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381

4, 750 Let Pobedy icebreaker 126–7, 137–40,

203–4

8–10, 259

AAAC see Arctic Athabaskan CouncilAARI national ice service in Russia 200–9,

259–60Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development

Canada (AANDC) 283–4Aboriginal peoples

see also indigenous peoples

accidents 19–20, 41, 54–6, 225–9, 233, 329–31, 339–51see also damage statistics; insurance

Admiral Makarow icebreaker 203–4Admiralty formula 349aeronautical and maritime search and rescue in

the Arctic agreement 199–209aerosols 151Afghan War 58–9Africa, R/Ps 130AIA see Aleut International Associationair transport alternatives to shipping 83–6,

115–17, 118–29, 216–18, 310–14AIRSS see Arctic Ice Regime Shipping SystemAkademik Ioffe adventure ship 137–8Akademik Sergey Vavilov adventure ship 137–8Akademik Shokalskiy former research vessel

137–8, 187–9, 351Akhangelsk Oblast 106, 309–14Alaska 8–9, 22–30, 38–41, 48–9, 99–112,

113–17, 129, 131–2, 137–9, 148–9, 157–9, 178, 198–209, 218–20, 263–8, 269–75, 279, 285–7, 303, 310–14, 331–8see also USAcruise activities 137–9, 287

forests/forestry 107–8, 113, 129, 287geopolitics 48, 263–8, 269–75, 279, 285–7, 303, 331–8global warming 148–9, 157–9historical background 285indigenous peoples 269–75, 279, 285–7, 334–8mineral resources 107, 113–17, 310–14oil resources 285–6, 310–14ports 218–20Russian origins 285

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 286–7

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 285–6, 337–8

Alaska Statehood Act 1959 285Albania 122–9Alberta 112–17, 310–14Aleut International Association (AIA) 270,

274–5Aleut people 269–75, 287, 334–8Aleutian islands 38–41, 157–9, 208–9Alexander Sibiryakov icebreaker 35Algeria 94–5alternatives to shipping xxxi, 3, 16–17, 83–6,

113–17, 118–29, 132–3, 211–18, 220, 297, 307, 309–14

alumina resources 106–7AMAP see Arctic Monitoring Assessment

ProgramAmerasia Basin 103–4AMSA see Arctic Marine Shipping AssessmentAmundsen Gulf 170–1, 189Amur river 124–9Anadyr 38–41, 137–8, 184–9Antarctic Dream passenger vessel 138Antarctic Treaty 62, 76, 77Antarctica 62, 74, 76, 136–7, 139, 195apatite ores 106–7aquaculture 109–12, 142

pringer Praxis Books, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

, Shipping in Arctic Waters: A comparison of the Northeast, W. Ostreng et al.Northwest and Trans-Polar Passages, SDOI 10.1007/978-3-642-16790-4, ©

382 Shipping in Arctic Waters

see alsoArab wars 58–9Archangel region 36–7, 306–51ARCOP research program 54, 160–1, 190–1,

196–7, 200–9, 226–9, 329–31Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC) 67–8, 270,

274–5Arctic Bay 28–30, 284–7Arctic Bridge 28–30, 35, 39–41, 156–9, 171,

208–9, 220, 306–7Arctic charr 158–9

102–3, 255–6, 298Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA)

148–9, 168–9Arctic Container Project (ARCON) 133, 159,

172, 319Arctic Council (AC) 4, 6, 21–2, 57, 61, 65–6,

67–72, 76, 77, 160–1, 199–209, 247–50, 274–5geopolitics 67–72, 76, 77, 247–50, 274–5indigenous peoples 274–5membership refusals 76, 77oil spill levels 160–1prospects 77search and rescue facilities 199–209

Arctic cruise activity see cruise activitiesArctic Demonstration and Exploratory Voyage

(ARCDEV) 227–9the Arctic Eight states

see also Arctic insider states

the Arctic Five coastal states

geopolitics 7, 67–8, 79, 248–9Arctic Ice Regime Shipping System (AIRSS)

189, 321–2

246–50, 255–6, 261, 267–8, 298Arctic infrastructure xxxi, xxxii, 3, 17–18,

21–2, 28–30, 35, 36, 38–41, 47–82, 121–9, 160–72, 177–239, 297, 313, 320–31see also portscommunications’ facilities 22, 28–30, 35, 66, 177, 223–4, 324–9comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 313, 320–31crew training/competence requirements xxxii, 3, 177, 180–1, 189–97, 231–3,

246–50, 264–8, 322–3

67, 121–9, 160–1, 172, 177–239, 297, 313, 320–31IMO guidelines xxix, xxx, xxxii, 8–9, 70, 151, 172, 178–97, 198–209, 232–3, 246–50, 269, 315–19, 322–6insurance xxxii, 3, 39–40, 177, 221–3, 224–33, 329–31, 339–51International Civil Aviation Convention 1944 199–209International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue 1979 197–209Northeast Passage 147–9, 163–72, 177, 182–5, 193–7, 200–19, 224–9, 269–79, 297, 313, 320–31Northern Sea Route 147–9, 163–72, 177, 182–5, 193–7, 200–19, 220–9, 269–79, 297, 313, 320–31Northwest Passage 147–9, 163–4, 168–72, 177, 185–9, 194–7, 218–20, 223–4, 229–30, 263–8, 279–87, 297, 313, 320–31oily sludge disposals 160–1, 316–19prospects 320–31search and rescue facilities xxxii, 3, 22, 29–30, 63–4, 65–6, 161–3, 177, 195–209, 223–4, 231–3, 323–6SOLAS Convention of 1974 8, 177–97, 198–209, 244–50, 320–2, 333technical requirements 177–89, 230–3, 244–50, 252–3, 313, 320–2Transpolar Passage 147–9, 172, 177, 195–7, 230, 268–9, 297, 313, 320–31

Arctic insider statessee also Canada; Denmark; Finland; geopolitics; Iceland; Norway; Russia; Sweden; USA

Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA) xxix, 6–9, 25, 26, 29–30, 32–3, 34, 54–5, 68, 135–6, 150–1, 157–9, 161–2, 191–2, 197, 217, 270–1, 302

Arctic Monitoring Assessment Program (AMAP) 2, 4–9, 68, 149–51

Arctic NAVAREAs 198–209the Arctic Ocean

61, 68, 148–9, 158–9, 241–50, 255–61, 298

383Index

Arctic outsider statessee also China; India; Japan; South Korea

Arctic shipping xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, 1–10, 14–22, 33–5, 47–82, 83–4, 86–145, 147–75, 177–239, 250–63, 269–87, 297–351see also Arctic transportation passages; bulk carriers; cargo vessels; containers; environmental challenges; geopolitics; operational conditions; passenger ships; tankersaccidents 19–20, 41, 54–6, 225–9, 233, 329–31, 339–51advantages xxx, xxxiii, 1, 48–51, 299–307, 338–51alternatives to shipping xxxi, 3, 16–17, 83–6, 113–17, 118–29, 132–3, 211–18, 220, 297, 307, 309–14Baltic and Polar ice classes of ship 181–2, 320–2Canadian policies 185–9capital costs 55–6commercial prospects 297, 338–51communications’ facilities 22, 28–30, 35, 66, 177, 223–4, 324–9comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 307–14costs and bureaucratic procedures 33–51, 177, 220–9, 232–3, 327–9, 338–51crew training/competence requirements xxxii, 3, 177, 180–1, 189–97, 231–3, 246–50, 264–8, 322–3damage statistics 185–9, 225–30, 233, 329–31, 339–51

distances between harbors 49–52, 299–307, 338–51ecosystem impacts 151–75, 284–7, 314–19EU policies 69–72, 77–9

forests/forestry 129, 212–18, 223, 287, 309–14

129–33, 307–8, 311–12global warming effects 15–16, 41–2, 49, 58–9, 116–17, 131–3, 156–9, 229–30, 257–8, 331–2, 337–8, 349–51historical background 33–5, 38, 50–1,

253–63ice capabilities of merchant ships 15, 53–7IMO guidelines xxix, xxx, xxxii, 8–9, 70, 151, 172, 178–97, 198–209, 232–3, 241–50, 269, 315–19, 322–6, 333–8indigenous peoples xxxi, 26–7, 36–7, 67–8, 139–41, 267–8, 269–87, 297, 333–8insurance xxxii, 3, 39–40, 177, 221–3, 224–33, 329–31, 339–51International Convention on Standards of

1978 189–97national technical requirements 182–9, 252–3, 264–8, 320–2natural conditions 147–9, 163–72, 317–19new ships 97–9noise pollution 151, 155–6, 315–19pipeline alternatives xxxi, 3, 36–7, 113–14, 118–29, 132–3, 212–18, 220, 309–14pollution sources 149–51, 178–9, 250–69, 287, 314–19possibilities 77–9, 115–17, 130–3, 163–72, 297–351prospects 77–9, 115–17, 130–3, 163–72, 297–351reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7Russian policies 66, 77–9, 117–29, 182–5SOLAS Convention of 1974 8, 177–97, 198–209, 244–50, 320–2, 333statistics 5–6, 19–22, 25, 27–30, 33–6, 49–51, 54–6, 112–17, 149–51, 184–9, 210–20, 297–351technical requirements 177–89, 230–3, 244–50, 252–3, 264–8, 320–2time-savings 49–52, 338–51trade patterns 89–98, 132–3, 141–2, 182–9, 224–9, 297, 307–14trends 86–98, 130–3, 338–51types of ship 6–7, 15–16, 19–22, 25, 28–9, 33–4, 50–2, 54–6, 59–60, 70, 74, 116–17, 124–9, 132–9, 150–1, 179–89, 202–9, 221–4, 227–9, 253–63, 314, 320–2, 339–51

245–50, 320–2USA policies 62–4, 77–9vessel activity statistics 5–6, 19–22, 25, 27–30, 33–4, 113–17, 121–9, 157–9, 184–9, 205–9, 308–14, 350–1

384 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations 1978 (ASPPR) 185–9, 194–7, 323

Arctic states, concepts 4–6the Arctic Three states (Sweden, Finland,

Iceland)

geopolitics 67–8, 79Arctic transportation passages xxix, xxx, xxxi,

xxxii, xxxiii, 1–3, 8–9, 11–45, 49–50, 53–7, 77–9, 115–17, 130–3, 140, 147–9, 159, 163–72, 297–351see also Northeast Passage; Northwest Passage; Transpolar Passagecommercial prospects 297, 338–51comparisons between the passages 297–351concepts xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 11–45, 49–50, 53–7, 140, 147–9, 297–351cost-saving aspects xxx, xxxiii, 3, 15–16, 49–52, 338–51cruise activities 140, 313–14distances between harbors 49–52, 299–307, 338–51global warming 149, 156–9, 163–72, 331–2, 349–51historical background 12–13natural shipping conditions 147–9, 163–72, 317–19perceptions 53–7prospects 77–9, 115–17, 130–3, 149, 159, 168–72, 297–351reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7time-savings 49–52, 338–51

Arctic Treaty 62–3, 70–1, 78–9, 248–50, 331–3the Arctic Two states (Sweden, Finland),

Arctic Ublureak sinking 230Arctic Water Pollution Prevention Act 1970

(AWPPA) 26–7, 185–9, 244, 321–2Arctic waters

see also environmental challenges; resourcesadvantages xxx, xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 1, 29–30, 32–3, 48–52, 83–6, 93–4, 141–2, 299–307, 308–14, 338–51area 5–6, 32attitudes and lack of knowledge 53–4cleanliness statistics 149–51, 155–6, 172

comparisons between the transportation passages 297–307

47–8, 68, 98–9, 179–80, 246–50, 255–8, 298elusiveness 3–88gas resources 93–4, 98–105, 112–17, 141–2historical background 3–8, 12–13, 33–5, 38, 50–1, 253–63‘industrial Mediterranean’ aspects of the Arctic 48–51, 299–307oil resources 93–4, 98–105, 112–29, 141–2oil spills xxxi, 25–6, 150–1, 155, 158–63, 172, 178–9, 180–1, 202, 263–4, 287, 316–19, 351perceptions 53–7purpose and conduct of the study 1–3reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7salinity levels 163–4statistics xxx, 5–6, 8, 13, 15–22, 23–30, 32–3, 49–51, 54–6, 98–117, 148–51, 184–9, 210–20, 297–351undiscovered oil/gas resources 102–5, 112–17, 119–29, 131–3, 141–2, 158, 162–3, 244–50, 280–1, 308–14

Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation 64–6, 77, 301–7

area, Arctic waters 5–6, 32Arkhangelsk 52, 112, 124–9, 161–3, 202–9,

210–13, 228–9, 309–51Arktika icebreaker 33–4, 203–4Arnold, Henry A. 48–9Asian markets xxix, xxxi, 7–9, 11–12, 35,

37–41, 49–51, 72–6, 78, 122–9, 157–9, 208–9

see alsoCorridor; South Korea

ASPPR see Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations 1978

Atlantic Deep Water Current 150the Atlantic Ocean xxix, xxx, 1–4, 11–45, 50–2,

53–7, 111–12, 116–17, 133, 150–1, 299–307

Aurora Expeditions 187–9Australia 84Austria 118

availability of ocean space, military affairs

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59–61, 303–6AWPPA see Arctic Water Pollution Prevention

ActAzerbaijan 121–9

B

157–9, 189, 219–20, 280–7

Baikal Amur railroad line 148Baltic Dry Index 97Baltic and Polar ice classes of ship 181–2,

320–2Baltic Sea 53, 122–9, 136–42, 161–2, 181–9,

195–7Banks Island 22–30, 299–351Barcelona 49–51Barents Euro-Arctic Region (BEAR) 18, 57,

65–6, 71–2Barents Sea xxix, xxx, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13–22,

36–7, 52, 60, 65–6, 71–2, 76–9, 99–100, 102–3, 111–12, 118–30, 132–3, 153–6, 161–2, 164–5, 167–8, 200–9, 210–18, 256–63, 274–5, 298–351

Barentsburg 21–2barges 6, 28, 150–1, 202–9, 214–15Baridaratskaya bay 253–63Barrow Strait 169–70

266–8Bathurst Inlet 28–30, 219–20bauxite resources 106–8Bay of Bothnia 181–2

BEAR see Barents Euro-Arctic RegionBeaufort Sea 12, 21–30, 103–5, 111, 114–17,

138, 157–9, 160–3, 169–72, 189, 219–20, 268, 284–7, 299–351

Belarus 39, 121–9Belkomur Railway 212–18Bellot Strait 139, 171Belokamenka 124–9, 211–18Belomorsk 112Beluga Shipping Group 51–2, 133, 184–5,

200–1, 214–15, 221–3, 228–9, 312, 339–51Bergen 133–4, 139bergybits, Northwest Passage 23–4Bering Sea 3, 6, 12, 13–30, 33–5, 38–41, 50–1,

111, 127–9, 137–9, 151, 157–9, 161–3, 167–8, 169–72, 186–9, 198–209, 218, 222–3, 250–63, 300–51pollution levels 151, 157–9, 161–2ports 218search and rescue facilities 198–209, 324–6

Bering Strait 17–30, 31, 33–5, 37–41, 50–1, 137–9, 151, 157–9, 169–72, 186–9, 198–209, 222–3, 250–63, 300–51

big Arctic insider states 48, 61–8, 99, 248–96see also Russia; USA

141–2, 248–50, 331–8

power uses 66–7Bilibino 218biodiversity policies 71–2

see also environmental challengesBirka Paradise passenger vessel 136–7black carbon (BC) 151Black Sea 122–9, 136–42, 161–2, 310–14Bokfjord 125–9

BP 86, 91–101, 114–15Brazil 87–9, 107–8, 130, 307–14Bremen passenger vessel 136–7, 139British Columbia 114–15Broe/Omni Trax 39Brubaker’s reasonings 260–1Bulgaria 122–9bulk carriers 6–7, 97–9, 150–1, 224–30

pollution 150–1shipping trends 97–9, 184–9

Bush, George W. 61, 63

C

CAC see Canadian Arctic ClassCairn Energy 103–5Cameron Island 28–30Canada xxxii, 8–9, 22–30, 34–5, 48–51, 66–8,

75, 79, 87–8, 92, 94–5, 99–117, 138–9, 148–9, 150–1, 156–9, 162–3, 168–72, 185–9, 194–7, 198–209, 218–20, 223–4, 244, 248–9, 263–8, 269–75, 279–87, 299–351see also North America...; Northwest PassageChina 75costs and bureaucratic procedures 223–4,

386 Shipping in Arctic Waters

232–3, 328–9, 338–51crew training/competence requirements 194–7, 231–3, 264–8, 322–3

delimitation lines 268economic trends 87–8, 92, 94–5, 112–17

GDP statistics 87geopolitics xxxii, 26–7, 48, 49–51, 66–8, 75, 79, 185–9, 194–7, 244, 248–9, 263–8, 269–75, 279–87, 299–307, 332–8global warming 148–9, 156–9, 229–30icebreakers 205–6, 224, 230, 267–8, 281–2, 321–2, 325, 350indigenous peoples 269–75, 279–87, 334–8inland waters 266–8jurisdictional controversies xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 245–50, 261–2, 263–8, 332–8military affairs 304–5mineral resources 107, 113–17, 219–20, 282–7, 302–51ocean law xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 245–50, 261–2, 263–8, 281–7, 331–8oil/gas consumption trends 91–2, 96–105, 112–17oil/gas production 94–5, 99–105, 112–17, 158, 162–3, 186–9, 218–20, 282–7, 302–51pollution 150–1, 156–9, 185–9, 204–5, 244, 263–8ports 49–51, 218–20, 265–8, 326–7Russia 28, 29, 66, 210, 219–20, 261–2, 332–8search and rescue facilities 198–209, 223–4, 231–3, 323–6shale deposits 94, 113, 130–1technical requirements 185–9, 231–3, 264–8, 320–2transportation/shipping policies 185–9USA jurisdictional controversies xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 245–50, 263–8, 332–8Zone System 188–9, 265–8

Canada Shipping Act 2001 204–6Canada Today 25Canadian Arctic Archipelago xxxii, 22–30,

60, 157–9, 168–72, 194–7, 266–8, 304–5, 318–19, 330–51

Canadian Arctic Class (CAC) 189, 321–2Canadian Arctic Shipping Assessment (CASA)

6–8, 168–70

Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) 29–30, 194–7, 204–6, 219–20, 265–8, 325–7

Canadian Environmental Assessment Act 162–3Cape Chelyuskin 19–20Cape Dezhnev 186–9Cape of Good Hope 58Cape Schmidt 19–20Cape Vankarem 139capital costs 55–6, 104–5, 114–15, 117–29, 204,

206, 286–7, 308–14Arctic shipping 55–6drilling costs 104–5, 117–29, 286–7, 308–14future increases 104–5icebreakers 204, 206

Capitan Spinner 187–9carbon dioxide 52–3, 55, 129–30, 132–3,

150–1, 349–51carbon monoxide (CO) 151, 349–51Cargo Insurance 224cargo vessels 6–7, 8, 53–7, 97–9, 133, 150–1,

179, 184–9, 198–209, 223–30, 301–51commercial comparisons of the Transit sailing routes 297, 338–51pollution 150–1shipping trends 97–9, 184–9

CASA see Canadian Arctic Shipping Assessment

Caspian Sea 31–2, 127–9, 131Central America, R/Ps 130Central Arctic Basin 30–3, 55, 58–60, 64, 79,

256–7, 305–6Central Arctic Ocean xxix, xxx, xxxi, 1–8,

11–45, 48–9, 53, 56–7, 58–66, 79, 158–9, 163–4, 172, 195–7, 254–63, 301–51see also Transpolar Passageice movements 31–2, 41–2, 330–1, 349–51military affairs xxix, xxx, xxxi, 1–8, 28, 38, 42, 48–9, 53, 56–7, 59–66, 254–63, 303–6sea ice thickness xxx, 7–8, 14–22, 23–4, 31–3, 58–9, 148–9, 158–9, 164–72

Central Asia 39, 58–9Central Marine Research and Design Institute

196–7charting requirements 180–9, 206, 223Chaunsky 217–18Cheshkaya bay 253–63Chilingarov, Arthur 261China xxx, xxxi, 17–18, 38–41, 48, 49–51,

52, 53, 55–6, 59, 72–9, 84, 86–98, 104–5,

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106–8, 122–9, 130–3, 184–9, 208–9, 281, 299–314, 340–51see alsoagenda 73–4economic trends 86–98, 104–5, 307–14energy demands 72–6, 88–92, 95–8, 104–5, 130–3, 141–2, 281, 307–14, 340–51

GDP statistics 86–98, 307–14geopolitics 48, 49–51, 52, 53, 55–6, 72–9, 91–4, 299–307mineral resources 106–7oil/gas production 91–2, 94–5policies 73–9quality of life expectations 131–2research expeditions 74Russia 73, 122–9, 132–3, 310–14shale deposits 94statistics 72–3, 86–98, 106–7trade destinations 90–4, 108–9, 122–9, 184–9, 310–14trade patterns 89–98, 106–7, 108–9, 122–9, 132–3, 141–2, 184–9, 307–14

chromium resources 106–8Chukchi people 269–75, 277–9, 334–8Chukchi Sea 12, 13–22, 24–30, 50–2, 60,

103–5, 111, 127–9, 138–40, 153–9, 166–72, 225–9, 253–63, 287, 314–51

Chukotka 35, 218, 274–5Churchill 28–30, 39–41, 156–9, 171–2, 210,

219–20, 327Chuykov, Yuri 185, 321circulation patterns, pollution 149–50Circumpolar Inuit Declaration on Arctic

Sovereignty 273–5CIS states 121–9civil sector, military affairs xxx, xxxi, 49–51,

53, 56–7, 59–66, 78–9, 205–6, 243–4, 252–3, 254–63, 303–6

climate change 63–4, 69–72, 105, 131–3, 147–9, 156–9, 163–72, 274, 298–9, 300–7, 331–2, 349–51see also global warming; sea ice meltingconcepts 63–4, 69–72, 147–9, 156–7, 163–72, 274, 298–9, 300–7, 331–2EU policies 69–72military affairs 305–6USA policies 63–4

climate models 148–9, 159, 163–4, 168–9, 172, 229–30, 300–1

Clinton, Hillary 68Clipper Adventurer passenger vessel 136–7,

139–40

coal resources 21–2, 89, 91, 105, 108, 113, 115–17, 128–30, 210–18, 301–7

The Coast of Hope 187–9coastal maritime zones, concepts 242–50cobalt resources 106–7, 119–29cod 66, 111Cod War between Iceland and the UK in the

1970s 66Cold War tensions 27–8, 49, 56–66, 255–6,

303–6commercial prospects, Arctic transportation

passages 297, 338–51communications’ facilities 22, 28–30, 35, 66,

177, 199–209, 223–4, 324–9Northeast Passage 200–9, 223, 324–9Northern Maritime Corridor 208–9

Northern Sea Route 22, 66, 201–9, 324–9Northwest Passage 28–30, 204–6, 223–4, 233, 324–6satellite communications 22, 200–9, 229, 324–6, 328–9search and rescue facilities 199–209, 323–6southern water connecting corridors 208–9Transpolar Passage 206–8, 324–6

communism fears 53Conoco-Phillips 114–15Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF)

153–4construction materials 106–7, 119–29, 163containers

commercial comparisons of the Transit sailing routes 297, 338–51pollution 150–1shipping trends 97–9, 116–17, 125–9, 133, 184–9

continuous permafrost 4, 148–9

75, 77–9, 141–2, 245–50, 299–307, 331–8copper resources 106–8, 119–29, 219–20

388 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Coronation Gulf 139–40, 170–1corporate governance xxxii, 3, 246–50, 269,

331–8see also social responsibilitiesconcepts 246–50, 269, 331–8

cost-saving aspects of the Arctic transportation passages xxx, xxxiii, 3, 15–16, 49–52, 338–51see also capital costs

costs and bureaucratic proceduressee also insuranceArctic shipping 177, 220–30, 232–3, 327–9, 338–51commercial comparisons of the Transit sailing routes 297, 338–51Northern Sea Route 220–9, 232–3, 327–9, 338–51Northwest Passage 223–4, 229–30, 328–9, 338–51

Council Conclusions on Arctic Issues 69crab 157–9crew training/competence requirements xxxii,

3, 177, 180–1, 189–97, 231–3, 246–50, 264–8, 322–3concepts xxxii, 3, 177, 180–1, 189–97, 231–3, 246–50, 322–3current training practices 195–7

IMO Guidelines 189–97, 232–3, 246INSROP research program 192insurance 231–3International Convention on Standards of

1978 189–97Manila IMO conference in 2010 192–3Northeast Passage 193–7, 231–3, 322–3Northwest Passage 194–7, 231–3, 264–8, 322–3statistics 196–7Transpolar Passage 195–7, 231–3, 322–3

Cristal passenger vessel 136–7cruise activities xxxi, 3, 6–7, 27, 114, 132–42,

160–1, 281, 284–5, 287, 313–14see also passenger shipsAlaska 137–9, 287Arctic transportation passages status 140, 313–14concepts xxxi, 114, 132–42, 160–1, 281,

284–5, 287, 313–14

Greenland 133–6, 138–40, 281, 314historical background 133–5indigenous peoples xxxi, 139–41, 281, 284–5, 287main specialist operators 137–40Northeast Passage xxxi, 135, 137–40, 313–14Northwest Passage xxxi, 27, 135, 139–40, 281, 284–5, 287, 313–14oil spills 160–1prices 137–8prospects xxxi, 132–42, 313–14Russia 135–40sailing routes 133–5, 137–9ship categories 136–7social responsibilities xxxistatistics 132–42Svalbard 133–6, 314Transpolar Passage 140, 313–14

Cruise North Expeditions 139–40CSCL Hamburg 340–51cultural issues xxix, xxxi, xxxiii, 1–3, 21–2,

26–7, 38, 56–7, 78, 243–50, 269–87, 333–8

D

damage statistics 185–9, 225–30, 233, 329–31, 339–51see also accidents; insurance

databases, risk assessments 55–6Davis Corridor (DC) 35, 42

see also Labrador SeaDavis Strait 12, 21–30, 35, 42, 138–9, 157–9,

169–70, 189, 219–20, 315–51Dease Strait 189deep pressure ridges, statistics 32–3Deng Chiao Ping 87Denmark 41–2, 48, 58–9, 66, 68–72, 198–209,

248–9, 261–2, 263–8, 271–5, 279–80, 323, 332–8see also Greenlandgeopolitics 48, 58–9, 66, 68–72, 248–9, 261–2, 263–8, 271, 279–80, 332–8indigenous peoples 271–5, 279–80, 334–8jurisdiction 261–2, 263–8, 279–80, 332–8search and rescue facilities 198–209

389Index

Denmark Strait 41–2, 138–9depths xxx, 14–15, 24–5, 31–3, 41–2, 59–60,

232–3, 305Des Groseilliers icebreaker 207Destination-Arctic sailing routes xxix, 1–3,

11–12, 18–22, 27–30, 33–5, 117, 158, 297–8, 312–14see also harbors; portsNorthern Sea Route 18–22, 312–14Northwest Passage 27–30, 117, 158

Det Norske Veritas (DNV) 97, 133, 172, 197, 312–13, 319

Devon Island 139DEW line 27–8DGPS see Differential Global Positioning

Systemsdiamond resources 106–8, 115–17, 310–14Dickson 19–20diesel-powered icebreakers 34–5, 184–5,

203–4, 207–9, 319Differential Global Positioning Systems

(DGPS) 202–9, 324–6Dikson 128–9, 215–16, 220–4, 322–51distances between harbors, statistics 49–52,

299–307, 338–51Dmitri Laptev Strait 165–6, 251–63, 318–19Dmitriyenko, Dmitry 210Dmitry Pozharsky 187–9DNV see Det Norske Veritasdomestic laws 3, 15–16, 61–6, 78–9

see also ocean lawdouble hulls 55–6drift ice 32, 168–72drift stations 34, 42drilling costs 104–5, 117–29, 159, 286–7,

308–14Dudinka 19–22, 35, 128–9, 154–9, 184–9,

204–9, 210–18, 301–51Dunbar, Moira 3Dutch Harbor 35, 38–41, 112Dvina Gulf 212–13

E

East Barents Sea 102–3, 309–51East Bering Sea 157–9East China Sea 70, 302–7East Greenland Rift Basin 103–4East Siberian Sea 12–22, 52, 60, 127–9, 138–9,

153–6, 165–8, 202–9, 216–18, 225–9, 252–63, 314–51

eco-system management policies, USA 63–4economic interests, geopolitics 58–9, 61–6,

72–6, 299–307, 331–8economic trends xxix, xxxiii, 1–3, 39–41,

47–82, 83–4, 86–98, 112–29, 130–3, 141–2, 297, 307–14, 338–51commercial comparisons of the Transit sailing routes 297, 338–51comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 307–14concepts 83–4, 86–98, 112–29, 130–3, 141–2, 307–14energy consumption 72–6, 86, 88–105, 307–14GDP statistics 86–98, 130–1, 141–2, 307–14

129–33, 307–8, 311–12historical background 86–7trade destinations 90–4, 158, 310–14trade patterns 89–98, 106–7, 118–29, 130–3, 141–2, 297, 307–14

ecosystems xxxi, 1–3, 5–6, 62–6, 71–2, 147, 151–75, 243–50, 284–7, 297, 314–19, 351see also environmental challenges; marine...Arctic shipping impacts 151–75, 284–7, 297, 314–19comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 314–19concepts xxxi, 5–6, 63–4, 151–9, 243–4, 284–7, 297, 314–19, 351

Northeast Passage 153–6, 161–2, 297, 314–19, 351Northern Sea Route 153–6, 314–19, 351Northwest Passage 156–9, 162–3, 284–7, 297, 314–19oil spills xxxi, 25–6, 150–1, 155, 158–63, 172, 178–9, 180–1, 287, 316–19, 351prospects 314–19, 351species’ types 151–9statistics 153–9Transpolar Passage 158–9

EEZ see exclusive economic zones

Egvekinot 38–41Egypt 94–5

390 Shipping in Arctic Waters

El Paso Corporation 84Ellesmere Island 22–30, 268emerging market economies (EMEs) 94–8,

141–2see also China; India

emissions, statistics 150–1, 172, 349–51energy consumption 72–6, 86, 88–105, 307–14,

340–51ENI 122–9environmental challenges xxix, xxxi, 1–3,

20–1, 25–6, 31, 48–82, 120, 132–3, 147–75, 180–1, 192–3, 243–87, 297, 314–19, 322, 351see also ecosystems; oil spills; pollutioncomparisons between the transportation passages 297, 314–19concepts xxxi, 20–1, 67, 76–9, 147–75, 180–1, 243–69, 297, 314–19, 322EU policies 69–72, 76–9

243–87, 297, 314–19, 322, 351‘general legal principles’ 247–8natural shipping conditions 147–9, 163–72, 317–19Northeast Passage 147–9, 153–6, 161–2, 163–72, 250–63, 269–79, 297, 314–19, 351Northwest Passage 147–9, 156–9, 162–4, 168–72, 263–8, 279–87, 297, 314–19oil spills xxxi, 25–6, 150–1, 155, 158–63, 172, 178–9, 180–1, 202, 263–4, 287, 316–19, 351prospects 314–19, 351renewable energy 132–3Russian policies 64–6, 77–9, 120, 252–63Transpolar Passage 147–9, 158–9, 172, 297, 314–19USA policies 63–4, 77–9

Eskimos 258estimated resources 84–6, 92–4, 98–112,

129–33, 307–14Estonia 74ethics 247–50

see also social responsibilitiesEurasia 7–10, 158–9, 165–6, 303–51European Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (EBRD) 272–5European Commission 68–72, 305–6European continent xxix, xxxi, 7–10, 11–12,

35–7, 48–51, 68–72, 299–307see also Northern Maritime Corridor

European Economic Area (EEA) xxx, 68–72see also Iceland; Norway

European Parliament 69–72European Union (EU) xxx, xxxi, 26–7, 36–7,

48, 66–7, 68–72, 76–9, 87–98, 117–29, 130–1, 150–1, 214–15, 219–20, 248–50, 266–7, 272–5, 305–6, 331–8see also Denmark; Finland; Northern Maritime Corridor; Swedencooperation policies 69–72, 77–9, 248–50, 331–8economic trends 87–98, 130–1environmental concerns 71–2, 76–9GDP statistics 87–98, 130–1, 307–14geopolitics 48, 66–7, 68–72, 76–9, 248–9, 272–5, 299–307

307–8insider/outsider perspectives 68–72international governance policies 70–2, 77–9members 68–72military affairs 305–6national security policies 69–72, 78–9oil/gas consumption trends 91–2, 94–5, 96policies 69–72, 76–9pollution 150–1resource policies 69–72, 76–7shale deposits 94stakeholder concepts 72trade destinations 90–4, 108–9, 118–29, 219–20trade patterns 90–8, 108–9, 117–29, 214–15, 219–20, 224–9, 307–14transportation/shipping policies 69–72, 77–9

Evenk people 269–75, 277–9, 334–8Event people 269–75, 277–9, 334–8exclusive economic zones (EEZ) 30–1, 242–69,

331–8exhaust fume pollutants 150–1, 172, 349–51exploration and exploitation 30–1, 47–82,

86–98, 117–29, 131–3, 136–42, 242–50, 280–7, 313

Explorer sinking 195exports, trade pattern statistics 89–94, 106–9,

112–17, 118–29, 132–3, 141–2, 210–20, 227–30, 307–14

391Index

Exxon Valdez 163, 178–9

F

FAO see Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

Far East Shipping Company (FESCO) 202–4, 217–18, 324–6

fast ice 32, 167–72, 317–19FC see Fram Corridorfees see sailing feesferries 6FESCO see Far East Shipping CompanyFinland 14, 18, 48, 67–72, 74, 118, 139–40,

142, 161–2, 196–7, 201, 227–8, 249, 262, 274–9geopolitics 48, 67–72, 249, 262, 274–9indigenous peoples 274–9

Finnish Swedish Ice Class Rules (FSICR) 181–2, 188–9, 320–2

Finnmark Act 275–6, 335–8First Nations people 281–7

140–2, 151–9, 185, 187–9, 260–1, 264–8, 301–51Canada 111–12, 156–9, 187–9, 264–8China 110–11concepts 83–6, 109–12, 140–2, 152–9, 315–19cruise activities 140–1ecosystems 151–63, 284–5, 315–19estimates 84–5, 109–10global warming 111–12, 156–9Norway 111–12, 260–1, 301–2oil spills 159–63Russia 111–12, 152–6, 185, 301–2statistics 109–12, 142, 154–9, 185, 187–9trends 109–10, 142, 154–9USA 111–12

264–8, 283–5activity statistics 5–6pollution 150–1

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 84

food supplies 38–9

forests/forestry 3, 83–6, 107–9, 113, 128–9, 142, 212–18, 223, 287, 309–14Arctic shipping 129, 212–18, 223, 287, 309–14Russia 107–9, 128–9, 142, 212–18, 223, 309–14statistics 107–9, 128–9, 309–14USA 107–8, 113, 129, 287

Foxe Basin 219–20Fram Corridor (FC) xxix, 2, 11–12, 35, 41–2,

59, 159, 208–9, 298, 300–7see also Greenland; North Atlantic; Northern Maritime Corridor; Svalbard; Transpolar Passage

usage limitations 42Fram passenger vessel 139Fram Strait 31–2, 33–5, 41–2France 49–51, 64, 68, 74, 88, 94, 118, 305Franckx, Erik 257Franklin Strait 170–1Franz Josef Land 18–22, 135, 137–40freedom of navigation 61–6, 67, 70–1, 78–9,

243–50, 252–69, 302, 331–8Freeport Shipping 187–9Frobisher Bay 27–8Frolov, Ivan Ye 259–60FSICR see Finnish Swedish Ice Class RulesFury and Hecla Strait 168–9, 171

G

gas resources xxix, xxx, xxxi, 3, 21, 30, 33, 36–7, 47–82, 83–6, 91–105, 108, 112–33, 141–2, 155–9, 186–9, 244–50, 278–87, 297–351Arctic waters 93–4, 98–105, 112–29, 141–2carbon content 129–30, 132–3comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 307–14consumption trends 88–105, 112–17, 307–14drilling costs 104–5, 117–29, 286–7, 308–14estimates 129–30geopolitics xxxi, 47–82, 91–4, 105, 141–2, 297–307historical background 99–112oil substitution factors 91–2

392 Shipping in Arctic Waters

producer statistics 94–5, 100–5, 112–29, 308–14reserves 93–4, 98–105, 108, 112–33, 141–2, 162–3, 308–14Russia 93–4, 96, 98–105, 112–33, 142, 210–18, 278–9, 301–51shale deposit alternatives 118, 130–1statistics xxix, xxx, xxxi, 21, 36–7, 55–6, 58–9, 91–6, 98–105, 108, 112–33, 210–20, 307–14technological issues 93–4, 102–5trade patterns 91–4, 112–29, 132–3, 141–2, 186–9, 210–18, 307–14undiscovered oil/gas resources in the Arctic 102–5, 112–17, 119–29, 131–3, 141–2, 158, 162–3, 244–50, 280–1, 308–14USA 93–4, 96, 100–5, 112–17

Gazprom 118–19, 122–9, 214–18GCI see Gwich’in Council InternationalGDP see Gross Domestic Product

geopolitics xxix, xxx, xxxi, 1–3, 6–7, 13, 18–22, 38–9, 41–2, 47–82, 91–4, 105, 141–2, 182–9, 193–7, 241–96, 297–307, 331–8see also Arctic outsider states; big Arctic insider states; Canada; military affairs; ocean law; politics; Russia; small Arctic insider states; USAthe Arctic Five coastal states 7, 67–8, 79, 248–9the Arctic Three states (Sweden, Finland, Iceland) 67–8, 79comparisons between the transportation passages 297–307concepts 47–82, 91–4, 141–2, 182–9, 241–96, 297–307, 331–8

141–2, 245–50, 331–8

distances between harbors 49–52, 299–307economic interests 58–9, 61–6, 72–6, 299–307indigenous peoples 67–8, 78–9, 139–41, 247–50, 269–87, 297, 333–8industrial production statistics 48–9oil resources 36–7, 58–9, 60, 64–6, 72–9, 91–4, 105, 141–2, 297–307prospects 76–9, 297–307

reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7regional informal operational regime 76–9state of the Arctic 48–61submarines xxx, xxxi, 42, 49, 58–60, 64–6, 75, 261–2, 303–6

Georg Ots 184–5Georgia 121–9Germany 34, 35, 49–51, 68, 88, 90, 94, 96, 107,

118, 122–9, 196–7, 228Gioia Tauro 49–51

129–33, 307–8, 311–12Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

198–209Global Positioning Systems (GPS) xxxii,

202–9, 324–6global warming xxix, 7–8, 13–16, 28, 31, 32–3,

41–2, 49, 51–2, 57–9, 63–4, 69–70, 73–4, 105, 111–12, 116–17, 131–3, 142, 147–9, 156–9, 163–72, 229–30, 257–8, 298–9, 301–7, 331–2, 337–8, 349–51see also climate change; sea ice melting

111–12, 116–17, 131–3, 142, 147–8, 156–9, 163–72, 229–30, 298–9, 301–7, 337–8, 349–51

indigenous peoples 274–5, 337–8prospects 163–4, 301–7, 337–8, 349–51salinity levels 163–4sea levels 163–4

globalization 39–40, 61–4GLONAS Russian satellite system 202–9gold resources 106–7, 113, 115–17, 218, 280–1,

310–14

Gorbachev, Mikhail 56–7GPS see Global Positioning Systemsgrain 28Granberg, Alexander 38–9, 63Gray’s Bay 28–30, 219–20Great Circle Route (GCR) 40–1, 157–9, 208–9Greece 122–9greenhouse gases 150–1, 163–4, 349–51Greenland xxix, 3–9, 11–12, 21–2, 23, 34–5,

41–2, 67–8, 103–5, 132–6, 138–40, 151, 158–9, 189, 199–209, 219–20, 248–9, 263–8, 269–75, 279–87, 332–8

393Index

see also Denmark; Fram Corridorcruise activities 133–6, 138–40, 281, 314geopolitics 248–9, 263–8, 269–75, 279–87, 336–8indigenous peoples 269–75, 279–87, 334–8jurisdiction 248–9, 263–8, 332–8mineral resources 280–1pollution 151undiscovered oil/gas resources in the Arctic 103–5, 280–1

Grise Ford 139, 219–20Gross Domestic Product (GDP), statistics

86–98, 119–20, 130–1, 141–2, 307–14growlers, Northwest Passage 23–4Guide for Navigation Through the NSR 182–5Gulf of Aden 39–40Gulf of Alaska 158–9Gulf of Mexico 131Gulf Stream 12–13, 150Gwich’in Council International (GCI) 270,

274–5

H

halibut 157–9Hamburg xxxiii, 49–51, 299–307, 339–51Hammerfest 125–9Hans Island 268Hanseatic passenger vessel 136–7, 139Hapag-Lloyd Cruises 136, 139harbors xxix, xxx, 1–3, 11–45, 49–50, 299–307,

320–31see also ports; sailing routesdistances between harbors 49–52, 299–307, 338–51

Hayward, Tony 91

Hazards 180–9Healy icebreaker 34, 208–9heavy oil, unconventional resources 85, 338–51helicopters 205–9Henry Larsen icebreaker 207Heritage Expeditions 139Hermus Strait 39–40herring 111, 157–9

67–8, 99, 255–6

High Frequency radio (HF) 22, 200–9

255–6, 259, 267–9, 302, 306Hokkaido 75homeland security policies, USA 61–4Hong Kong 49–52Honninsvag 186–9

hovercrafts, cruise activities xxxi, 137–40Hu Zhengyue 73–5Hudson Bay 3–4, 6, 8, 21–2, 24–30, 156–9,

171–2, 199–209, 219–20Hudson Bay Company 27–8Hudson research vessel 25Hudson Strait 139, 157–9, 171–2Huizhou 186–9hull damage statistics 185–9, 225–30, 233,

329–31, 339–51Hull and Machinery (H&M) surcharges 224–9,

329–31, 338–51Human Rights 21, 71–2, 271–87Hurtigruten 133–6Hvalfjordur 36–7hydrocarbons 20–1, 53, 58–9, 69–70, 72, 91,

100–5, 127–9, 131–3see also oil resourceshydrographical surveys 18–19

I

IACS see International Association of

ICC see Inuit Circumpolar Council

ice capabilities of merchant ships 15, 53–7

320–2

ice massifs 14–22, 32, 164–72, 317–18ice movements 31–2, 41–2, 330–1, 349–51ice navigators

see also navigation

Ice Rules of the Russian Register (1999) 183–5ice-edge migration xxx, xxxi, 1, 3, 6, 7, 14–15,

23–4, 32–3, 34–5, 41–2, 47, 49, 58–9, 60, 67, 111–12, 116–17, 147–8, 157–9, 163–72see also sea ice melting

394 Shipping in Arctic Waters

statistics xxx, 58–9, 147–9ice-free summers 7–8, 12–13, 15–16, 23–4,

32–3, 40–1, 172, 300–7, 314concepts 32–3, 172, 300, 314likelihood assessments 32–3, 172, 300–1, 314

icebergs, Northwest Passage 23–4icebreakers xxx, xxxii, xxxiii, 3, 6, 12, 15–30, 33–5, 42, 53–7, 70, 74, 76, 126–9, 135–42, 150–1, 171–2, 181–5, 196–7, 201–9, 212–33, 252–63, 267–8, 281–2, 300–7, 314, 319, 320–9, 338, 344–51see also sailing fees

capital costs 204, 206, 324–5current training practices 195–7

historical background 33–5, 50–1Northern Sea Route 15–22, 34–5, 126–9, 183–5, 201–9, 212–18, 220–4, 226–9, 232–3, 252–63, 314, 319, 320–2, 324–9, 350–1Northwest Passage 205–7, 224, 230, 232–3, 267–8, 281–2, 319, 320–2, 350pollution 150–1procedures 183–5, 202–4search and rescue facilities 201–9, 323–6statistics 33–5, 54–6, 126–7, 136–42, 150–1, 202–4, 324–6, 350types 19–20, 33–5, 126–7, 135–42, 181–2, 183–5, 202–9, 227–8, 319, 320–2, 324–5

Iceland 6, 7, 8, 12, 36–7, 48, 66–72, 75, 112, 133–42, 151, 208–9, 248–9China 75cruise activities 133–5, 139–40

geopolitics 48, 66–72, 75, 248–9jurisdiction 248–9national interests’ report 67–8pollution 151search and rescue facilities 208–9

ICESCR see International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

ICJ see International Court of JusticeIEA see International Energy AgencyIgarka 16–22, 216Igloolik 28–30, 219–20

illegal dumping problems, oil spills 160–1, 263–4, 316–19

illegal migration 64ILO Convention No 169 of 1989 271–6, 334–8Ilulissat 139Ilulissat-Declaration 67–8IMO Guidelines see International Maritime

Organisation...imports, trade pattern statistics 89–94, 106–9,

112–17, 118–29, 141–2, 214–20, 307–14Incheon 186–9India 72, 76, 86–98, 104–5, 130–3, 141–2, 281,

302, 307–14economic trends 86–98, 104–5, 307–14energy demands 72, 76, 88–92, 95–8, 104–5, 130–3, 141–2, 281, 307–14GDP statistics 86–98, 307–14geopolitics 48, 72, 76, 299–307oil/gas consumption trends 91–2, 95–6, 104–5, 307–14policies 76production of oil/gas statistics 91–2quality of life expectations 131–2shale deposits 94trade destinations 90–4

Indian Ocean 59, 70, 116, 302–7Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) 285–6, 337Indiga 128, 184–5indigenous peoples xxix, xxxi, xxxiii, 1–3,

21–2, 26–7, 36–7, 67–8, 71–2, 78–9, 139–41, 192–7, 241, 247–50, 258, 267–8, 269–87, 297, 331, 333–8see also individual countries; individual peoples; Inuit...; Nenet...; Sami...Arctic shipping xxxi, 26–7, 36–7, 67–8, 139–41, 267–8, 269–87, 297, 333–8comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 333–8concepts 269–87, 297, 331, 333–8cruise activities xxxi, 139–41, 281, 284–5, 287EU policies 71–2

8, 71–2, 78–9, 139–41, 192–7, 241, 247–50, 258, 267–8, 269–87, 297, 331, 333–8Finnmark Act 275–6, 335–8geopolitics 67–8, 78–9, 139–41, 247–50, 267–8, 269–87, 297, 333–8global warming 274–5, 337–8

395Index

international conventions and declarations 270–6, 334–8Northeast Passage 36–7, 269–79, 297, 333–8Northwest Passage 26–7, 67–8, 267–8, 269–75, 279–87, 297, 333–8prospects 78–9, 140–1, 297, 333–8regional cooperation 273–5resources 271–87, 334–8rights 241, 247–50, 267–8, 269–87, 333–8sovereignty issues 273–5, 334–8statistics 269–87, 334–8Transpolar Passage 287, 297, 333–8types 269–75, 334–8

Indigenous People’s Secretariat (IPS) 274–5Indonesia 94–5, 111‘industrial Mediterranean’ aspects of the Arctic

48–51, 299–307industrial production statistics 48–9INMARSAT satellite system 207–8

innovation rings 55–6INSROP research program 50–4, 75, 156–7,

192–7, 225–9, 315–19, 329–31see also Northern Sea Routecrew training/competence requirements 192insurance 225–9, 329–31

insurance xxxii, 3, 39–40, 177, 221–3, 224–33, 329–31, 339–51see also costs...; risk managementconcepts xxxii, 39–40, 224–33, 329–31, 339–51crew training/competence requirements 231–3

Northeast Passage xxxii, 221–3, 224–9, 231–3, 329–31, 339–51Northern Sea Route 221–3, 224–9, 231–3, 329–31, 339–51Northwest Passage xxxii, 229–30, 231–3, 339–51regulations 224–30, 329–31risk-assessment information requirements 231–3search and rescue facilities 231–3self-insurance provisions 224technical requirements 230–1Transpolar Passage xxxii, 230, 231–3,

330–1, 339–51International Arctic Science Committee (IASC)

74

Societies (IACS) 182–9, 245–50, 320–2International Civil Aviation Convention 1944

199–209International Convention on Maritime Search

and Rescue 1979 197–209see also Search and Rescue Convention

International Convention on Standards of

1978 (STCW) 189–97, 244–50international conventions and declarations,

indigenous peoples 270–6, 334–8International Court of Justice (ICJ) 260–1International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights (ICCPR) 271–5International Covenant on Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) 271–5International Energy Agency (IEA) 72, 86, 105,

130international governance policies 62–4, 65–8,

77–9, 246–50, 331–8EU 70–2, 77–9Russia 65–6, 77–9USA 62–4, 77–9

International Group of P&I Clubs 224–30, 329–31, 338–51

International Maritime Organisation (IMO), Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters of 2002 (IMO Guidelines) xxix, xxx, xxxii, 8–9, 70, 151, 172, 178–97, 198–209, 232–3, 241–50, 269, 298, 315–19, 320–3, 333–8concepts 178–97, 232–3, 241–50, 269, 298, 320–2, 323–6, 333–4crew training/competence requirements 189–97, 232–3, 246, 322–3

mandatory aims 181, 244–50, 269Manila IMO conference in 2010 192–3non-binding aspects 179–80, 193, 244–50, 269recent progress 179–81, 191–2search and rescue facilities 198–209, 232–3, 323–6

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 88, 119international relations 47–82, 298–307

396 Shipping in Arctic Waters

see also geopoliticsIntra-Arctic sailing routes xxix, 1–3, 11–12,

18–22, 27–30, 33–5, 301, 303Northern Sea Route 18–22, 303, 312–14Northwest passage 27–30, 303

Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) 67–8, 270–5Inuit people 26–7, 67–8, 267–8, 269–75,

279–87, 334–8see also Canada; Greenland

Inupiat people 269–75, 334–8Inuvik 28–30, 204–6, 325–6IPS see Indigenous People’s SecretariatIqaluit 204–6, 219–20, 325–7IRA see Indian Reorganization ActIran 39–40, 58–9, 84, 94–5, 130–1Iraq 58–9, 94–5IRIDIUM satellite system 200–9, 324–6iron ore resources 28–30, 52, 97, 106–8,

114–17, 119–29, 184–9, 219–20, 280–1, 310–14, 351

Irtysh river 124–9Isafjordur 36–7Israel 58–9Italy 71, 76, 77, 88, 118, 122–9

J

James Bay 6James Ross Strait 170–1Jan Mayen 41–2, 250–1JANSROP research program 54, 75Japan xxx, 17, 33, 36, 38–41, 48, 49–51, 54–5,

75–6, 88, 90, 91–2, 95–6, 106–7, 126, 129, 133, 214–15, 299–307economic trends 88, 90–2, 133GDP statistics 88geopolitics 48, 49–51, 54–5, 75–6, 91, 299–307mineral resources 106–7Northern Sea Route 75oil/gas consumption trends 91–2, 95–6, 133policies 75–6

Jetstream Route 40–1Jintang 187–9JSC ROMAN 187–9jurisdictional controversies xxxii, xxxiii, 3, 11,

15–18, 26–7, 30–1, 41–2, 65–8, 70–1, 74–5, 77–9, 162–3, 241–96, 297, 302, 303–6, 331–8

see also ocean lawCanada xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 245–50, 261–2, 263–8, 332–8comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 331–8Denmark/Norway 41–2EU 70–1, 302

77–9, 248–69, 297, 302, 303–6, 331–8Greenland coastal waters 263–8Northeast Passage xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 302, 331–8Northern Norway and Svalbard coastal waters 250–1Northwest Passage xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 245–50, 261–2, 263–8, 297, 331–8prospects 77–9, 297, 302, 331–8Russia xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 65–6, 79, 245–63, 302, 303–6

former Soviet Union 254–60Transpolar Passage 268–9, 297, 302, 333–8

K

Kamchatka 38–41, 161–2, 202–9Kandalaksha multipurpose cargo vessel 17–18,

50–2, 227–8Kangerlussauq 139Kap York 139Kapitan Khlebnikov 137–8Kara gate 187–9Kara Sea 12, 13–22, 35–6, 52, 54, 60, 119–29,

153–6, 164–5, 168–9, 187–9, 200–9, 214–18, 225–9, 253–63, 301–51

Kara Sea Route 20–1, 35–6, 52, 54, 60, 164–5, 168–9, 253–63, 317–19

Karelia Republic 106, 128–9Karlsen Shipping 139Karrat Fiord 139Khabarovsky Krai 38–41Kholmsk 187–9King William Island 189Kirkenes 50–1, 75, 125–9, 133–5, 139, 184–9,

227–9, 300–51Klimenco, B.M. 257Kodiak 112Koguev 128Kola Inlet 155, 210–18

397Index

Kola Peninsula 49, 64–6, 124–9, 149–51, 155, 210–18, 275–9, 309–51

Kolguev 213–14, 326–51Kolodkin, A-L. 259–60Kolosov, M.E. 259–60Kolyma river 16–22Komi Republic 106, 128–9, 212–18, 309–14Korea xxx, 17, 38–41, 48, 49–52, 74, 75–6,

96, 107, 115, 133, 186–9, 214–15, 221–2, 228–9, 299–307see also North...; South...

Kotzebue 38–41, 208–9Krasin icebreaker 203–4Kristina Regina passenger vessel 136–7Kugluktuk 139Kulebyakin, V.N. 257Kuujjuaq 139Kuwait 84, 94–5Kvalsund 125–9

L

Labrador Sea 6, 42, 111, 171–2see also Davis Corridor

Lakthine, V.L. 254–7Lancaster Sound 157–9, 169–70, 219–20Laptev Sea 12, 13–22, 33–4, 52, 60, 127–9,

153–9, 165–6, 209, 216–18, 220–4, 225–9, 253–63, 314–51

Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) xxxi, 5–6, 152–9, 314–19see also ecosystems

Larsen Sea 170–1Lavrov, Sergej 261–2lead resources 107, 113, 219–20, 280–1least developed countries (LDC) 59, 87–98Lena river 16–22, 124–9, 203–4, 216–17Lenin era 256Lenin icebreaker 203–4Li Keqiang 74Lincoln Sea 268Lindblad Expeditions 138–9Lindblad Explorer cruise ship 27linear innovation chains 55–6

184–5liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 126–9Little and Big Diomede islands 37–41

LLC Dalrifer 187–9LMEs see Large Marine EcosystemsLNG seelogistics xxix, 1–3Lomonosov, Mikhail 12, 48–9Lomonosov Ridge 261–2London 36, 49–51Long Strait 14–22, 166–7, 318–19Longyearbyen 21–2, 134–6, 139–40Louis Majesty passenger vessel 136–7Louis S. St-Laurent icebreaker 34, 42, 207LPG see liquid petroleum gasLR Ice Shipping Nine 186–9Ludlov Saddle 99–100Lukoil 203–4, 213–14Lyubov Orlova 139

M

Macdonald icebreaker 25Mackenzie River 28–30, 113–17, 162–3, 220,

284–5, 310–14Magadan 38–41, 148–9Magas tanker 216–17magnetite 28–30Makarov Training Center 197Malacca 49–50Malaysia 94–5Manhattan supertanker 25–8, 170Manila IMO conference in 2010 192–3Mariann 186–9Marilee 186–9

(MCTS) 204–6, 325–6marine ecosystems xxxi, 1–3, 5–6, 25–6, 62–6,

71–2, 147, 150–75, 178–9, 243–50, 284–7, 297, 314–19, 351see also ecosystems; environmental challengescomparisons between the transportation passages 297, 314–19concepts xxxi, 5–6, 63–4, 151–9, 243–4, 284–7, 297, 314–19, 351

eco-system management policies 63–4

Northeast Passage 153–6, 161–2, 297, 314–19, 351

398 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Northern Sea Route 153–6, 161–2, 297, 314–19, 351Northwest Passage 156–9, 162–3, 284–7, 297, 314–19oil spills xxxi, 25–6, 150–1, 155, 158–63, 178–9, 316–19, 351statistics 153–9Transpolar Passage 158–9, 297, 314–19

marine insurance see insuranceMarine Operation Headquarters (MOH) 193–7,

217–18, 220–4, 322–3, 327–9Marinvest 186–9Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) 179–80

MARPOL convention 160–1, 244–50, 269, 333Marseilles 49–51Marxist–Leninist theory of the class struggle

256Mary Rive iron ore 28–30, 114–17, 219–20,

310–14massifs 14–22, 32, 164–72, 317–18M’Clure Strait 22–30, 168–70, 229–30,

318–19, 330–51MCTS see

Servicesthe Mediterranean xxx, 48–51, 52, 136, 299Medium Frequency radio (MF) 22, 200–9Melville Island 22–30metals 28–30, 52, 97, 106–7, 113–17, 119–29,

210–20, 223, 309–14methane (CH) 151Métis people 269–75, 282–7, 334–8Mexico 94–5Miami 133–4mid-Canada line 27–8Middle East 39–40, 58–9, 75–6, 84, 101–5,

130, 131see also individual countries

Mikhail Kutuzov 187–9military affairs xxix, xxx, xxxi, 1–3, 6, 8, 28,

38, 42, 48–9, 53, 56–7, 59–66, 78–9, 83, 179, 205–6, 243–4, 252–3, 254–63, 303–6see also submarinesavailability of ocean space 59–60, 303–6civil sector xxx, xxxi, 49–51, 53, 56–7, 59–66, 78–9, 205–6, 243–4, 252–3, 254–63, 303–6climate change factors 305–6Cold War tensions 27–8, 49, 56–66, 255–6,

303–6comparisons between the transportation passages 303–6

historical background 48–9, 62–3, 253–63, 303–6missile attacks 303–5prospects 78–9, 303–6surveillance operations 304–5

mineral resources 3, 20–1, 47–82, 83–6, 106–7, 113–17, 119–29, 141–2, 210–18, 219–20, 276, 280–7, 297–351see also geopolitics; iron ore; nickel...; steel; zinc...Canada 107, 113–17, 219–20, 282–7, 302–51comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 307–14concepts 83–6, 106–7, 113–17, 141–2, 210, 219–20, 276, 297–314Northeast Passage 119–29, 210–18, 276–9, 301–7Northwest Passage 113–17, 219–20, 280–7, 301–7, 310–14Norway 107, 128–9, 276Russia 106–7, 119–29, 141–2, 210–18, 278–9, 301–51statistics 106–7, 113–17, 128–9, 210–18, 309–14types 106–7, 113, 114–17, 119–29, 309–14USA 106–7, 113–17

mining xxx, 8, 28–30, 60, 106–7, 113–17, 119–29, 141–2, 218, 280–1, 309–14

MIS Quest passenger vessel 139missile attacks, military affairs 303–5Mitchell, Billy 48mixes of energy sources, prospects 89–91,

131–3MOH see Marine Operation HeadquartersMolly Deep 41–2molybdenum resources 106–7, 280–1Monchegorsk cargo vessel 15, 55–6, 184–5Moscow 220–4, 327–9MSC see Maritime Safety CommitteeMudyug island 212–13multiyear ice 14–15, 24–5, 31–3, 38, 41–2,

182–9, 317–18Murmansk 17–22, 28–30, 33–7, 55–7, 60, 69,

112, 118–29, 135–40, 153–9, 161–3, 184–9,

399Index

202–9, 210–18, 220, 301–51background information 128–9, 184–9, 210–18, 220cruise activities 135–40search and rescue facilities 202–9

Murmansk Shipping Company (MSC) 140, 184–5, 187–9, 202–4, 216–17, 223

MV Foresight 51–2, 184–5MV Fortitude 184–5MV Fraternity 51–2, 184–5MV Houston 184–5MV Nordic Barents 52, 184–5

N

Nakhodka 112, 161–2Nanisivik 28–30, 219–20, 327Nansen, Fridtjof 3, 51Narvik 128–9Naryan-Mar 17–18National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA) 158–9National Geographic Explorer passenger ship

139National Petroleum Council 91–2national security policies

EU 69–72, 78–9Russia 64–6, 78–9USA 61–4, 78–9

national technical requirements, Arctic shipping 182–9, 252–3, 264–8, 320–2

national transport routes 260–1Native people 269–75, 282–7, 334–8NATO 256–7natural bitumen, unconventional resources 85natural shipping conditions 147–9, 163–72,

317–19navigation xxxi, xxxii, 2–3, 6, 12–13, 18–19, 24–6, 31–2, 36, 38–41, 61–6, 67, 70, 149, 163–72, 177, 182–97, 201–9, 221–4, 231–3, 242–50, 252–69, 317–19, 322–3see alsosystemsaids 201–9current training practices 195–7

163–72, 182–97, 201–4, 231–3, 242–50, 252–69, 317–19, 322–3

freedoms 61–6, 67, 70–1, 78–9, 243–50, 252–69, 302, 331–8IMO Guidelines 189–97, 246, 323–6, 333–4limitations xxxii, 38, 61–6, 67, 163–72, 190–1Northern Maritime Corridor 208–9

Northern Sea Route requirements 182–5, 193–7, 201–9, 252–63Northwest Passage requirements 185–9, 204–6, 233, 264–8search and rescue facilities 201–9, 323–6southern water connecting corridors 208–9, 306–7Transpolar Passage requirements 206–8USA policies 61–4

‘navigator’s nightmare’ 38NAVSTAR satellite system 202–9Nenets people 36–7, 269–75, 277–9, 306–7,

334–8see also indigenous peoples; RussiaNEP see Northeast PassageNeptune Maritime 186–9Neskaupstadur 112Neste Shipping 186–9Netherlands 49–51, 68, 94–5, 196–7New Forest Code, Russia 129, 309

new ships, statistics 97–9New Siberian Islands 14–22, 137–8, 166,

186–9, 318–19New York 49–51, 138New Zealand 139Newfoundland 111–12, 136, 139, 196–7NGOs, environmental challenges 71–2, 248nickel resources 20–1, 35, 55, 106–8, 119–29,

154–5, 215–16, 309–14, 327Nigeria 52, 94–5, 228Nikolaev Communards 187–9

Ningbo 55–6, 184–9nitrogen dioxide, exhaust fume pollutants

150–1nitrogen oxides (NOx) 151NMC see Northern Maritime CorridorNOAA American satellite 153–4, 200–9Noble Discoverer 286–7noise pollution, Arctic shipping 151, 155–6,

315–19

400 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Nome 38–41, 139Noorderlicht 137–8Nordic Bulk Carriers 184–5, 351Nordic Sami convention 274–5NORDREG see

Services Zone RegulationsNordstjernen passenger vessel 139Norilsk-Nickel 15, 19, 35, 55–6, 120–9, 148–9,

161–2, 184–5, 187–9, 200–1, 204, 215–16, 309, 327

Norrkoping 184–9North America xxix, xxx, xxxii, 5–6, 7–9,

11–12, 22–30, 35–7, 49–51, 58–9, 94, 150–9, 198–209, 299–351see also Canada; USA...

North America western coast xxix, xxx, xxxii, 11–12, 37–41, 208–9see alsoUSA...

North Atlantic xxix, 4, 7, 86–98, 111–12, 150, 159see also Fram Corridor

North Atlantic Drift 150North Atlantic states, GDP statistics 86–98North Cape 125–9, 133–5, 138–9North Korea xxx, 17, 38–41

North Sea 36–7, 103–4North Slope 113–17, 198–209Northeast Atlantic 159

Northeast Passage (NEP) xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, 1–6, 11–22, 23, 29–30, 36–7, 49–52, 70–1, 79, 117–29, 130–3, 147–9, 153–6, 161–2, 163–72, 177, 182–5, 200–18, 224–33, 242–63, 269–79, 297–351see also Northern Maritime Corridor;

Route; Norway; Russiaadvantages xxxi, xxxii, 29–30, 49–52, 117–29, 130–1, 172, 299–307, 312–14, 338–51Arctic infrastructure 147–9, 163–72, 177, 182–5, 193–7, 200–19, 224–9, 269–79, 297, 313, 320–31commercial prospects 297, 338–51communications’ facilities 200–9, 223, 324–9comparisons with the other two passages 297–351

costs and bureaucratic procedures 220–9, 232–3, 327–9, 338–51crew training/competence requirements 193–7, 231–3, 322–3cruise activities xxxi, 135, 137–40, 313–14

298, 299, 332distances between harbors 49–52, 299–307, 338–51ecosystems 153–6, 161–2, 297, 314–19, 351environmental challenges 147–9, 153–6, 161–2, 163–72, 250–63, 269–79, 297, 314–19, 351

70–1, 117–29, 130–3, 153–6, 163–72, 182–5, 193–7, 200–18, 232–3, 250–63, 269–79, 297–351geopolitical comparisons with the other two passages 297–307global warming 149, 163–72, 331–2, 349–51historical background 12–22, 253–63indigenous peoples 36–7, 269–79, 297, 333–8insurance xxxii, 221–3, 224–9, 231–3, 329–31, 339–51jurisdictional controversies xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 302, 331–8legal sensitivities 18marine ecosystems 153–6, 161–2, 297, 314–19, 351military affairs 59–60, 254–63, 303–6mineral resources 119–29, 210–18, 276–9, 301–7natural shipping conditions 147–9, 163–72, 317–19ocean law xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 331–8oil spills 161–2, 202, 316–19, 351ports xxxii, 20–2, 49–50, 117–29, 132–3, 184–9, 209–18, 227–9, 232–3, 297, 313, 320–31prospects 130–3, 297–351reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7resources 117–29, 210–18, 276–9, 297–314sailing fees xxxii, 327–9, 350sailing routes 18–22, 49–52, 132–3, 149, 154–9, 164–72, 182–5, 193–7, 209–18,

401Index

250–63, 297–351search and rescue facilities 200–9, 231–3, 253–63, 323–6technical requirements 182–5, 231–3, 252–3, 320–2

Regulations (NORDREG) 204–6, 233, 265–8, 325–6

Northern Forum 57Northern Maritime Corridor (NMC) xxix, xxxi,

2–3, 4–5, 11–12, 35–7, 41–2, 59, 69–70, 124–9, 161–2, 208–9, 298, 299–307see also European continent; Fram Corridor; Northeast Passage; Norway; Russia; USA east coastadvantages xxxi, 59, 127–9, 299–300, 306communications’ facilities 208–9

298, 306establishment xxxi, 36–7

299–307navigation 208–9search and rescue facilities 208–9

11–12, 35, 36, 37–41, 59, 72, 115–17, 157–9, 161–2, 208–9, 298, 306–7, 311–14see also Asian markets; China; North America western coast; Northeast Passage; Northwest Passage; Transpolar Passagecommunications’ facilities 208–9

298, 306–7establishment delays xxxi, 38–41, 72navigation 208–9search and rescue facilities 208–9Northern Sea Route (NSR) xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 1–3, 11–22, 23, 29–30, 33, 35, 36–41, 49–52, 53–7, 59–66, 74–5, 77–9, 124–9, 132–3, 135, 137–8, 140, 149, 153–6, 164–72, 182–5, 193–7, 209–18, 220–33, 242–63, 275–9see also Northeast passage; Russiaadvantages xxxi, xxxii, 29–30, 49–52, 117–29, 130–1, 172, 299–307, 312–14, 338–51Arctic infrastructure 147–9, 163–72, 177, 182–5, 193–7, 200–19, 220–9, 269–79, 297, 313, 320–31

commercial prospects 297, 338–51communications’ facilities 200–9, 324–9costs and bureaucratic procedures 220–9, 232–3, 327–9, 338–51crew training/competence requirements 193–7, 231–3, 322–3cruise activities 135, 137–40, 313–14

222–3, 258–63distances between harbors 49–52, 299–307, 338–51ecosystems 153–6, 297, 314–19, 351establishment 13–22, 57, 252–3, 256–7

49–52, 77–9, 126–9, 132–3, 149, 153–6, 164–72, 192, 193–7, 209–18, 220–9, 232–3, 242–63, 297–351global warming 149, 163–72, 257–8, 331–2, 349–51historical background 13–22, 35, 50–1, 253–63icebreakers 15–22, 34–5, 126–9, 183–5, 201–9, 212–18, 220–4, 226–9, 232–3, 252–63, 314, 319, 320–2, 324–9, 350–1indigenous peoples 36–7, 269–79, 297, 333–8insurance 221–3, 224–9, 231–3, 329–31, 339–51jurisdictional controversies xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 302, 331–8marine ecosystems 153–6, 297, 314–19military affairs 59–60, 254–63, 303–6natural shipping conditions 147–9, 164–72, 317–19navigation requirements 182–5, 193–7, 201–9, 252–63ocean law xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 331–8

ports xxxii, 20–2, 49–50, 117–29, 132–3, 209–18, 227–9, 232–3, 281–2, 297, 313, 320–31

prospects 77–9, 126–9, 297–351reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7sailing routes 18–22, 49–52, 132–3, 149, 154–9, 164–72, 182–5, 193–7, 209–18, 222–3, 250–63, 297–351

402 Shipping in Arctic Waters

search and rescue facilities 200–9, 231–3, 253–63, 323–6statistics 13–22, 35, 49–52, 126–9, 184–5, 220–9, 297–351technical requirements 182–5, 231–3, 252–3, 320–2

258–63Northern Shipping Company 187–9, 216Northern Territories 114–17, 263–8Northwest Atlantic 150

Northwest Passage (NWP) xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 1–6, 11–12, 15, 22–30, 33–41, 49–51, 60, 61–8, 74–5, 77–9, 112–17, 135, 139–40, 147–9, 156–9, 162–4, 168–72, 185–9, 194–209, 218–20, 223–4, 229–30, 263–75, 279–87, 297–351see also Alaska; Canada; Greenland;

AMSA report on future economic attractions 29–30Arctic infrastructure 147–9, 163–4, 168–72, 177, 185–9, 194–7, 218–20, 223–4, 229–30, 263–8, 279–87, 297, 313, 320–31commercial prospects 297, 344–51communications’ facilities 28–30, 204–6, 223–4, 233, 324–6comparisons with the other two passages 297–351costs and bureaucratic procedures 223–4, 229–30, 328–9, 338–51crew training/competence requirements 194–7, 231–3, 264–8, 322–3cruise activities xxxi, 27, 135, 139–40, 281, 284–5, 287, 313–14

35, 60, 298, 299disadvantages xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 22–3, 29–30, 116–17, 139–40, 149, 162–3, 168–72, 218–20, 223–4, 229–30, 300–7, 318–19distances between harbors 49–51, 299–307, 338–51ecosystems 156–9, 162–3, 284–7, 297, 314–19environmental challenges 147–9, 156–9, 162–4, 168–72, 263–8, 279–87, 297, 314–19

77–9, 112–17, 149, 156–9, 162–3, 168–72,

194–7, 223–4, 232–3, 263–8, 279–87, 297–351geopolitical comparisons with the other two passages 297–307global warming 149, 156–9, 163–4, 168–72, 229–30, 331–2, 349–51historical background 27–9icebreakers 205–7, 224, 230, 232–3, 267–8, 281–2, 319, 320–2, 350indigenous peoples 26–7, 67–8, 267–8, 269–75, 279–87, 297, 333–8insurance xxxii, 229–30, 231–3, 329–31, 339–51jurisdictional controversies xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 245–50, 261–2, 263–8, 297, 331–8marine ecosystems 156–9, 162–3, 284–7, 297, 314–19military affairs 303–6mineral resources 113–17, 219–20, 280–7, 301–7, 310–14natural shipping conditions 147–9, 163–4, 168–72, 317–19navigation requirements 185–9, 204–6, 233, 264–8ocean law xxxii, 26–7, 70–1, 78–9, 242–50, 261–2, 263–8, 297, 331–8oil spills 162–3, 263–4, 316–19ports 49–51, 218–20, 232–3, 265–8, 297, 313, 320–31possible routes 22–5

prospects 77–9, 115–17, 149, 168–72, 297–351resources 112–17, 219–20, 280–7, 297–314sailing fees xxxii, 328–9, 350sailing routes 27–30, 156–9, 163–4, 168–72, 186–9, 194–7, 218–20, 223–4, 263–8, 297–351search and rescue facilities 198–209, 223–4, 231–3, 323–6statistics 23–30, 49–51, 60, 112–17, 168–72, 185–9, 223–4, 297–351technical requirements 185–9, 231–3, 264–8, 320–2transportation patterns 28–30

Northwest Territories 23–30, 113–17, 219–20, 274–5, 282–7, 310–14

Norvarg 125–9

403Index

Norway xxxi, 4–6, 9, 18, 21–2, 34, 41–2, 48, 52, 58–9, 65, 68–72, 73–5, 86, 99–112, 117–29, 132–3, 142, 151, 161–2, 197, 198–209, 212–13, 246–63, 269–79, 299–351see also Northern Maritime CorridorBarents Sea delimination Russian negotiations 262–3China 73–5crew training/competence requirements 197cruise activities 133–5

fjords 133–4, 138–9, 208–9geopolitics 48, 52, 58–9, 68–72, 73–5, 248–9, 250–63, 269–79, 299–307indigenous peoples 269–79, 334–8jurisdiction 248–9, 250–63mineral resources 107, 128–9, 276ocean law 248–9, 250–63oil/gas production 94–5, 99–105, 117–29, 142, 161–2, 251, 301–7, 308–14pollution 151, 161–2, 250–1search and rescue facilities 198–209, 323–6

Norwegian Barents Secretariat 274–5Norwegian Caribbean Line 133–4Norwegian Coastal Administration 181, 208–9Norwegian Indreleja case 260–1Norwegian Petroleum Directorate 86Norwegian Sea 4–6, 21–2, 111, 124–9Norwegian Shipping Association 54, 59Novaja Zemlja 13–22, 138–40, 155–9, 222–3,

228–9, 259–60Novatek 166Novorossiysk 126–9Novozemelsky 164–5Novy Port 184–9, 214–15, 228–9NPC seeNSR see Northern Sea Routenuclear-powered icebreakers 19–20, 33–5, 135,

153–4, 202–4, 227–8, 233, 314, 319, 324–6Nunavut 26, 114–17, 219–20, 267–8, 282–7,

310–14, 327Nuuk 71, 324NWP see Northwest PassageNy Alesund 74

O

Ob river 16–22, 124–9, 154–9, 211–18, 228–9, 326–7

Obama, Barack 61ocean law xxix, xxxii, xxxiii, 1–3, 13, 15–18,

26–7, 30–1, 41–2, 48–82, 177–89, 241–96, 297, 331–8see also IMO guidelines; jurisdictional controversies; MARPOL...; regulations; ‘soft law’; SOLAS...; UNCLOSS III lawscoastal maritime zones 242–50comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 331–8

67, 70–1, 78–9, 179–80, 241–96, 297, 331–8‘general legal principles’ 247–8Ilulissat-Declaration 67–8indigenous peoples 270–87, 334–8Northeast Passage xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 331–8Northern Sea Route xxxii, 15–18, 70–1, 79, 242–63, 297, 331–8Northwest Passage xxxii, 26–7, 70–1, 78–9, 242–50, 261–2, 263–8, 297, 331–8Norway 248–63perceptions 248–9pollution 243–4, 250–69prospects 78–9, 297, 331–8STCW 189–97, 244–50Transpolar Passage 268–9, 297, 333–8

245–50, 320–2OCEAN system 324–6Oceanwide Expeditions 137–8October Revolution of 1917, Russia 18–19,

277, 335Oden icebreaker 34Odyssey Bulk Ship Limited 187–9OECD 89–91, 95–6, 104–5, 131offshore resources 3, 127–9, 131–3, 155–9,

162–3, 313offshore supply vessels 6–7Oil and Gas Journal 86oil resources xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxiii, 3, 6, 20–1,

28–30, 33, 36–7, 39–40, 47–82, 83–6, 91–105, 108, 112–33, 141–2, 155–9, 186–9, 210–18, 244–50, 278–87, 297–351Arctic waters 93–4, 98–105, 112–29, 141–2, 186–9carbon content 129–30, 132comparisons between the transportation

404 Shipping in Arctic Waters

passages 297, 307–14consumption trends 72–6, 86, 88–105, 112–17, 307–14

drilling costs 104–5, 159, 286–7, 308–14economic trends xxix, xxxiii, 1–3, 39–41, 47–82, 83–4, 86–98, 117–29, 130–3, 297, 307–14estimates 84–6, 92–3, 98–105, 117–29, 131–3

72, 75–9, 91–105, 112–29, 141–2, 155–9, 297, 307–14future prices xxxiii, 58–9, 104–5, 114, 338–51gas substitution factors 91–2geopolitics 36–7, 58–9, 60, 64–6, 72–9, 105, 141–2, 297–307historical background 99–112

OPEC estimates 84producer statistics 94–5, 100–5, 112–29, 308–14production quotas 84–5recovery processes 93–4, 127–8reliable estimates 86, 92–3, 98–112, 117–29, 131–3reserves 58, 85–6, 91–3, 98–105, 108, 112–33, 141–2, 162–3, 308–14shrinking reserves 58, 91–2, 120–1statistics 36–7, 58–9, 72, 75–6, 88–105, 108, 112–29, 210–20, 307–14technological issues 92–3, 102–5trade patterns 91–4, 112–29, 141–2, 186–9, 210–18, 297, 307–14undiscovered oil/gas resources in the Arctic 102–5, 112–17, 131–3, 141–2, 158, 162–3, 280–1, 308–14

oil spills xxxi, 25–6, 150–1, 155, 158–63, 172, 178–9, 180–1, 202, 263–4, 287, 316–19, 351see also environmental challengesconcepts 159–63, 172, 263–4, 287, 316–19, 351cruise activities 160–1

316–19, 351illegal dumping problems 160–1, 263–4, 316–19

long-term effects 159–60low levels 160–1

Northeast Passage 161–2, 202, 316–19, 351Northwest Passage 162–3, 263–4, 316–19regulations 158–9, 162–3, 172, 178–9, 180–1, 185–9, 315–19responses 160–3, 172, 178–9, 202, 316–19statistics 160–3

oily sludge disposals in ports 160–1, 316–19old ice see multiyear iceolivine resources 107on-the-job experience training, concepts 196–7Onega Bay 128–9, 140, 212–18onshore resources 3, 127–9, 131–3, 313OPEC estimates 84operational conditions xxx, 1–10, 33, 48–82,

297, 314–31Orion passenger vessel 136–7Osaka 49–51Ottowa 67–8overview of the book 1–3

P

P&O 133–4

53–7, 111–12, 115–17, 133, 156–9, 299–307

Painter, J. 47Palva 186–9Panama Canal xxx, 41, 49–50, 52, 53–4, 58–9,

70, 116–17, 185, 299, 302–7, 310Parry Channel 22–30, 139, 189particulate matter (PM) 151Pashukanis, E.B. 256

passenger ships xxxi, 3, 6–7, 132–42, 150–1, 179–80, 184–5, 187–9, 198–209see also cruise activities

Pechenga 128–9, 210–18Pechora Sea 55, 99–100, 119–29, 154–9,

203–9, 213–18, 326–51Peel Sound 168–9, 170–1, 189Perm 212–13Perseverance 186–9Peru 111Peschanoozerskoye 213–14Peterman, August 12

405Index

petroleum xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxiii, 3, 6, 20–1, 28–30, 33, 36–7, 39–40, 47–82, 83–6see also oil resources

Petroleum Act 1996 251Pevek 16–22, 162, 184–5, 202–9, 217–18,

220–4, 322–51Philippines’ crews 197phosphate fertilizer resources 106–8PI levels 149Pierre Radisson icebreaker 207pingoes 25–6Pioneer of Moldova 187–9pipeline alternatives to shipping xxxi, 3, 36–7,

66, 83–6, 113–14, 118–29, 132–3, 212–18, 220, 309–14Russia 118–29, 132–3, 212–18, 309–14

piracy threats 39–40, 58–9, 75–6, 338–40Pirazlomnoye 214Plancius passenger vessel 138Planet Earth 7platinum resources 106–8, 280–1pleasure yachts 8, 179Poland 68, 94, 122–9Polar Code see International Maritime

Organisation (IMO), Guidelines...polar darkness threats 6–7, 8Polar ice classes of ship 181–2, 320–2

Polar Sea icebreaker 34, 42, 208–9Polar Star Expeditions 139–40Polar Star passenger vessel 136–7, 139–40Polarcus 186–9Polarcus Alima 186–9, 351Polaris passenger vessel 140politics xxix, xxx, xxxi, 1–3, 6–7, 13, 18–22,

38–9, 41–2, 47–82, 269–87, 297–307see also geopolitics

pollock 111pollution 3, 20–1, 25–6, 31, 52–7, 63–4, 65–6,

67, 71–2, 120, 147–75, 178–9, 185–9, 204–5, 243–69, 286–7, 297, 314–19, 321–2, 351Arctic shipping source 149–51, 178–9, 250–69, 287, 314–19circulation patterns 149–50concepts 147–75, 204–5, 243–4, 250–69, 286–7, 297, 314–19, 321–2ocean law 243–4, 250–69sources 149–59, 287, 314–19

statistics 149–51types 150–63, 315–19

Pollution Act 1981 251, 332polynyas 31–2, 167–72, 317–19Pond Inlet 28–30, 219–20Port of Seward 115ports xxix, xxx, xxxii, 1–3, 11–45, 49–50,

117–29, 132–3, 160–3, 171–2, 177, 184–9, 209–20, 227–30, 232–3, 265–8, 281–2, 297, 299–307, 313, 320–31see also Arctic infrastructure; sailing routesAlaska 218–20Canada 49–51, 218–20, 265–8, 326–7comparisons between the transportation passages 297, 313, 320–31concepts xxxii, 20–2, 35–7, 49–50, 160–3, 177, 209–20, 232–3, 297, 320–31distances between harbors 49–52, 299–307, 338–51

177, 209–20, 297, 313, 320–31Northeast Passage xxxii, 20–2, 49–50, 117–29, 132–3, 184–9, 209–18, 227–9, 232–3, 297, 313, 320–31Northwest Passage 49–51, 218–20, 232–3, 265–8, 281–2, 297, 313, 320–31oily sludge disposals 160–1, 316–19Russia xxxii, 20–2, 49–50, 117–29, 132–3, 209–18, 227–9, 232–3, 326–7statistics 209–18Transpolar Passage 49–51, 297, 313, 320–31

power constellations in the Arctic 47–82, 297–307see also geopolitics

practical training, concepts 196–7precious stones 106–7, 119–29, 310–14Presidential Memorandum, USA 61–4primary oil recovery processes 93Primorsk 126–9, 310–14Prince Albert II passenger vessel 136–7, 139Prince Regent Inlet 170–1Prince of Wales Strait 22–30, 168–70, 189,

229–30, 318–51Prince William Sound 163production quotas, oil resources 84–5Professor Khromov 136–7Professor Molchanov 137–8Professor Mulkanovskly 137–8

406 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Protection and Indemnity (P&I) 224–30, 329–31, 338–51

130

85Provideniya 35, 38–41, 139, 218Prudhoe Bay 25–30, 99–100, 114–17, 285–7,

337–51purpose and conduct of the study 1–3Putin, Vladimir 261

Q

Quark Expeditions 137–8Quatar 94–5, 130–1Queen Elizabeth Islands 22–30Queen Maud Gulf 139–40, 189

R

R/Ps see reserves-to-production ratiosradar, search and rescue facilities 201–9, 324–6RADARSAT Canadian satellite 200–9radio communications 200–9, 324–6Rae Strait 170–1railway alternatives to shipping 3, 16–17, 30,

36, 83–6, 116–17, 118–29, 132–3, 148–9, 211–18, 309–14

RAIPON see Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North

reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 53–7recovery processes, oil resources 93–4, 127–8Red Dog mine harbor 38–41, 115–17, 208–9regional cooperation, indigenous peoples 273–5regional informal operational regime,

geopolitics 76–9regulations xxix, xxx, xxxii, 1–3, 8–9, 31,

70–1, 151, 158–9, 162–3, 172, 177–97, 198–209, 232–3, 241–96, 297, 315–19, 320–38see also ocean lawArctic Ice Regime Shipping System 189Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Regulations 1978 185–9, 194–7Arctic Water Pollution Prevention Act 1970 26–7, 185–9, 244

297, 331–8Finnish Swedish Ice Class Rules 181–2, 188–9, 320–2IMO guidelines xxix, xxx, xxxii, 8–9, 70, 151, 172, 178–97, 198–209, 232–3, 241–50, 269, 315–19, 320–2, 323–6, 333–4insurance 224–30, 329–31International Civil Aviation Convention 1944 199–209International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue 1979 197–209International Convention on Standards of

1978 189–97national technical requirements 182–5, 252–3, 264–8, 320–2oil spills 158–9, 162–3, 172, 178–9, 180–1, 185–9, 263–4, 315–19search and rescue facilities 197–209, 231–3, 253–69, 323–6SOLAS Convention of 1974 8, 177–97, 198–209, 244–50, 320–2, 333STCW 189–97, 244–50technical requirements 177–89, 230–3, 244–50, 252–3, 264–8, 320–2

245–50, 320–2reindeer 275–9Rekjavik 36–7renewable energy 132–3repair facilities 36–7Report on Sustainable EU Policy for the High

North 69Republic of Sakha 38–41reputations 247–50

see also corporate governanceresearch expedition vessels 6, 20–5, 54–7, 74,

136–42, 208–9, 256–7reserves-to-production ratios (R/Ps), gas

resources 130Resolute Bay 28–30, 139–40, 219–20resources xxix, xxx, xxxiii, 1, 2–3, 20–2,

28–31, 33, 36–7, 39–41, 47–82, 83–96, 98–145, 297–314, 338–51see alsogeopolitics; iron ore...; mineral...; nickel...; oil...; zinc...comparisons between the transportation

407Index

passages 297–314concepts xxix, xxx, 20–2, 28–30, 36–7, 58–9, 62–4, 69–72, 75–9, 83–96, 98–145, 297–314data and information 84–6, 98–105

economic trends xxix, xxxiii, 1–3, 39–41, 47–82, 83–4, 86–96, 98–112, 130–3, 297, 307–14energy consumption 72–6, 86, 88–105, 307–14, 340–51estimates 84–6, 92–3, 98–112, 117–29, 131–3EU policies 69–72, 76–7historical background 99–112indigenous peoples 271–87, 334–8Northeast Passage 117–29, 210–18, 276–9, 297, 307–14Northwest Passage 112–17, 297, 307–14prospects 311–14reliable estimates 86, 92–3, 98–112, 117–29, 131–3reserves 58, 85–6, 91–4, 98–105, 108, 112–33, 141–2, 162–3, 308–14Russia xxix, xxx, xxxi, 20–2, 36–7, 39–40, 58–9, 64–6, 76–9, 84–6, 93–4, 96, 98–133, 142, 210–18, 278–9, 301–51statistics xxix, xxx, 20–2, 28–30, 36–7, 58–9, 72, 75–6, 88–96, 98–117, 210–20, 307–14types 98–112, 222–3unconventional resources 85, 93–4, 113, 118, 130–1, 338–51USA policies 62–4, 76–9, 84–6

Revolution, Russia 18–19, 277, 335Reydarfjordur 36–7Reykjavik 75, 209Reynfrost 187–9RFE see Russian Far Eastrights of indigenous peoples 241, 247–50,

267–8, 269–87, 333–8risk assessments 55–6, 231–3, 329–31risk management 177, 224–30, 329–31

see also insuranceRiska, Kaj 55–6RITEK Company 215river systems 16–22, 28–30, 39–40, 66, 83–6,

118–29, 149–51, 154–9, 202–9, 211–18, 310–14

Northern Sea Route 16–22, 39–40, 66, 124, 154–9, 202–9, 211–18Northwest Passage 28–30, 310–14Russia 16–22, 118–29, 149–51, 154–9, 202–9, 211–18

road alternatives to shipping 3, 83–6, 116–17, 118–29, 309–14

Roche Bay 28–30, 219–20Rosneft 212–13, 215–18Rossiya icebreaker 203–4Rotterdam 49–51, 213–14RPK terminals 211–12Russia xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 9, 12–22,

28, 32–7, 48–51, 56–60, 64–6, 69–73, 76–9, 84–6, 88, 91–2, 98–133, 135–9, 148–9, 153–6, 161–72, 182–5, 193–209, 224–9, 245–63, 275–9, 285, 287, 299–351see also Northern Maritime Corridor; Northern Sea RouteAlaskan origins 285Barents Sea delimination Norwegian negotiations 262–3Canada 28, 29, 66, 210, 219–20, 261–2, 332–8China 73, 122–9, 132–3, 310–14Cold War tensions 27–8, 49, 56–66, 255–6, 303–6costs and bureaucratic procedures 220–9, 232–3, 327–9, 338–51crew training/competence requirements 193–7, 231–3, 322–3cruise activities 135–40economic trends 88, 92, 307–14environmental protection policies 64–6, 77–9, 149–51, 161–3, 251–63, 351estimated resources 85–6, 98–112, 117–29

forests/forestry 107–9, 128–9, 142, 212–18, 309–14gas resources 93–4, 96, 98–105, 112–33, 142, 210–18, 278–9, 301–51GDP statistics 88, 119–29, 309geopolitics xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 48, 49–51, 56–60, 64–6, 69–73, 76–9, 141–2, 182–5, 193–7, 243–63, 269–79, 285, 287, 299–307, 331–8

307–8, 311–12

408 Shipping in Arctic Waters

global warming 148–9historical jurisdictional controversies 253–63, 303–6icebreakers 202–9, 212–18, 220–4, 226–9, 232–3, 252–63, 324–6, 328–9, 350–1indigenous peoples 36–7, 269–79, 287, 334–8insurance 224–9, 231–3, 329–31international cooperation policies 65–6, 69–70, 77–9, 141–2, 248–50, 331–8international governance policies 65–6, 77–9jurisdictional controversies xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 65–6, 79, 245–63, 302, 303–6legal state behavior in the Arctic 258–63Lenin era 256Marxist–Leninist theory of the class struggle 256military affairs 27–8, 49, 56–66, 254–63, 303–6mineral resources 106–7, 119–29, 141–2, 210–18, 301–51national security policies 64–6, 78–9New Forest Code 129, 309ocean law xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 65–6, 79, 245–63, 331–8oil/gas consumption trends 91–6, 100–5oil/gas production 94–5, 98–105, 112–30, 142, 161–3, 210–18, 224–9, 278–9, 301–51pipeline alternatives to shipping 118–29, 132–3, 212–18, 309–14policies 56–7, 64–6, 69–73, 76–9, 118–29, 149–51, 161–3, 182–5, 251–63, 275–9pollution 149–51, 161–3, 251–63, 287population movements 128, 309–10ports xxxii, 20–2, 49–50, 117–29, 132–3, 209–18, 227–9, 232–3, 326–7R/Ps 130resources xxix, xxx, xxxi, 20–2, 36–7, 39–40, 58–9, 64–6, 76–9, 84–6, 93–4, 96, 98–133, 142, 210–18, 278–9, 301–51Revolution 18–19, 277, 335search and rescue facilities 198–209, 231–3, 253–63, 323–6Sector principle xxxii, xxxiii, 254–63, 269, 332–8South Korea 76, 214–15, 221–2, 228–9State Pilots 193–4, 222–3, 252–63submarines xxx, xxxi, 42, 49, 58–60, 64–6,

261–2, 303–6taxes on gas resources 119technical requirements 182–5, 231–3, 252–3, 320–2trade patterns 118–29, 132–3, 182–5, 210–18, 224–9, 307–14transportation/shipping policies 16–22, 66, 77–9, 118–29USA jurisdictional controversies xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 65–6, 79, 248–9, 253–63, 302, 303–6, 332–8

Russian Arctic xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, xxxiii, 13–22, 29–30, 32–7, 39–40, 58–9, 64–6, 76–9, 85, 98–112, 117–29, 245–63, 301–51advantages xxxi, 49–51, 117–29, 307–14, 338–51jurisdictional controversies xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 65–6, 79, 245–63, 302, 303–6, 332–8population movements 128, 309–10

Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON) 270, 274–5, 277–9

Russian Decree of 1926 xxxii, xxxiiiRussian Far East (RFE) 38–41, 202–9

S

S/Y Ceylon pleasure cruiser 133–4Sabanin, A. 256Saether, Rolf 54, 59safety issues xxxii, 3, 8, 22, 28–30, 54–7, 62–6,

161–3, 177–209, 223–4, 231–3, 244–69, 320–31, 351crew training/competence requirements xxxii, 3, 177, 180–1, 189–97, 231–3, 264–8, 322–3search and rescue facilities xxxii, 3, 22, 29–30, 63–4, 65–6, 161–3, 177, 180–1, 195–209, 223–4, 231–3, 253–69, 323–6SOLAS Convention of 1974 8, 177–97, 198–209, 244–50, 320–2, 333

Said, E.W. 47sailing fees xxxii, xxxiii, 220–4, 327–9, 350

see also costs...; icebreakers

statistics xxxii, xxxiii, 220–4, 350sailing routes xxix, 1–3, 11–12, 18–22, 27–30,

33–5, 61–6, 129–35, 154–9, 163–72, 242–50, 297, 338–51

409Index

see also Arctic transportation passages; Destination-Arctic...; Intra-Arctic...; ports; Transit...cruise activities 133–5

33–5Northeast Passage 18–22, 49–52, 132–3, 149, 154–9, 164–72, 182–5, 193–7, 209–18, 250–63, 297–351Northern Sea Route 18–22, 49–52, 132–3, 149, 154–9, 182–5, 193–7, 209–18, 222–3, 250–63, 297–351Northwest Passage 27–30, 156–9, 163–4, 168–72, 185–9, 194–7, 218–20, 223–4, 263–8, 297–351Transpolar Passage 33, 158–9, 172, 195–7, 207–8, 287, 297–351

St John’s, Newfoundland 196–7St Lawrence 181–2, 220St Petersburg 197Sakha republic 277–9Sakhalin Oblast 38–41, 161–2, 181–2salinity levels, global warming effects 163–4salmon 111, 157–9salvage response failings 35Sami people 269–79, 334–8

see also indigenous peoples; Norway; Russia

San Francisco 49Sanko Odyssey 187–9Sannikov Strait 165–6, 251–63, 318–19SAR see Search and Rescue ConventionSarnesfjord 125–9, 212–13satellite communications 22, 200–9, 229,

324–6, 328–9Saudi Arabia 84, 91, 94–6, 112scallops 42SCF Baltica 55–6, 184–5

sea ice, types 31–2, 258, 317–19sea ice concentration 8–9, 147–8, 158–9,

164–72, 179–89, 246–50, 298sea ice extent, statistics 32–3, 58–9, 148–9,

158–9, 164–72, 179–89, 246–50, 298sea ice melting xxix, xxx, xxxi, 1–8, 14–15,

23–4, 28, 31–2, 34–5, 41–2, 47, 51–2, 57, 58–9, 60, 67, 72–4, 116–17, 131–3, 142, 147–9, 157–9, 163–72, 229–30, 298–9, 301–7, 349–51

see also ice-edge migrationsea ice thickness xxx, 7–8, 14–22, 23–4, 31–3,

58–9, 148–9, 158–9, 164–72sea ice volumes, statistics 32–3, 58–9, 148–9,

158–9, 164–72, 179–89, 298

sea levels, global warming effects 163–4Sea of Okhotsk 119–29sea spray threats 6–7, 8, 191–2sealers 41Search and Rescue Convention (SAR)

197–209, 224, 231–3, 324–6see also International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue 1979

search and rescue facilities xxxii, 3, 22, 29–30, 63–4, 65–6, 161–3, 177, 180–1, 195–209, 223–4, 231–3, 253–69, 323–6aeronautical and maritime search and rescue in the Arctic agreement 199–209communications’ facilities 199–209, 323–6concepts xxxii, 29–30, 161–2, 197–209, 223–4, 231–3, 253–69, 323–6

323–6icebreakers 201–9, 323–6insurance 231–3limitations xxxii, 161–2navigation aids 201–6Northeast Passage 200–9, 231–3, 253–62, 323–6Northern Maritime Corridor 208–9

Northwest Passage 198–209, 223–4, 231–3, 323–6regulations 197–209, 231–3, 323–6service-providing states 198–200, 232–3, 323–6southern water connecting corridors 208–9Transpolar Passage 206–8, 231–3, 323–6vessel types 202–4

secondary oil recovery processes 93

269, 332–8Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

84–5seismic vessels 186–9, 351self-insurance provisions 224semi-precious stones 106–7

410 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Severnaya Zemlja 13–14, 18–22, 50–2, 137–9, 164–5, 222–3

Severny Port 210–18Severodvinsk 212–18Severomelsky 164–5Sevmorput icebreaker 203–4Sevneft 210–18shale deposits 85, 93–4, 113, 118, 130–1Shanghai xxxiii, 49–51, 52, 184–9, 341–51shelf areas 14–22, 41–2, 54–6, 58–9, 65–6, 75,

102–5, 118–29, 131–2, 164–72, 244–69Shell 84, 286–7Ship Maneuvring Simulator Center (SMSC)

197Ship and Ocean Foundation (SOP) 75Ship Repair Factory 211–18Ship Research Institute in Tokyo 54–5shipping see Arctic shippingShipping Safety Act 2007 250–1, 332

Shokalskiy Strait 165, 251–63shrimp 111

308–9Siberia 5–6, 16–22, 36–7, 49, 60, 108–9,

117–29, 141–2, 149–51, 165–6, 203–9, 212–18, 251–63, 274–5, 279, 301–51

Siberian rivers 16–22, 124–9, 203–9Sibir icebreaker 34, 203–4silver resources 106–7, 113Silversea Cruises 136, 139Simpson Strait 170–1simulator training, concepts 196–7Singapore 49–51, 72Sir Wilfrid Laurier icebreaker 207Skarphedinsson, Ossur 67–8

skylights 31–2small Arctic insider states 48, 66–8, 77, 99,

248–50, 331–8see also Canada; Denmark; Finland; Iceland; Norway; Sweden

331–8

power uses 66–7Smith, Gordon W. 258smuggling 64

social responsibilities xxxi, 1, 192–7, 246–50, 269, 331–8see also corporate governancecruise activities xxxi

‘soft law’ 3, 246–50, 331–8see also corporate governance; social responsibilities

solar radiation 3–4SOLAS Convention of 1974 8, 177–97,

198–209, 244–50, 320–2, 333Solovetsky Islands 140sonar xxxi, 25South America, R/Ps 130, 131South Atlantic 7South Korea 39–41, 48, 49–52, 74, 75–6,

96, 107, 115, 133, 186–9, 214–15, 221–2, 228–9, 299–307geopolitics 48, 49–52, 74, 75–6, 299–307policies 75–6Russia 76, 214–15, 221–2, 228–9

south-East Asia 39–41Southampton Island 171–2southern water connecting corridors 2, 11–12,

35–42, 53, 208–9, 298, 306–7see also Fram Corridor; Northern Maritime

communications’ facilities 208–9concepts 2, 11–12, 35–42, 208–9, 298, 306–7navigation 208–9, 306–7search and rescue facilities 208–9

214–18sovereignty issues 242–50, 254–63, 267–8,

273–5, 332–8see also ocean lawindigenous peoples 273–5, 334–8

Sovetskiy Soyuz icebreaker 203–4former Soviet Union 96, 254–60, 335–8

see also Russiajurisdictional controversies 254–60oil/gas consumption trends 96

Spain 68Spirit of Enderby 139Spitsbergen 21, 136–42, 262–3, 301–7stakeholder concepts, EU policies 72Stalin era 255–6

411Index

State Pilots, Russia 193–4, 222–3, 252–63state-of-the-art analyses xxix, 1–3Statoil 118–19, 125STCW see International Convention on

Watchkeeping 1978steamship icebreakers 35steel 52, 97Steensby Inlet 219–20Stena Poseidon 186–9

STI Heritage Shipping Company 186–9Stolberg, Niels 52Store, Jonas Gahr 245

Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Equipment (DE) 179–80

submarines xxx, xxxi, 42, 49, 58–60, 64–6, 75, 261–2, 303–6see also military affairs

Suez Canal xxx, xxxiii, 39–40, 49–50, 52, 53–4, 58–9, 70, 185, 220, 225, 228, 297–8, 299–307, 310, 329–30, 338–51

sulphur dioxide, exhaust fume pollutants 150–1sulphur oxides (SOx) 151surveillance operations, military affairs 304–5survival equipment, crew training/competence

requirements 191–7, 246, 322–3

Svalbard xxix, 11–12, 21–2, 34–5, 41–2, 52, 65, 74, 75, 107, 128, 133–6, 138–40, 154–9, 208–9, 248–63, 301–7, 314, 332–8see also Fram Corridorcruise activities 133–6, 138–40, 314jurisdiction 248–63, 332–8ocean law 248–63, 332–8Treaty 248–9, 250–1

Sweden 14, 18, 34, 48, 58–9, 67–72, 128–9, 142, 196–7, 249, 262, 274–5geopolitics 48, 58–9, 67–72, 249, 262, 274–5indigenous peoples 274–5

Switzerland 107, 118

T

Taimyr 216Taiwan 49–51, 74

Talagi 212–13Talakanskoye 216–17tankers 6–7, 20–1, 25–6, 36–7, 55–6, 97–9,

116–17, 125–9, 132–3, 150–1, 184–9, 194–7, 209–20, 224–30

taxes on gas resources, Russia 119Taymyr icebreaker 203–4Taymyr Peninsula 120–9, 164–5, 168–9, 301–7,

309–51Tayshet 216–17Tazovskoye Field 99–100technical requirements

Arctic infrastructure 177–89, 231–3, 244–50, 252–3, 264–8, 313, 320–2insurance 230–1

technological issues xxxii, 1–3, 35, 49–50, 53, 54–6, 66, 93, 102–5, 151, 167–8, 180–1, 195–7, 199–209crew training 195–7emission controls 151, 172gas resources 93–4, 102–5oil recovery processes 92–3, 102–5, 127–8reasons for relatively low Arctic shipping 54–6search and rescue facilities 199–209, 323–6

Teriberka 128terminals xxix, xxx, xxxii, 1–3, 11–45, 49–50,

117–29, 132–3, 160–3, 171–2, 177, 209–20, 326–7see also ports

terrorism 58, 61–4Terry-Fox icebreaker 207tertiary oil recovery processes 93Thailand 186–9theoretical training, concepts 196–7Thorne, Robert 12–13Tiksi 19–20, 128–9, 162, 216–17Timan-Pechora Basin 99–100, 125–9time-savings, distances between harbors 49–52,

299–307, 338–51Timtchenko, Leonid 257tin resources 108titanium resources 106–7, 119–29Tokyo 54–5Total 118–19TPP see Transpolar Passagetrade destinations, statistics 90–4, 108–9,

118–29, 158, 184–9, 310–14trade patterns, statistics 89–98, 106–9, 112–29,

412 Shipping in Arctic Waters

132–3, 141–2, 182–9, 210–20, 224–9, 297, 307–14

see also navigationTRANSAS equipment 197Transit sailing routes xxix, 1–3, 11–12, 18–22,

26–30, 33–5, 61–6, 70, 112–17, 132–3, 171–2, 185–9, 204, 266–8, 297–8, 312–14see alsoOcean; portscommercial comparisons 297, 338–51

33–5, 112–17, 267, 297–8Northern Sea Route 18–22, 61–4, 132–3, 185–9, 204, 312–14Northwest passage 26–30, 61–4, 112–17, 171–2, 266–7

Transneft pipeline 121–2, 125–9Transpolar Passage (TPP) xxix, xxx, xxxi,

xxxii, xxxiii, 1–3, 11–13, 15, 16, 30–5, 37–41, 49–51, 55–6, 60, 78–9, 133, 147–9, 158–9, 172, 195–7, 206–9, 230–3, 268–9, 287, 297–351see alsoCorridoradvantages xxx, xxxii, xxxiii, 49–51, 55–6, 60, 299–307, 338–51Arctic infrastructure 147–9, 172, 177, 195–7, 230, 268–9, 297, 313, 320–31commercial prospects 297, 344–51communications’ facilities 206–8, 324–6comparisons with the other two passages 297–351cost-savings xxxiii, 338–51crew training/competence requirements 195–7, 231–3, 322–3cruise activities 140, 313–14

30–3, 158–9, 172, 298, 299–300disadvantages 312–14, 319distances between ports 49–51, 299–307, 338–51ecosystems 158–9, 297, 314–19environmental challenges 147–9, 158–9, 172, 297, 314–19

49–51, 78–9, 158–9, 172, 195–7, 206–8, 230, 268–9, 287, 297–351geopolitical comparisons with the other two

passages 297–307indigenous peoples 287, 297, 333–8insurance xxxii, 230, 231–3, 330–1, 339–51jurisdiction 268–9, 297, 302, 333–8marine ecosystems 158–9, 297, 314–19military affairs 305–6natural shipping conditions 147–9, 172, 317–19navigation requirements 206–8ocean law 268–9, 297, 333–8ports 49–51, 297, 313, 320–31prospects 78–9, 159, 172, 297–351sailing routes 33–5, 158–9, 172, 195–7, 207–8, 297–351search and rescue facilities 206–8, 231–3, 323–6

Transport Canada 194–7, 311–14transportation modes xxix, 62–4, 118–29

Trenton 205–6Tromso 21, 49, 71, 139, 299–307Tropic of Cancer 48tugs 6, 28–9, 150–1, 202–9, 218, 232–3Tuktoyaktuk 28–9, 284–7tungsten resources 108Turama passenger vessel 136–7Turkey 122–9Tuvaq 189

U

Uikku tanker 227–8UK 36, 49–51, 64, 66–7, 68, 88, 198, 260, 305Ukraine 39, 118, 121–9Ulsan 51–2, 186–9, 228–9UNCLOSS III laws xxxii, 16, 31, 48, 62–3,

65, 70–1, 75, 78–9, 182–5, 221–3, 241–50, 252–69, 299, 321–2, 331–8see also ocean lawconcepts 70–1, 78–9, 182–3, 221–3, 241–50, 252–69, 299, 321–2, 331–8

fees 221–2high regard 248–9predictions 78–9

unconventional resources 85, 93–4, 113, 118, 130–1, 338–51

underwriters 224–30, 233, 329–31see also insurance

413Index

undiscovered oil/gas resources in the Arctic 102–5, 112–17, 119–29, 131–3, 141–2, 158, 162–3, 244–50, 280–1, 308–14

UNFCCC see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

245–50, 320–2Unimak Pass 157–9United Arab Emirates (UAE) 84, 94–5United Nations Commission on the

Delimitation of the Outer Continental Shelf 41–2

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 271–5, 334–8

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 274–5

United Nations Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of 1995 272–5

United Nations (UN) xxxii, 16, 31, 41–2, 48, 62–3, 65, 70–1, 257, 271–5, 334–8see also UNCLOSS III laws

United States Air Force 27–8

Urals 212–13uranium 115–17, 280–1, 310–14US Department of Energy 86US Geological Survey (USGS) xxx, 58, 92,

102–8, 112, 119, 141, 308–14U.S. Navy Arctic Road Map 61–4USA xxix, xxxii, xxxiii, 11–12, 15–18, 26–8,

34–41, 48–51, 56, 60–8, 74, 76–9, 84–5, 89–98, 100–7, 112–17, 130–3, 150–1, 158, 198–209, 248–9, 263–8, 269–75, 285–7, 323, 332–8see also Alaska; North AmericaCanadian jurisdictional controversies xxxii, 26–7, 66–7, 79, 162–3, 249, 263–8, 332–8Cold War tensions 27–8, 49, 56–66, 255–6, 303–6economic trends 86–98, 104–5, 130–1environmental protection policies 63–4, 77–9, 161–2estimated resources 84–5, 92–3

forests/forestry 107–8, 113, 129, 287gas resources 93–4, 96, 100–5, 112–17, 131–2GDP statistics 86–98, 130–1

geopolitics xxxii, xxxiii, 18, 26–7, 48, 49–51, 56, 60, 61–4, 66–7, 68, 74, 76–9, 91–4, 141–2, 248–9, 263–8, 269–75, 285–7, 332–8

307–8, 311–12homeland security policies 61–4icebreakers 267–8indigenous peoples 269–75, 285–7, 334–8international governance policies 62–4, 68, 77–9jurisdictional controversies xxxii, xxxiii, 18, 26–7, 65–6, 79, 162–3, 248–9, 253–63, 266–8, 302, 303–6, 332–8Marxist–Leninist theory of the class struggle 256military affairs 27–8, 49, 56–66, 303–6mineral resources 106–7, 113–17national security policies 61–4, 78–9oil reserves 91–5, 100–5, 112–17, 131–2, 311–12oil/gas consumption trends 91–6, 100–5, 112–17oil/gas production 94–5, 100–5, 112–17, 158policies 61–4, 66–7, 68, 76–9pollution 150–1, 161–3, 286–7Presidential Memorandum 61–4resource policies 62–4, 76–7, 84–5, 91–4Russian jurisdictional controversies xxxii, xxxiii, 15–17, 18, 65–6, 79, 248–9, 253–63, 302, 303–6, 332–8search and rescue facilities 198–209shale deposits 93–4, 118, 130–1trade patterns 89–98, 106–7, 112–17, 141–2, 307–14transportation/shipping policies 62–4, 77–9

USA east coast xxix, 11–12, 35–7see also Northern Maritime Corridor

V

Valdez 114–17Vancouver 49–51, 299–307Varandey 55, 121–9, 154–9, 161–2, 203–9,

210–11, 213–14, 316–51Varzuga 184–5Vaygach icebreaker 203–4Vaygach Island 164–5Venezuela 94–5, 112

414 Shipping in Arctic Waters

Very High Frequency radio (VHF) 22, 200–9vessel activity statistics 5–6, 19–22, 25, 27–30,

33–4, 90–4, 113–17, 121–9, 157–9, 184–9, 205–9, 308–14, 350–1

Systems (VTMIS) 200–9, 324–6

Vestmannaeyjar 112Victoria Island 22–30, 138, 170–1Vilkitskii Strait 14–22, 33–4, 165, 251–63,

318–19Viscount Melville Sound 169–70, 189Vitim 216–17Vitino 55–6, 124–9, 186–9, 210–11, 212–13Vladimir Thikonov 186–9Vladivostok 17–22, 112, 184–5, 202–9, 324–51Volgotanker Company 212–13VTMIS see

Information SystemsVyborg Shipbuilding Plant 119

W

Wallace, Henry A. 62warships 59–60, 64–6Washington, USA 36–7weather information/forecasts 35, 198–209,

222, 229, 233, 323–6West Finnmark 125–9, 275–6, 335–8Western Arctic Waterway 170–1Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB)

112–13Western Siberia 36–7, 99–100, 117–29, 132–3,

149–51, 215–18, 301–51WestGreenland-East Canada 103–4WGIP see Working Group for Indigenous

Peopleswhaling 21, 41wheat 28White Sea xxix, xxx, 3, 8, 10, 17–22, 36–7,

124–9, 149–51, 154–9, 211–18, 253–63, 298–351

Whitehorse 28–30Wild Earth Travel 139wolfram resources 106–7wooden ships 8, 179Working Group for Indigenous Peoples (WGIP)

274–5World Bank Group 88, 119

World Ocean, pollution circulation effects 150World Oil 86World Wildlife Foundation (WWF) 70–1, 248,

331–2Wrangel Island 137–9, 166–7

Y

Yakovlev, Anatoliy 59Yakutsk 16–22, 148–9, 217Yamal icebreaker 203–4Yamal Peninsula 14–22, 117–30, 214–18,

277–9, 308–51Yamburg 215, 228–9Yaroslavl 212–13Yellow River Station 74Yenisei river 16–22, 124–9, 154–9, 215–16,

326–7Yokohama xxxiii, 36, 49–51, 75, 227–9,

299–307, 339–51

Yugorskiy Shar Strait 164–5Yukon Territory 114–15, 117, 274–5, 282–7,

310–14Yupik people 269–75, 334–8

Z

zinc resources 28–30, 107, 113, 115–17, 156, 208–9, 219–20, 280–1, 311–14

zodiacs, cruise activities xxxi, 137–40Zone System, Canada 188–9, 265–8Zone/Date System 171zooplankton 152–9