lilly north 2010
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Follow Where the Research Leads Us: What Brain
Research can tell us about Students Learning
Developed by Professor Terry Doyle
Ferris State University
www.learnercenteredteaching.com
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Slides available for download at:
www.learnercenteredteaching.com
LILLY North Conference
Follow Where the Research Leads Us
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Presentation Outcomes
By the end of the presentation participants will:
1. have a better understanding of how fast theresearch into human learning is progressing.
2.have developed news ideas for applyingresearch findings to their courses.
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Brain Research and College Teaching
Connecting the dots for
educators
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Folklore vs. Science
In A Celebration of Neurons by
University of Oregon Education
Professor Robert Sylwester in 1995.
He said : the
information upon which
we make our teachingdecisions is much closer
to folklore than science.
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What was Then
Guido Sarducci Five Minute University
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http://www.ted.com/speakers/aditi_shankarda
ss.html
What is Now
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Brain Research
It is important to realize much of the research on
the brain as it relates to learning has been done
on animal models. The research that is done on
humans consist of the study of discrete tasks in
isolation.
This research can however, give us important
ideas about how to make learning more effective.
(Dr. Janet Zadina, Neuroscientist and Educator)
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What We Know about the Brain
What we know about the
brain comes from
biologist who study brain
tissue, experimentalpsychologist who study
behavior, cognitive
neuroscientist who study
how the first relates to
the second and
evolutionary biologist.
(Medina, 2008).
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Following the Research
Almost 40 years ago,Thomas Kuhn's seminalwork, The Structure ofScientific Revolutions,
described how societyresponds when there is asignificant shift in theprevailing paradigm.
Kuhn argued that such ashift is typically met withvehement denial andopposition.
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Brain Research and College Teaching
"If we ignore how the
student brain works, we
will risk student success
"Everything we do uses
our brain; let's learn more
about it and apply that
knowledge."
Leslie hart 1983." , Human Brain,
Human Learning
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The Human Brain
The human brain weighs three (3) pounds but
uses 20-25% of the bodies energy
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The Human Brain
The human brain has 100 billion neurons
(It does grow thousands of new cells daily)
www.enchantedlearning.com/.../gifs/Neuron.GIF
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The Human Brain
These 100 billion neurons
are capable of making40,000,000,000,000,000
(Forty quadrillion connections )
(James Ratey, Users Guide to the Brain, 2002)
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Learning is when Neurons Wire
Learning is a change
in the neuron-patterns of the
brain.(Ratey, 2002)
www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg
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Teachers Definition of Learning?
Learning is the ability to use information aftersignificant periods of disuse
and
it is the ability to use the information to solveproblems that arise in a context different (if onlyslightly) from the context in which the information
was originally taught.
(Robert Bjork, Memories andMetamemories, 1994)
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Basic Finding from Brain Research as it
Impacts Human Learning
It is the one who does
the work who does thelearning
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What has Research Discovered they
We Might Use?
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Brain Research and Learning
Can we make better-
informed decisions
about teaching based
on what we havelearned about the
brain?
The answer is clearly
YES
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Findings about Rest and Memory
The researchers found thatduring rest, the areas of thebrain were just as active asthey were when they were
learning the task
The greater the correlationbetween rest and learningthe greater the chance of
remembering the task inlater tests.
Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department ofPsychology and Center for Neural Science.
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Back to Back Classes
Should Students not
take Classes back to
back?
"Taking a coffee break
after class can actually
help you retain that
information you just
learned," Dr Lila Davachi
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The Brain and Learning
The human brain was
designed to solve
problems of survival in
outdoor, unstableenvironments while in
almost constant
motion.
( Dr. John Medina, Developmental Molecular
Biologist, University of Washington and Author
of Brain Rules)
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The Brain and Learning
If educators had set
out to design a learning
environment that was
in complete oppositionto what the human
brain is good at they
would have designed
the schools of yesterdayand today.
(John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)
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GRID Cells
British scientists at the UniversityCollege London (UCL) announce thatthey were recently able to identifysome of the most elusive structuresin the human brain, namely the gridcells.
These special formations are theones in charge of creating theinternal maps of our surroundingsthat we unconsciously use to getaround.
This is the first time such anannouncement is made, and, if itsconclusions are verified, it could beone of the greatest discoveries in thefield of brain sciences made in a longtime
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Neurogenesis
The human brain can and does grownew neurons. Many survive andbecome functional.
New neurons are highly correlatedwith memory, mood, and learning.
This process can be regulated by oureveryday behaviors.
Specifically, it can be enhanced byexercise, lower levels of stress, andgood nutrition.
(Gerd Kempermann, Laurenz Wiskott, and Fred Gage, "FunctionalSignificance of Adult Neurogenesis," Current Opinion in Neurobiology, April2004, pp. 186-91.
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Neuroscience has Become Main Stage
Biological Psychiatry,
The Journal ofNutritionalNeuroscience.
Sociology its the JournalSocial Neuroscience.
The Journals NutritionalNeuroscience and the
European Journal ofClinicalNutrition
Arts and Neuroscience
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Social Conditions and the Brain
Social conditions influence our brainin ways we didn't know before.
The discovery of mirror neurons byGiacomo suggests a vehicle for animitative reciprocity in our brain.
School behaviors are highly socialexperiences, which become encodedthrough our sense of reward,acceptance, pain, pleasure,coherence, affinity, and stress.
Students are more affected by it thanwe thought.
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Neuroplasticity
The ability of the brain to rewire
and remap itself by means of
neuroplasticity is profound.
Schools can influence thisprocess.
Neuroscientists Michael
Merzenich and Paula Tallal
verified that when the correctskill-building protocol is used,
educators can make positive and
significant changes in our brains
in a short time.
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Gene Expression
The old-school view was that eitherenvironment or genes decided theoutcomes for a student.
We now know that there's a thirdoption: gene expression.
This is the capacity of our genes torespond to chronic or acuteenvironmental input.
This new understanding highlights anew vehicle for change in ourstudents.
Neuroscientists Bruce Lipton and Ernest Rossi
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Dendrite Growth
With in 20 minutes of
being exposed to new
learning the dendrites
in the brain begin togrow new cellular
material.
(Cognitive Neuroscientist Janet Zadina, 2010)
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Use it or Lose it
When new material is
not practiced the new
dendrite tissue is
reabsorbed to conserveresources.
(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)
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Learning Activates the Brains
Reward Pathways
Real life, meaningful,
and authentic learning
activates the reward
pathways in the brain
It is this pathway that
keeps us alive
(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)
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Reading in the Brain
Cause of Dyslexia
For 100 years believed
to be a problem with
the visual processing
parts of the brain.
Cause of Dyslexia
2009 French
Neuroscientist Stanislas
Dehaene proved it is a
problem with the
auditory processing
parts of the brain
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Memory and Similar Patterns
People are more likely toremember information if thepattern of activity in theirbrain is roughly the same witheach review,
The findings, published onlineSept. 9, 2010 in the journalScience, challenge the long-held belief that humansremember more effectivelywhen they review informationin varying
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How Practice Makes Perfect
The question is how practice makesperfect, If you precisely reactivatethe same pattern each time, then youare going to remember better.
Xue cautioned that the study doesnot disprove the effect of variablecontexts in enhancing memory.
Restudy under similar context mightnot always lead to patternreinstatement, and at the same time,
variable contexts might enhancepattern reinstatement..
(Gui Xue,USC)
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We Use all our Senses
The traditional belief amongneuroscientists has been that thefive senses operate largely asindependent systems.
However, mounting data suggestinteractions between vision,hearing, smell, touch and tasteare the rule, rather than theexception, when it comes to howthe human brain processessensory information and thusperceives things.
Aaron Seitz Journal Current Biology, 2006
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Smell and Learning
Proust Effect is the
unusual ability of
smell to enhance
recall
Best results when
smells are congruent
with the situationBrain Rules, p.212
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Multitasking Slows Learning
It is not possible to
multitask when it
comes to activitiesthat require the
brains attention
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Sleep and Memory
. "Periods of slow-wave sleep are very long
and produce a recall and probably
amplification of memory traces. Ensuing
episodes of REM sleep, which are very short,
trigger the expression of genes to store what
was processed during slow-wave sleep."
Sidarta Ribeiro, Duke University, 2004
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Sleep and Memory
The MRI scans are showing us that brain regionsshift dramatically during sleep,
"When you're asleep, it seems as though you areshifting memory to more efficient storage regionswithin the brain. Consequently, when youawaken, memory tasks can be performed bothmore quickly and accurately and with less stress
and anxiety."
Matthew Walker, PhD, director of BIDMC's Sleep and Neuroimaging Laboratoryand Assistant Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School,
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192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg
192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg
Cramming
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Vision Trumps All
10.Vision trumps all other senses
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Progress is Vital
A feeling of making
progress is what allows
humans to deal with
tasks, especially taskswe dont necessarily
like to do.
(Dr. James Zull, 2002)
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Brain Based Education
The engagement of
strategies based on
principles derived from
an understanding of thebrain.
Knowing why one
strategy is used instead
of another.
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Brain Based Education
How reputable is brain-basededucation?
Harvard University now has both
master's and doctoral degrees init.
Our mission is to build amovement in which cognitive
science and neuroscience areintegrated with education so thatwe train people to make thatintegration both in research andin practice
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The Brain and Learning
We actually are justbeginning to understandthe incredible complexityof the human brain.
However, there 12 thingswe do know about howthe brain processes
information and these aresignificant to yourstudents learning. (Dr. JohnMedina)
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Twelve Things We Know for sure about
the Human Brain
1. Exercise
significantly
enhances brainfunction
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Exercise and Learning
Exercise is the single
most important thing a
person can do to
improve their learning.
(John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The
Revolutionary New Science of
Exercise and the Brain)
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Exercise and Learning
Exercise influences
learning directly, at
the cellular level,
improving the brains
potential to log in
and process newinformation.
Ratey, p35
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Newest Findings
Exercise increases
production of
neurotransmitters that help:1.Focus and attention
2.Motivation
3. Patience
4. Mood (more optimistic)
(Ratey, 2008)
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Exercise and Learning
Exerciseenough to
sweat and 4-5 times a
week improves:
1. All brain systems
2. Executive functioning
3. Creativity
4. Learning
(Ratey, 2008)
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Exercise and BDNF
(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )
Exercise produces BDNF
( Miracle Grow for the Brain)
(Ratey, 2008)
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BDNF
Improves brain health
Enhances the wiring of
neurons
Is a stress inoculator
Makes the brain cells
more resilient
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Exercise and BDNF
The more intense
and complex the
exercise the moreBDNF that is
made.
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BDNF and Synapses
BDNF gives synapses
the tools they need to:
Take in
Process
Associate
Remember
Put in context
Information
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BDNF and Exercise
In particular BDNF seems to be important for
long term memories (John Ratey, 2008)
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Long Lasting Benefits
Morning aerobics will
cause improve brain
performance for 6-7
hoursconcentration,attention, focus as well
as learning
(John Ratey, 2008)
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Exercise Reduces Bad Behavior
Exercise produces theneuro-chemicals that aidthe brain in self control
Studies show dramaticdeclines (66%) insuspensions anddiscipline referrals in
public schools involved intest studies
(Ratey,p.14)
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Exercise and Brain Pathologies
Exercise reducessignificantly thepotential for the brainto succumb to certainpathologies
1. Alzheimers 50%
2. Dementia 60% 3. Depression 70%(Dr. John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)
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The Brain is Social
2. Survival is accomplished
by working with other
brains
Groups of brains
almost always
outperform a single
brain
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The Brain is Social
Group work has
tremendous potential
to aid understanding
and learningif thegroups understand their
roles and what they are
trying to accomplish
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Brains are Wired Differently
3. All brains are
wired differently
Our experiences
make us different
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Brains are Wired Differently
It is these differences
that can make working
together in teams andgroups such a powerful
learning experience
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Attention and Learning
4. The brain can
only pay
attention to onething at a time
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Multi-tasking
Multi-tasking violates everything we know about howmemory works
There is objective scientific evidence that multi-tasking
impairs learning.
The imaging data indicated that the memory task and thedistraction stimuli engage different parts of the brain andthat these regions probably compete with each other.
(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memorysystems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)
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Multitasking
Our brain works hard to foolus into thinking it can domore than one thing at atime. It cant.
When trying to do twothings at once, the braintemporarily shuts down onetask while trying to do theother.
(3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. )
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Memory
5 +6.
Memory
Repetition over timeand elaboration are
necessary for
memory formationand recall
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Listen to the Music
Do you know the lyrics to
songs that you did not try to
learn and do not want to
know the lyrics to?
YES
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Practice over Time
Practice, Use ,
Repetition, Review,
Reflection or any other
way we engage withnew learning over time
is a major key to its
recall
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Memories are Reconstructed
The more senses usedin learning and inpracticing what has
been learned( seeing, hearing,touch, taste andsmell) the more
pathways are availablefor reconstruction
(recall)
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Elaborations are the Key
For better or worse, our recollections are largely at the
mercy of our elaborations (Daniel Schacter author of the Seven Sinsof Memory)
l b i i h d
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Elaboration is the Second
Major Key to Recall
Step One. Accuracy
Step Two: Reflection
Step Three: Review
Step Four: Mapping
Step Five: Recoding
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Accuracy
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Reflection
Reflection expands connections,
understanding and insights.
Women
earn only
81% of
what men
earn
Is this true
incompanies
headed by
womenI knew this
was true in
other
countries
but the
U.S
I wonder if
there are
inequities in
pay for men
of color
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Keys to Review
Daily is Best
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Concept Mapping and Review
A concept map simply represents visually (easiestthing for the brain to learn, Zull, 2002)the important concepts
and ideas being studied and how they relate to one another.
www.universityhighschool.org/webquest/Element...
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Practice Includes Recoding
Recoding is the simple
process of translating
the new knowledge into
your own words.
Examples include
paraphrasing,
summarizing andannotating
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Why Students Forget
Review helps to limit the 3 Sins of Memory that
commonly occur among students.
1. Blocking information stored but cant be
accessed (Schacter, 2001)
2. Misattribution attributing a memory to the
wrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)
3. Transience memory lost over time 65% of a
lecture is lost in the first hour (Schacter, 2001)
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Keeping Memories
The best way to minimize memory decay is to useelaborative rehearsal strategies
V
isualizing Singing
Writing
Semantic Mapping
Drawing Pictures Symbolizing
Mnemonics.
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Emotions and Memory
Research shows
learners recall
information that is
emotional more easilythan information that is
factual or neutral in
nature. (Zull, 2002)
Theimagepartwithrelationship IDrId2wasnotfound in thefile.
Theimage
partwithrelationship IDrId3wasnotfound in thefile.
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Which of the following slides
would be easier to recall after
two weeks?
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Slide One
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/...
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Slide Two
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Emotion and Memory
Emotional arousal organizes and coordinates
brain activity (Bloom, Beal & Kupfer 2003)
When the amygdala detects emotions, it
essentially boosts activity in the areas of thebrain that form memories (S. Hamann & Emony, UN.)
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Questions
1. How can we teach to promote long term
recall?
2. What kinds of assessments would promote
long term recall?
3. What kinds of assignments would promote
long term recall?
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Sleep
7. Sleep
The brain
needs sleep to
processinformation
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Stress
8. Stress
Stress
diminishes/
harms brainfunction
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Multiple Senses
9. The brain works
best when
multiple senses
are involved
Theimagepart with relationship ID rId2wasnotfound in thefile.
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20 Ounces of Coke
74 grams of sugar or 2.7 oz
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A Burger King Whopper
47 grams of fat
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Using all Our Senses to Learn
Those in multisensory
environments always do
better than those in
unisensory environments
They have more recall with
better resolution that lasts
longer, evident even 20
years later.
(John Medina, Brain Rules)
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Multimedia Exposure and Learning
Cognitive Psychologist
Richard Mayer
1. students learn betterfrom words and
pictures than from
words alone
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Temporal Congruity Principle
Students learn better
when words andpictures are presented
simultaneously rather
then successively
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Spatial Congruity Principle
Students learn better
when words andpictures are near to
each other on the page
rather than far from
each other.
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Coherence Principle
Students learn betterwhen extraneous
material is excluded
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Modality Principle Students learn better from animation and narration
than from animation and screen text
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Vision Trumps All
The more visual the
input becomes the
more likely it is to be
recognized and recalled
This is called the
Pictorial Superiority
Effect
+ = 4
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Vision Trumps All
Text and oral
presentations are not
just less efficient than
pictures for retaininginformation they are
way less efficient
(Brain Rules p.234)
ll
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Vision Trumps All
Oral information has arecall of about 10%after 72 hours
Add a picture and therecall increases to 65%
(Brain Rules, P.234)
ll
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Vision Trumps All
Humans pay a lot of attention to the size
of things and to things in motion.
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Q i
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Questions
How can we teach to our students senses?
What kinds of assignments would engage our
students senses?
Mens and Womens Brains are
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Men s and Women s Brains are
Different
11. There are
differences in the brains
of men and women
Th B i D i d L
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The Brain was Designed to Learn
12. The brain was meant to explore and learn
Th B i N d
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The Brains Needs
The brain needs to
function effectively:
1. Exercise
2. Sleep 3. Oxygen
4. Hydration
5. Food (glucose)
B i H lth
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Brain Health
Daily multiple vitamin
Daily fish oil capsule
Reduce or end caffeine
use
B i H lth
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Brain Health
Reduce (to very low
levels )or eliminate
alcohol intake
Learn to meditate
Drink adequate
amounts of water daily
B i H lth
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Brain Health
Eat a healthy diet
Get at least 8 hours of
sleep each night
Exercise daily --aerobic
is best
B i H lth
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Brain Health
Dont put your brain in
harms way
Avoid toxic chemicals-Ifusing them use in well
ventilated areas
(Making a Good Brain Great, Daniel
Amen)
Patterns and Learning
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Patterns and Learning
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Which of the following
slides is easier toremember and WHY?
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SLIDE ONE
`4915802979
Slide Two
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Slide Two
(491) 580-2979
Slide One
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Slide One
NRAFBINBCUSAMTV
Slide Two
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Slide Two
NRA NBC FBI USA MTV
Which is easier?
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Which is easier?
Counting backwards from 100
OR
Reciting the alphabet backwards
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Patterns that Aid Learning--
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Mapping
www.noticebored.com/assets/images/NB_inductio...www.eyezberg.com/.../bline_charts.png
Reading a textbook
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Reading a textbook
90% of the time the 1st sentence
of a paragraph is the Main Idea of
the paragraph
Reading Patterns
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Reading Patterns
Lists
Sequences
Definitions
Cause and Effect
Similarity and
Difference
Spatial Order
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Information Learned in a Complete
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Pattern
When information is learned as part of a whole (a complete
pattern) it becomes easier to recall.
Zulls Natural
Learning Cycle
Example-- Baseball
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Example-- Baseball
Who are the two
players that play infront of the Right
Fielder?
Patterns and Learning
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Patterns and Learning
Patterns and Learning
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Patterns and Learning
However, if all a person did was memorize the names
in order 1-9 trouble!!!
Questions
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Questions
1. What are the most common patterns found
in your course content?
2. What patterns of presenting information to
students have you found to be most effective?
3. Are there information patterns you find
students struggle to recognize or understand?
References
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References
Bjork, R. A. (1994) Memory and Metamemory consideration in the training of human beings. In J.Metcalfe & A. Shimamura
(Eds) Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing pp. 185-205. Cambridge, MA MIT Press.Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I. Cognitive Domain (pp. 201-207). New York: McKay.
Caine, Renate; Caine, Geoffrey.Education on The Edge of Possibility. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development, 1997.
Damasio, A. R. (1994).Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY,Grosset/Putnam
Diamond, Marion. (1988).Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Brain.New York,NY: Free Press.
Damasio AR: Fundamental Feelings. Nature 413:781, 2001.
.D. O. Hebb,1949 monograph, The Organization of Behavior
Dweck, Carol. Mindset The New Psychology of Success, 2006 random House, NY
References
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References
Medina, John, Brain Rules, Pear Press, 2008
Sylwester, R. A Celebration of Neurons An Educators Guide to the Human Brain, ASCD:1995
Sprenger, M. Learning and Memory The Brain in Action by, ASCD, 1999
.How People Learn by National Research Council editor John Bransford, National Research Council, 2000
Goldberg, E. The Executive Brain Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind ,Oxford University Press: 2001
Ratey, J. MD. Spark: The New Science of Exercise and the Brain, 2008, Little Brown
Ratey, J. MD :A Users Guide to the Brain, Pantheon Books: New York, 2001
Zull, James. The Art of Changing the Brain.2002, Stylus: Virginia
Weimer, Maryellen. Learner-Centered Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 2002
Sousa, David. How the Brain Learns(Corwin Press, Inc., 1998),
Long-Lasting Novelty-Induced Neuronal Reverberation during Slow-Wave Sleep in Multiple Forebrain AreasSidarta Ribeiro,Damien Gervasoni, Ernesto S.Soares, Yi Zhou, Shih-Chieh Lin, Janaina Pantoja, Michael Lavine, Miguel A. L. Nicolelis , 2004
(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)
3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. Isolation of a Central Bottleneck of Information Processing with Time-Resolved fMRI. Neuron.52 (6): 1109-1120
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The End
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1. John T. Bruer, "Education and the Brain: A Bridge Too Far," Educational Researcher, November 1997, pp. 1-13; idem, "In Search of . . . Brain-BasedEducation," Phi Delta Kappan, May 1999, pp. 648-57; and idem, "Points ofView: On the Implications of Neuroscience Research for Science Teachingand Learning: Are There Any?," CBE Life Science Education, vol. 5, 2006, pp. 445-61.
2. Bruer, "In Search of," p. 655.
3. Leslie A. Hart, Human Brain,Human Learning (New York: Longman, 1983). 4. Howard Gardner, Frames ofMind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Renata N. Caine and Geoffrey Caine,Making
Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain (Alexandria,Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991); David A. Sousa, Howthe Brain Learns, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin, 2005); and Eric Jensen, Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd ed. (Alexandria, Va.: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2005).
5. Conor Liston, "An Interview with Antonio R. Damasio," The Harvard Brain, Spring 2001, p. 2, emphasis added.
6. Gerd Kempermann, Laurenz Wiskott, and Fred Gage, "Functional Significance of Adult Neurogenesis,"Current Opinion in Neurobiology, April 2004,pp. 186-91.
7. Marco Iacoboni et al., "Grasping the Intentions of Others with One's Own Mirror Neuron System," PLoS Biology, 22 February 2005, available athttp://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030079. 8. Michael Kilgard and Michael Merzenich, "Cortical Map Reorganization Enabled by Nucleus Basalis Activity," Science, vol. 279, 1998, pp. 1714-18;
Henry W. Mahncke et al., "Memory Enhancement in Healthy Older Adults Using a Brain Plasticity-Based Training Program: A Randomized, ControlledStudy," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, 15 August 2006, pp. 12523-28; and Elise Temple et al., "Neural Deficits in Children withDyslexia Ameliorated by Behavioral Remediation: Evidence from Functional MRI," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, 4 March 2003,pp. 2860-65.
9. Bruce McEwen and John Wingfield, "The Concept of Allostasis in Biology and Biomedicine,"Hormone Behavior, January 2003, pp. 2-15. 10. Bruce Lipton, The Biology of Belief(Santa Rosa, Calif.: Mountain of Love Publishing, 2005); and Ernest Rossi, The Psychobiology of Gene Expression
(New York: Norton, 2002).
11. Temple et al. (learning to read); HweeLing Lee et al., "Anatomical Traces ofVocabulary Acquisition in the Adolescent Brain,"Journal ofNeuroscience, 31 January 2007, pp. 1184-89 (learning vocabulary); Bogdon Draganski et al., "Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Brain StructureChanges During Extensive Learning,"Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 26, 2006, pp. 6314-17 (studying for tests); and Christien Gaser and Gottfried
Schlaug, "Brain Structures Differ Between Musicians and Non-Musicians,"Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 23, 2003, pp. 9240-45 (learning to play amusical instrument).
.
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12. Panaqiotis G. Simos et al., "Dyslexia-Specific Brain Activation Profile Becomes Normal Following Successful Remedial Training," Neurology, April2002, pp. 1203-13.
13. Nancy Brener, John O. G. Billy, and William R. Grady, "Assessment of Factors Affecting the Validity of Self-Reported Health-Risk Behavior AmongAdolescents: Evidence from the Scientific Literature,"Journal ofAdolescentHealth, vol. 33, 2003, pp. 436-57.
14. Henriette van Praag et al., "Running Enhances Neurogenesis, Learning and Long-Term Potentiation in Mice," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, vol. 96, 1999, pp. 13427-31; and Ana C. Pereira et al., "An InVivo Correlate of Exercise-Induced Neurogenesis in the AdultDentate Gyrus," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, vol. 104, 2007, pp. 5638-43.
15. Grace S. Griesbach et al., "Voluntary Exercise Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Upregulation and Recovery ofFunction," Neuroscience, vol. 125, 2006, pp. 129-39.
16. Tracey J. Shors et al., "Neurogenesis in the Adult Is Involved in the Formation of Trace Memories," Nature, vol. 410, 2001, pp. 372-76; and YasujiKitabatake et al., "Adult Neurogenesis and Hippocampal Memory Function: New Cells, More Plasticity, New Memories?,"NeurosurgeryClinics NorthAmerica, January 2007, pp. 105-13.
17. L. Sanji Nandam et al., "5-ht(7), Neurogenesis and Antidepressants: A Promising Therapeutic Axis for Treating Depression,"C
linical Experiments inPharmacology and Physiology, May-June 2007, pp. 546-51.
18. Gitanjali Saluja et al., "Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adolescents," Archives of Pediatric andAdolescentMedicine, August 2004, pp. 760-65.
19. Astrid Bjornebekk et al., "The Antidepressant Effect of Running Is Associated with Increased Hippocampal Cell Proliferation," International Journalof Neuropsychopharmacology, September 2005, pp. 357-68.
20. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970).
21. Bruer, "In Search of."
22. Ibid., p. 657. 23. Chunliu Zhan and Marlene R. Miller, "Excess Length of Stay, Charges, and Mortality Attributable to Medical Injuries During Hospitalization,"
Journal of the AmericanMedicalAssociation, October 2003, pp. 1868-74.
24. Bruer, "In Search of."
25. Bruer, "Points ofView: On the Implications of Neuroscience," p. 104. 26. Temple et al., op. cit.
27. Michael Posner and Mary Klevjord Rothbart, Educating the Human Brain (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2006); SallyShaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia (New York: Random House, 2004); and Helen Nevills and Pat Wolfe, Building the Reading Brain (Thousand Oaks, Calif.:Corwin, 2005).
28. Julia Hanna, "Mind, Brain, & Education: Linking Biology, Neuroscience, & Educational Practice,"Harvard Graduate School of Education News, 1June 2005, available at www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/mbe06012005.html
It is a Comprehensive Blend
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It is a Comprehensive Blend
Antonio Damasio, head of the department of neurology atthe University of Iowa Medical Center
"The relation between brain systems and complex cognitionand behavior, can only be explained satisfactorily by acomprehensive blend of theories and facts related to all thelevels of organization of the nervous system, frommolecules, and cells and circuits, to large-scale systems andphysical and social environments. . . .
We must beware of explanations that rely on data from onesingle level, whatever the level may be."