconsciousness.

Idonotknowwhateffectstheeventsof1990hadontheTununermiutandotherInuit.However,theyhavetelevisionsetsintheirhomesandreceivesignalsfromsatelliteatthesameinstantasviewersinHalifaxandVancouver.Theiryouthunderstandthelanguageofthenightlynewsbroadcastsandtranslateitfortheirelders.IfthoseeventshadapowerfuleffectontheconsciousnessofIndiansacrossCanada,itislikelythattheyhavealsoinfluencedthethinkingoftheInuitthinking,thatis,abouttheirownplaceincontemporaryCanada,andaboutlandrights,opendialogue,andevennationhood.CertainlytheIndiansarenowreferringtothemselvesassovereignnations.WhetherNunavutwill,inthelongrun,beseenbytheInuitoftheeasternArcticassomethingmore

thananewterritorytobegovernedliketheprovincesandtheotherterritories,maybemorethanmerelyarhetoricalquestion.

MyreasonforventuringintothelargerdiscourseofnativeconsciousnessandaspirationsistotrytoillustratetheplaceofaboriginalpeoplesbothIndianandInuitintheCanadiannation-stateasthetwenty-firstcenturyapproaches.Thatplacehasbeenchallenged,legallyandpolitically,bythepeoplethemselves.TheInuitresponseshavebeenmorecautious,perhaps,butthatmaybeonlyonemoreexampleofthe"waitandsee"approachtounfoldingevents.Therestofthecountryitselfmustnowwaitandsee.

ThePresent

Whilethepositionofaboriginalpeoplesinthelargersocietyevolvedandshiftedatmanylevels,PondInletanditsTununermiutresidents,althoughundoubtedlyinfluencedbythoseevents,continuedtocopewithmoreevolutionary,asopposedtorevolutionary,changes.Thesehaveinmanyrespectsbeenmoreincremental.Forinstance,thesettlementitselfcontinuestobegraduallytransformed.TheadjustmentsmadebyInuitresidentshaveinpartbeenshapedbyeffortstoholdontotraditionalwaysthewaysoftheirnomadicancestorsbuttheyhavealsobeencreative,involvinginnovativeadaptations.Giventheircircumstances,thepeoplehaveonceagaindemonstratedtheiringenuity.

AsImentionedearlier,whenIfirstarrivedinthetinysettlementin1963therewasnotevenalandingstripforincomingaircraft.Welandedonthemuskegbehindahill,andnooneknewofourlandingotherthanafewbirdswhoflewawayinpanicattheapproachofoursmallcraft.Todaythepermanentrunwayispartofafull-scaleairport,withitsownweatherstation,thatreceivesseveralaircrafteveryweek.HowtheTununermiutusethisnewfacilitytoachievetheirownends

isforotherstodocument.

In1963therewasasmall,one-roomnursingstationbutnonurse;theresidentRCMPofficerprovidedmedicalservices.Thatbuildinghaslongsincebeenreplacedbyalargenursingstation,withapermanentnursingstaff.AlongwithInuitinothercommunities,theTununermiutareseekingwaystomaximizethebenefitsofhealthservices.Effortstodecentralizemedicalresources,tobasethemwithinthecommunity,areanindicationofthismove,aswellasanexampleofthedriveforgreaterself-determination.

Insteadofallrecreationalactivitiestakingplaceinthegymnasiumoftheschool,thereisacommunityhallandacoveredarena

forsportingevents.Thelocalschoolshaveenrolmentsofseveralhundredstudents,theteachingstaffsincludewell-qualifiedInuit,andthecurriculahaveInuktitut-languageinstructionandInuit-culturemodules.

By1989thepopulationofPondInletwasalmostninehundred,andgrowing,afarcryindeedfromtheearly1960swhentheInuitlivedonthelandandthesettlementpopulationnumberedonlyacoupleofdozenpeople,Localcouncilsandcommunitieshavebeencreativeinfindingwaystocopewiththisdemographicexplosion.

In1963IspentmyfirstnightinPondInletinateacherage,emptyduringthesummervacation.TenyearslaterIstayedinanewlyconstructedtransientcentre,andtheothertemporaryboardersandIsleptinbunkssidebysideandmadeourownmake-shiftmealswithsuppliespurchasedattheBaystore.Nowthereisahotelwithitsowndiningroom.Thisfacilityispartofanewthrustinthecommunity.Itseconomicbase,althoughmixed,isprimarilytourism,andthelocalCo-operativemaintainsafishinglodgeatKoluktooBayaswellasprovidingpackagetoursoftheareaandspecialtoursofthebirdsanctuaryonBylotIsland.Thelatterhasbecomeapilgrimagesiteforamateurbird-watchersandprofessionalornithologistsfromaroundtheworld.Seeingallofthis,IrememberwhenKayakwaslaughedatforspendinghissavingsfromyearsofservicewiththeRCMPonalargeboatthatheplannedtousetotransportvisitinggovernmentofficialsandscientistsaboutthearea.

HuntingcontinuestobeonesourceoffoodfortheTununermiut;farmoresothanwasthecasein1973,whenitseemedtohavealmostdiedout.Todaymentaketheirchildrenoutwiththemtohuntonweekendsandduringvacations.Entirefamiliesgobacktothelandforshortperiodstore-enactthecamplifeofthepast,andsoyoungstersdonothavetolearnoutdoorlivingskillsfromteachersimportedfrom

thesouth,asIsawhappeningin1973.

Thepeoplehavenotforgottenthattheirforefatherswerehuntersandthattheiridentitiesbothmaleandfemalewereforgedwithinahuntingexistence.IhavebeentoldthatsomeTununermiutareevenreturningtotheuseofdogsandsledsfortheirhuntingexpeditions,inplaceofsnowmobiles.Asidefromtheirpracticalvalue,theformeraresymbolsofasenseofcontinuitywiththepast.Huntersmayusebetterriflesorsleepintentsboughtbymailorderinsteadofhand-sewnfromcanvas,buttheTununermiuthavealwaysbeenquicktopickuponmoreefficientartifactsandtechnologies,andthathasnothingtodowithknowingwhotheyare.

ChangehascontinuedtopursuetheTununermiut,then,butinsomanywaystheyseemtobeincontrolofit.Itwouldbewrongofmetotryandpresenthereallthechangesthatarestillinprocess,forIhavenotdonefieldworkamongthemfortoolongatime.HereIhaveonlytriedtosketchthebroadcontoursofrecentdevelopments.MostofthestoryIhaverecountedhasbeenaboutthelifeonthelandbeforeresettlement.Iobservedlifeinthesettlementonlyduringitsinitialphase,andforthemostparthavelimitedmynarrativetothat.MyhopeisthatayoungInukanthropologistwillbecometheethnographeroftheTununermiut.WhatIhavedescribediswhatIwaswitnesstomyself;beyondthatIcannotgo.

TheTununermiuthavehadtoaltertheirlife-stylesmanytimessincetheKadlunafirstenteredtheirlands.Myconvictionisthattheyhaveforgedtheirownresponsesandcreatedtheirownadaptationstoalloftheseimpositionsfromtheoutside,inductingthedrasticonesthataccompaniedcentralization.Awayoflifebasedonlivingonthelandseemedtemporarilytodie,andliketheolderTununermiutthemselves,Igrievedforitspassing.PerhapsIwastoohasty,forthen,inthefigurativeflameofethnicrevitalization,itcamealiveoncemore,asaperiodicalternativetohamletlivingandawayofretainingtieswiththepast.Nevertheless,thenewlifeisindeedbasedinthehamlet,andthathamletisapartofalargersocietyandashrinkingworld.Thosefactscannotbechanged.

Itismypersonalhope,aswellasmyprediction,thattheTununermiutwillcontinuetotakemattersintotheirownhands,andintheprocesssurviveasaviableanddistinctpeoplewithinanindustrialsociety.

WorksCitedTheliteratureontheInuitisvast.Morehasbeenpublishedaboutthemthanpossiblyanyotherhumansocietywhichhasfallenunderanthropologicalscrutiny.Therearealsotheaccountsoftravelers,missionaries,andothers.Perhapsitisnottritetosay,inreferencetotheInuit,thattomeetthemistowriteaboutthem.

ThisworkisastudyofwhathappenedamongonesmallInuitpopulationonnorthernBaffinIslandinarelativelyshortperiodoftime.Wereitmorecomprehensive,afullbibliographywouldbeincluded.Thefollowingissimplyalistofworksreferredtointhisbook,anddoesnotpretendtobeevenanabbreviatedlistingofsourcesconcerningtheInuit.

Bernier,Joseph.1909.ReportontheDominionGovernmentexpeditiontotheArcticIslandsandtheHudsonStraitonboardtheC.G.S."Arctic."19067Ottawa:CanadianDepartmentofMarineandFisheries.

Berreman,GeraldD.1962.Behindmanymasks:SocietyforAppliedAnthropology.Ithaca,NY.

Briggs,Jean.1974."Eskimowomen:Makersofmen."InMatthiasson,Carolyn,ed.ManySisters:WomeninCross-CulturalPerepective.NewYork:TheFreePress261304.

Chance,NormanA.1960."Culture,changeandintegration:AnEskimoexample."AmericanAnthropologist66:102844.

Flanagan,R.T.1963.AhistoryoftheDepartmentofNorthernAffairsandNationalResourcesinitsvariousmanifestationssince1867withspecialreferencetoitsroleintheexistingNorthwestTerritories.Unpublishedmanuscript.Ottawa:DepartmentofNorthernAffairsand

NationalResourcesLibrary.

Graburn,Nelson.1969.Eskimoswithoutigloos:SocialandeconomicdevelopmentinSugluk.Boston:Little,Brown.

Helm,June,andDavidDamas.1963."Thecontact-traditionalall-nativecommunityoftheCanadiannorth."Anthropologica,n.s.5:921.

Honigmann,JohnJ.,andIrmaHonigmann.1965.Eskimotownsmen.Ottawa:CanadianResearchCentreforAnthropology.

Janes,Robert.n.d.Diary.Ottawa:NationalArchivesofCanada.

Jenness,Diamond.1936.Thevillageofthecrossroads.ForestandOutdoors32:1420.

Lesage,Jean.1955.EntertheEuropean.TheBeaver(Spring)285:39.

Low,A.P.1906.CruiseoftheNeptune:ReportoftheDominionGovernmentexpeditiontoHudsonBayandtheArcticIslandsonboardtheD.G.S.Neptune19034.Ottawa:GovernmentPrintingHouse.

Marie-Rousseliere,Guy.1957.LongevityamongtheEskimo.Eskimo43:1315.

Matthiasson,JohnS.1974.YouscratchmybackandI'llscratchyours:ContinuitiesinInuitsocialrelations.ArcticAnthropology12:3136.

McConnell,John.1976.ThedialecticnatureofEskimoculture.InConsequencesofeconomicchangeincircumpolarregions,ed.L.Muller-Wille,Edmonton:InstituteforNorthernStudies20113.

Morice,AdrianG.1943.ThawingouttheEskimo.Trans.MaryT.Loughlin,Boston:SocietyforthePropagationoftheFaith.

Mutch,JamesS.1906.WhalinginPondsBay.InBoasAnniversaryVolume.AnthropologicalPapersWritteninHonorofFranzBoas.

NewYork:G.E.Stechart.(paginationnotavailable)

OrdinancesoftheNorthwestTerritories.1963.Ottawa:Queen'sPrinter.

living on the land: change among the inuit of baffin island

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