Suicide Terrorism in South Asia

Riaz HassanInstitute of South Asian StudiesNational University of Singapore7 September 2012Life as a Weapon: Making Sense of Suicide Bombings Nature of the Phenomenon and its Historical Roots

Analysis of Global Trends

Explanatory Paradigms

Lessons from my Research Suicide Bombing emblematic of Modern Wave of Global Terrorism 1980-Previous Global Waves: -Anarchist (1880-1910) -Anti-Colonial (1920-50) -New Left (1960s)

Suicide and Suicide BombingsWhat drives human to suicide?In sociology and psychiatry suicide viewed as an END- Exist from intolerable personal pain and adverse social conditions Suicide NOT an END but a MEANS to achieve multiple ends:Self empowerment in the face of powerlessnessRedemption in the face of damnationHonour in the face of humiliation

Suicide Bombings: Modern Phenomenon with Ancient RootsUse of life/suicide mission as proactive and empowering political act and not a resolution of personal crisis.Selected Historical ExamplesCatos SuicideCrucifixion death of Jesus ChristJewish Zealots and SicariiOrder of AssassinsJapanese Kamikaze Pilots

Japanese tradition of political and military sacrificeKamikaze suicide missions operated for ten months, from 25 October 1944, until Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. In all some 3,843 pilots gave their lives. Most were young, well-educated men who understood that pursuing conventional warfare would likely end in defeat. These suicides attacks did not stop the Americans, but they were four to five times more deadly than conventional strike missions and imposed high costs on the invasion forces. In the battle of Okinawa (April 1945) two hundred kamikaze rammed fully fuelled fighter planes into more than three hundred ships, killing five thousand Americans in the most costly naval battle in US history. Japanese officials regarded kamikaze pilots not suicide but as human bombs for their country and comrades.

These cases are illustrations of my thesis that under certain circumstances the act of suicide is a means of achieving multiple ends. They show the instrumental use of life itself as a weapon. These acts were means to communicate valued ideals to the wider community and to inflict physical and/or symbolic pain and loss on the opponent. In all these cases, as is also true in the case of suicide bombing, the actions of the actors are seen by their reference group as rational and altruistic. In this respect these deeds belong to a family of actions in human society that include religious martyrdom, self-immolation, hunger strikes and war heroism, in which people go to extremes of self-sacrifice in the belief that by doing so they are furthering the interests of their group or the cause they value and strongly identify with.

Global Trends 1981-20112297 Suicide Bombings Attacks which killed 29951 people in 36 Countries

Suicide Bombings are 4 % of all terrorist attacks but accounted for 32 % all terrorist fatalities

Global Trends: Worldwide Incidence of Suicide Attacks

Incidence of Suicide Attacks in South Asia,1981-2011CountryTotal suicide attacksTotal death from suicide attacksDeaths per attackWorld22972995113Iraq9791276813.1Afghanistan54536046.6India131027.8Pakistan277418615.1Sri Lanka107154414.4Deaths from Suicide Attacks and All Forms of Terrorism*Source: MIPT database (www.tkb.org) and FUSTD (2008). Data for 1981-2006*Deaths from suicide attacks refers to the minimum number killed.**n = NumberYearAll terrorist attacks(n)**Suicide attacks(n)**Suicide attacks as % of all terrorist attacksDeaths from all terrorist attacks(n)**Deaths from suicide attacks*(n)**Deaths from suicide attacks as % of all deaths1981-20062965512004458161459932Zealots and Sicarii were militant Jewish revolutionaries determined to liberate Judea from Roman occupation. They used violence to provoke a popular uprising which the historians call the Jewish wars of AD 66 committing numerous public assassinations from 4BC to 70AD.The Shia Muslim sect in North Western Iran in 11th-12th Century created an effective organization for planned systematic murders that relied on suciide missions for success. For two centuries they terrorized and demoralized the mainly Sunni leaders of the region as well as the Christian Crusaders. Between 1894-1907 the anarchists killed King of Italy, the President of France, The Empress of Austria along with 4,500 Russian Officials. They also killed President William McKinley of the United States (Leon Czologosz). FBI, Scotland Yard and Russian Secret Service were created to counter the Anarchist threat. Kamikazes (Shinpu divine wind) Oct 1944 - August 1945. Total 3843 pilots gave their lives suicide attacks were 4 to 5 times more effective.They damaged or sunk 375 US Naval vessels and killed 12,300 American servicemen and wounded 36,400.Devised by Rear Admiral Kameto Kurushima as part of his invincible war preparation plan on July 7th, 1944, when Japans defence parameter was collapsing following the fall of Saipan in 1944.

12Lethality of Suicide Attacks*YearAverage yearly suicide attacksDeaths per suicide attack*Average yearly non-suicide terrorist attackDeaths per non-suicide terrorist attack1981-2006 461210941.1Source: MIPT database (www.tkb.org) and FUSTD (2008)*Deaths from suicide attacks refers to the minimum number killedThe advent of modern era suicide terrorism arguably began with the attacks on the Iraqi embassy in Beirut in December 1981. In October 1983 Hezbollah used suicide attacks killing nearly 300 American and French servicemen. This led to the withdrawal of the American and French multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon, making suicide attacks an effective strategic political weapon. By 1985 the use of suicide attacks had succeeded in forcing Israel to abandon most of southern Lebanon.In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, suicide attacks began with attacks by Hezbollah trained members of Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), aimed at derailing the Oslo Peace Accord. In 1988, PIJ founder Fathi Shiqaqi had formulated the guidelines for exceptional martyrdom operations involving suicide attacks.

13Suicide Bombing Deaths, Selected Countries, 1981-2006Country****As % of all terrorist attacks*Suicide bombings/all terrorist attacksAs % of all terrorism deaths**Suicide bombing deaths/all terrorism deathsDeaths per suicide bombingRatio***Iraq9651/7400315767/18865901:04.5Israel/Palestine7217/3167611016/1664501:22.3Lebanon948/54069802/11621701:22.9Chechnya/Russia428/79237660/17912401:14.4Pakistan549/95238680/17841401:11.4Afghanistan435/96213198/1582601:04.1Source: MIPT database (www.tkb.org) and FUSTD (2008)* Suicide bombing as a percentage of all terrorist attacks. ** Deaths from suicide bombing as % of all terrorism related deaths.*** Ratio of average deaths from non-suicide bombing terrorism to average deaths from suicide bombing.****Sri Lanka was omitted because the lack of data on all terrorist attacksTotal Missions Islamic Organizations = 34.6Secular Organizations = 52.8Other (of unclear attribution) = 13.4

14Targets of Suicide Bombings, Selected Countries,1981-2006Middle EastSouth AsiaTargetsGlobalIraqIsrael/ PalestineLebanonSri LankaPakistanAfghanistanInfrastructure111356123Local Security /Public officials45502942694438Foreign forces/ contractors911146912Civilians3021636122424Others542082424Total100100100100101*101*101*Her other findings were that most were deeply resentful of Israeli occupation and had strong feeling of humiliation, anger, and revenge resulting from life under the Israeli occupation. They were deeply involved in the Palestinian cause and had an aversion to the moderate position of PLO.

15Types of Suicide Bombings, Selected Countries,1981-2006Middle EastSouth AsiaWeaponGlobalIraqIsrael/PalestineLebanonSri LankaPakistanAfghanistanSVA56721990432037SBA40286610467757Others*40.41501137Total100100.4**100100100100101**Source: FUSTD (2008)*Others include conflicting reports**Percentages rounded up. SVA = Suicide Vehicular AttackSBA = Suicide Belt/Bag AttackMost of the insurgents are drawn from Pro-Baathist and ex-regime supporters, Sunni Iraqi Islamists and foreign Islamists and volunteers.

16Explaining Suicide BombingPersonal Characteristics/Motivations of Perpetrator

Terrorist Organizations

Societal Conditions

Personal Characteristics/Motivations of PerpetratorPerceptions of Suicide and Terrorism -Suicide - Psychopathological Behaviour -Terrorism Criminal ViolenceSuicide Bombers -Psychopaths/paranoid personality -Sociopaths -Religious Fanatics -Uneducated -PoorNeither Rational or Reasonable Public Policies -Killing, restraining, incarcerating deranged individuals in order to remove them from society

Terrorist OrganizationsWeaker party in asymmetrical conflicts between state and non-state actorsStrategic Weapon-Comparatively lethal-Mechanically simple/cheap-Versatile and tactically efficient in reaching well-guarded targets-High symbolic value signalling resolve and dedication-Mobilise support from sympathetic constituencies.Paying off Terrorist Organizations-Coercing adversary to make concessions-Giving organization advantage over rivalsPublic Policies-Targeted killing of leaders (mutation of terrorist organization)-Altruistic punishments

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) have been fighting for the liberation of Sri Lankan Tamils and for a Tamil National State in the north and east of Sri Lanka since the early 1970s. It was originally one of several groups involved in this national project but over the years has become the dominant player in this struggle. There are competing explanations how it has become such a dominant military and political force of great tenacity, offering a very strong resistance to the much stronger, larger and well equipped national army. The important part of LTTE armed struggle has been the elite unit known as the Black Tigers (including Black Sea Tigers). This unit consists of a carefully selected and highly trained and disciplined group of LTTE soldiers whose missions include suicide attacks. The reputation of the Black Tigers is such that under the current cease fire arrangements, the Sri Lankan government explicitly asked the LTTE to disband the Black Tigers unit as a sign of its commitment to the peace process (Hopgood 2005).

19Societal ConditionsOppressive occupation of homeland by powerful enemy.Violations of cultural codes of Honour/ ShameHumiliationRevenge/RetaliationAltruistic sacrifice for honorable survival of self-communityPublic policies-Conditions of refugee camps-Treatment of prisoners

Five Case StudiesIraq Palestine/IsraelAfghanistanPakistanSri Lanka

The Ethics of Suicide Attacks: Are Suicide Attacks Morally Justified? Wrong?Margaret BattinThe claims that Suicide attacks are amoral, the product of psychopathology or mental illness, religious fanaticism are inadequate.The central core of the issue of suicide bombing rests on the violation of a tacit assumption of equality in moral combat, including war and other forms of combat and aggression. It is at roots an issue of fairness one with disturbing implications.Palestinians, Iraqis insurgents, Tamil Tigers are controlled in such a manner as to prevent them from acquiring equality in combat or advantage- conferring weapons. Under such conditions other form of strategies such as suicide attacks are an advantage conferring weapon- they have a weapon we dont. (The case of Hezbollah, last attack 1989, why?)Wests practice of labelling suicide attacks as suicide- a pejorative term- and not as defensible cases of martyrdom is highly problematic from an ethical point of view.A practice that involves killing is repugnant in that fact alone, but whether it is a practice of heightened, aggravated immorality is issue that remains to be further explored.

21LessonsGenesis of Suicide BombingsIntractable political conflicts over political entitlements, territorial occupation, dispossessionState sanctioned violence/ repression against non-state/weaker party causing widespread outrageLarge scale population dislocations /refugee campsIncarceration of dissidents/ insurgents/ dehumanizing treatment Psychological operations/mutual demonizationSuicide Bombers are not madStudies have failed to find a stable set of demographic, psychological and socioeconomic variables that can be causally linked to suicide bombers personalities or socioeconomic origins.No apparent connection between violent militant activity and personality disorders.Becoming suicide bombers is a highly selective process which acts as a screening device to exclude psychopathological individuals as groups recruit members whose behavior appears normal.Most suicide bombers are psychologically normal, deeply integrated into social networks and emotionally attached to their national communities.

A Strategic weapon/tacticInstrumental and strategic weapon used by well organized terrorist groups representing weaker party in asymmetrical conflicts related to struggle for greater autonomy or liberation of homeland.Deployment determined by cost effectiveness, versatility, lethality and tactical efficiency in reaching high value targets.High symbolic value due to the willingness of perpetrators to die as symbols of a just struggle, galvanize financial support and inspire new recruits.Serve interests of sponsoring organization by coercing adversaries to make concessions and by giving the organization advantage over its rival in terms of support from constituencies.

Driven mainly by politics not religionUsed in political conflicts over political entitlements, dispossession and territorial occupation.Weapon of last resort by sponsoring organizations after long protests, political agitation and other forms of non violent methods have failed.In some cases religion can play a vital role in recruiting and motivating future suicide bombers, particularly when secular ideologies fail to bring about desired change.Sometimes religious differences fuel the conflict but invariably in the context of a desire for honorable survival of the political community.Between 1981-2003; 43% were by religious organizations while 53% were by political/secular organizations

Driven mainly by politics not religionParticipation in suicide missions has multiple purposes:-Gaining community approval, personal redemption and honor for survival of community. -Political success-Liberation of home land-Signals unwillingness to subjugation-Revenge, guilt, shame and for personal and collective humiliation-Acts of religious or nationalistic convictions-Material or religious rewards-Escape from daily degradations of life under occupation, boredom, anxiety and defiance.

Humiliation aids sub-culture of suicide bombingHumiliation: an intense personal and emotional experience arising from destructions of culturally grounded definitions of self worth and dignityMeans of inflicting humiliations-Violence, torture-Daily degradations of occupations-Sense of collective grievances-Repression, violation of accepted codes of honor and shame-Massive economic and social dislocations-Anxiety and helplessness are powerful means of inflecting humiliations

Humiliation aids sub-culture of suicide bombingHumiliation is a potent technique of social control. Modern intuitions play important role in production of humiliation.Fear is instinctive response to potential danger, humiliation is an emotional process to lower self worth and respect of the humiliated. -Example: Abu Ghraib techniques-forced nudity, simulated sex with another man in front of a female, not intended to inflict physical pain but to create submission and obedience. These practices worked on what it meant to be an honorable, self respecting subject in Iraqi society. The prison practices were designed to make the subject feel unworthy and transform this feeling into total obedience to humiliating authority.Sometimes driven by revenge and retaliationRevenge is infliction of harm in return for perceived injury. Desire for revenge and willingness to carry out violence are tied to self worth of the offended person and to deterrent role against future injustices.Revenge fulfills many goals including righting perceived injustices, a response to continuous suffering of an aggrieved community.Important element of desire for revenge is willingness to sacrifice in order to carry out act of revenge. Motivations of vengeful act actions have a strong altruistic component which manifests itself in the act of self sacrifice for the sake of ones family, community or ideology.Personal motivation for revenge is very common aspect of human nature. -According to Hanna Arendt to resort to violence when confronted with outrageous events or conditions is enormously tempting because of its inherent immediacy and swiftness.. acting without arguments or speech and without counting the consequences is the only way to set the scale of justice right again.

Altruistically driven actionIn Durkheims conceptual map, suicide bombings will fall into category of altruistic suicide. Altruistic suicides involve valuing ones life less worthy than groups honor, religion or some other collective interest.In its essence altruism is a costly action that benefits others. It is fundamental condition explaining human cooperation for organization of society and its cohesiveness.From sociological and economic perspectives, suicide bombings can be linked to altruism as a form of intergenerational investment in which the agent gives up current consumption for the sake of enhancing the betterment of the descendants.Altruism is not antithetical to aggression. In war soldiers perform altruistic actions by risking their lives for comrades and country. Actions of Japanese kamikaze pilots in World War 11

In communities undergoing massive social and economic dislocations because of endemic and violent conflicts with a more powerful enemy altruism rises and people react by valuing and supporting ides of self sacrifice such as suicide bombings Shafiqa, an incarcerated failed Palestinian suicide bomber in Israel, did not detonate her device after seeing a woman with a little baby in her carriage. And I thought, why do I have to do this to that woman and her child?... I wont be doing something good for Allah. I thought about the people who loved me and about the innocent people in the streetIt was a very difficult moment for me.Are suicide bombers mindless or mindful killers? As Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo puts it, It is neither mindless nor senseless, only a very different mind-set and with different sensibilities than we have been used to witnessing among young adults in most countries.

Altruistic PunishmentSuicide bombings invariably provoke a brutal response from authorities.By injecting fear and mayhem into ordinary rhythms of daily life, such bombings undermine the states authority in providing security and maintaining social order. State can legitimately impose altruistic punishments to deter future violation threatening security and social order. These include punishments meted out to perpetrators and their supporters. The state-sanctioned military actions against the Palestinians, Sri Lankan Tamil Tigers, Iraqi insurgents and the Taliban in Pakistan and Afghanistan are examples of these punishments.

Altruistic punishments are only effective when they do not violate the norms of fairness. Punishments and sanctions seen as unfair, hostile, selfish and vindictive by targeted groups tend to have detrimental effects. Instead of promoting compliance, they reinforce recipients resolve to non-compliance.Counter-insurgency operations are aimed at increasing the cost of insurgency to the insurgents, and invariably involve eliminating leaders and supporters who plan suicide bombings, destroying insurgents capabilities for mounting future attacks, and restrictions on mobility and other violations of civil liberties.

Countering suicide terrorismKilling and incarcerating the perpetratorsTargeted killing of terrorist leaders- Israeli and US polices Suicide bombings are carried out by community based organizations. Strategies aimed at findings ways to induce communities to abandon such support may isolate terrorist organizations and curtail their activities.Strategies addressing and lessening the grievances and humiliation of populations that give rise to suicide attacks are required for their elimination. Support for suicide bombings attacks is unlikely to diminish without tangible progress in achieving at least some of the fundamental goals that suicide bombers and those sponsoring them and supporting them share

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