Liberation Theology and Indigenous Religions: Confronting History, Ensuring a Future

In examining the origins of liberation theology and investigating the history and

evolutions of current indigenous religions in Latin America, an interesting trend of religious

incorporation of historical and sociopolitical movements seemed to emerge that combined serve

as a function of empowerment. More specifically, liberation theology in Latin America and Latin

American indigenous religions, evidently dissimilar in a multitude of ways, nevertheless each

contain an immensely fascinating and ultimately far-reaching relationship with colonial

domination and the sociological implications of oppression. They both incorporate histories and

responses of the oppressed, and additionally address the economic and sociopolitical disparities

resulting from colonial conquest and genocide that are still prevalent to this day. Liberation

theology, a relatively new school of theology within Christianity, directly addresses the century-

spanning exploitation of the oppressed and confronts the popular abandonment of human

responsibility towards the world’s poor. On the other hand, indigenous religions, some of them

preceding colonial conquest in Latin America, have witnessed revitalization in recent years and

have contributed to a process of ethnic identity recovery of indigenous groups in Latin America.

These religions both provide their communities with an imperative function of influence on the

societies they respectively involve and ultimately illustrate the reciprocal relationship between

societal institutions and religious life, as detailed in Livingston’s explication of sociological

analysis of religion (Livingston 22).

Liberation Theology

Latin American liberation theology must be understood against the history of greed and violence, suffering and oppression, and death and destruction that have characterized Latin America for five centuries since the arrival of Christianity. The so-called discovery of the Indies by Christopher

Columbus was to have a cataclysmic effect on a vast continent, and its historical consequences have been etched deeply into today’s societies.

- David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology

To begin, Livingston presents liberation theology as an example of interpretive variation

of the Bible highlighting how persons “living in conditions of poverty or discrimination might

recognize relevant meanings and themes in the Bible that other contemporary readers would

either fail to recognize or not appreciate” (120). Among impoverished, oppressed, and

uneducated workers and farmers in Latin America and the Third World, Roman Catholic

theologians have organized grassroots groups to learn how to read and to listen to the Bible,

focusing on the its illuminations on God’s concern for the “exploited, marginalized, and poor”

(120). Theologian and scholar Christopher Rowland cites several features that distinguish

liberation theology:

. . . first of all, it is rooted in ordinary people’s everyday experience of poverty. Second,

it involves a use of Scripture, the interpretation of which is closely related to that

experience. Third, it is a theology which in many parts of the world has deep roots

within the life of the Church . . . fourth, it has flourished in the meetings of groups within

urban or rural settings . . . fifth, there is a theology which engages the whole person in

the midst of a life of struggle and deprivation . . . finally, books of the Bible and parts of

the theological tradition, often ignored or despised, become a vehicle of hope and insight

in these situations of oppression and deprivation (1-2).

According to author Rosemary Ruether, recent theologies of liberation have also highlighted

oppressed communities’ role as the primary sources of the power for repentance and judgment

(Ruether 6). Ruether goes on to explain how liberation theology has the difficult task of “inward

liberation” of oppressed and impoverished communities, which includes a reversal of the often-

internalized negative image society has assigned to them. Essentially, their situation as victims

distorts their self-image into an internal belief that in a sense, assigns the role of the inferior (11-

12). She explains, “they have been victimized by their powerlessness, their fear and their

translation of these into an internal appropriation of subservient and menial roles . . . typically

the oppressed turn their frustration inward, destroying themselves and each other” (17). Thus,

the belief that God’s salvation will first come to the poor presents an important—and some

would argue, essential—step in this process of self-image reversal and “inward liberation.”

Liberation theology also includes a heightened emphasis on the Christian community’s

obligation to the world’s poor. In his book Liberation Theology, Latin American evangelical

Emilio Núñez cites theologian Gustavo Gutierrez’ opinions on Christianity. According to

Gutierrez, Christianity is authentic and complete only when it wholeheartedly commits itself to

struggle to liberate the oppressed. Núñez goes on to explain that the analytical content of

liberation should include a denouncement of domination, an awareness of the mechanics of

dependence, as well as a consciousness of the sociopolitical disparities resulting from a capitalist

economic system (Núñez 135). In a sense, Nùnez and Gutierrez are illuminating the tendencies

of more developed societies to remain ignorant of their role (within a capitalist and increasingly

globalized system) in the oppression of the world’s poor, as well as shirking any responsibility

towards developing societies they may possess. These aspects of liberation theology directly

respond to the sociological repercussions that institutionalized oppression and deprivation have

on the poor, as well as the obligation of the rest of the Christian community to take responsibility

for this situation of oppression.

Indigenous Religions

The unique aspect of this movement . . . is the awakening of a claim from indigenous people, oppressed by the secular state, and involved in confrontation with all the Latin American nation-states, which have colluded since the 19th century in the exclusion and marginalization of the indigenous population.

- Cristián Parker Gumucio, “Religion and the Awakening of Indigenous People in Latin America”

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Indigenous religions are the majority of the world’s religions and are incredibly diverse,

occurring everywhere on earth (Harvey 4-5). Such a far-reaching and diversified category makes

adequate and accurate analysis difficult, if not nearly impossible, and in researching this paper,

several instances of frustration regarding the breadth of information occurred. However, despite

the seemingly inaccurate attribution of the label “indigenous religions” to such seemingly wide-

ranging variations, there are general beliefs that apply to many (but certainly not all) indigenous

religions. In editor Christopher Partridge’s anthology, he illustrates the importance of respect in

most indigenous religions, although the focus of respect in relation to whom and with what

various within different indigenous religions (101). Partridge also highlights that many

indigenous religions hold the belief that everything in the world was created through a collective

process of many “significant persons.” Significant persons, Partridge explains, can include

humans (i.e. family members, shamans, rulers), but not exclusively; in many indigenous cultures,

words equivalent to “person” can include the natural world as well (102). Additionally, the

exchange of gifts provides an essential element for initiating and maintaining relationships in

many indigenous religions and serve as signs of respect, love, support, help and compassion.

Gifts also serve an important function in the dynamics of power, the understanding of which

remains a central theme in many indigenous religions. Finally, the role of shamans or other

spiritual diviners can be commonly found in indigenous religions (103).

Shamanism is perhaps the world’s oldest form of religion, and has been attributed to

hundreds of religions around the world (Vitebsky 55). Shamanic believers often say that many

aspects of the world—animals, trees, streams, mountains, and even man-made objects—are

instilled with spirits. The shaman is able to perceive the “true nature” or “essence” of these

spirits and to understand how they influence or affect the world and can additionally use this

understanding to transform unwanted situations into desirable ones (Vitebsky 58). Although a

shaman’s practice undoubtedly varies across cultures, the theological explanation describes a

communion with the divine involving many pragmatic goals—medical, psychiatric, and social.

The phrase “indigenous religion,” previously addressed as problematic due to the broad

scope of different religions included within the term, has also proved challenging in religious

understanding, particularly when taking into account the various incorrect, limited and

patronizing connotations ascribed to the phrase. Some of the terms commonly associated with

indigenous religions include “primitive,” “pre-literate,” “primal” or “archaic” and “traditional”

(Harvey 7-9). While avoiding examination of specific terms, there’s an apparent trend within

this group of words—and concurrently within religious understanding that is satisfied with

superficial examinations—of an assumed simplicity and backwardness. Harvey goes on to

challenge this assumption of “indigenous” as comparable with “ancient” or “simple.” He states

that the label “indigenous religions” valuably points to the “. . . celebration of the experience of

continuity of peoples and places. The label respects the almost ubiquitous centrality of elders

and ancestors as holders and sharers of tradition. It respects the almost ubiquitous veneration of

particular lands. This is a theme that recurs in the living and study of indigenous religions” (12).

Partridge explains that even though the spread of transcultural or global religious

traditions (i.e. Christianity, Buddhism, Islam) has destroyed some indigenous religions,

indigenous religions are not remotely a tradition of the past. He states, “. . . although indigenous

religions are severely affected by colonialism, they continue to provide resources for people

surviving and thriving in the new, globalized world” (101).

Comparative Analysis

In his introduction to the nature of religion, James C. Livingston states his working

definition of religion. He clarifies religion “. . . is that system of activities and beliefs directed

toward and in response to that which is perceived to be of sacred value and transforming power”

(8). He goes on to demonstrate the multidisciplinary approach one must utilize in order to

perform a thorough investigation of religion and the purposes it serves. He presents the various

fields of study that are included in the study of religion, “including a variety of types of literary

analysis or criticism; history; the tools of sociology, anthropology, psychology, and philosophy”

(16). Sociology, Livingston explains, focuses more on a religion’s interaction with other aspects

of human social experiences. He presents an example of the functional questions sociological

exploration focuses on, including: “how the dynamics of human social life and institutions effect

changes in religious life and, in turn, how religious belief and behavior act on and transform

social behavior” (22).

Liberation theology and indigenous religions within Latin America both have an

intricately reciprocal relationship with the societies in which they occur and additionally

challenge the institutionalized state structures of their given societies. Additionally, the founding

of liberation theology more or less coincides with the re-emergence of indigenous groups and

accompanying religious revitalization in Latin America. Also, both religions emphasize an

assertion of human rights that have been historically—and presently—undermined, and

consequently demand recognition of the wrongs that have been committed against them.

However, despite these similar relationship dynamics, comparable time frames and assertion of

and demand for fundamental human rights, there proves to be quite a difference in emphasis on

proposed solutions. While liberation theology proposes a wide-ranging reconstruction of societal

organization, the re-emergence of indigenous religions focuses more on recognition within the

current social structure.

When examining the historical implications that have come to influence these religions, it

is important to note liberation theology and indigenous religions are not mutually exclusive in

terms of their respective histories, since many of the followers of liberation theology share a

history with those of indigenous religions. More specifically, the oppression of the impoverished

members of liberation theology, as well as the marginalization and mistreatment of indigenous

populations, come from the same source of Iberian conquest. The Iberian empires prove to be a

traceable source to the current affluence of the few and suffering of the majority (Tombs 24).

Both religions are currently engaged in political and social struggles for recognition of human

rights (Gumucio 68).

As previously mentioned, the origins of liberation theology deal directly with present-day

social realities; in fact, Núñez directly addresses the importance of treating theological reflection

as a product of social situation and praxis, stating “liberation theology has as its social frame of

reference the reality of poverty in Latin America” (115). He goes on to illustrate the shift in

emphasis from faith-based examinations common in many religions to a more practical,

everyday examination of social situations. He states, “. . . for Latin American evangelicals the

problem has to do with the causes of poverty and with its cure, not with its reality [unlike some

other religions], which is very evident. The deficiency in housing, health, and education is

enormous. The number of undernourished children is in the millions” (127). He goes on to

explain the proposed solutions found among many liberation theologians, explaining:

. . . previous attempts to bring about changes within the existing order have proven futile.

This analysis of the situation is at the level of scientific rationality. Only a radical break

from the status quo, that is, a profound transformation of the private property system,

access to the power of the exploited class, and social revolution that would break this

dependence would allow for the change of a new society . . . according to liberation

theologians, the church ought to identify itself with the cause of the oppressed and fight

for their total liberation here and now . . . that is its mission, they contend (128).

The renewed importance of indigenous religions in group identity addresses historical as

well as present day social dynamics. The eruption of the indigenous movement in the region had

very important underlying social and political causes. However . . . religion appears as a

profound source of strength, wielding undeniable great influence upon the reconstitution of

ethnic identities and the formulation of ethnic claims and principles for the 21st century.

Indigenous groups are currently engaged in a battle “for the specificity of people and their

communities, for their ancestral lands, and for their cultural expression. Belief is by no means

uniform among indigenous peoples. But there is no doubt that religion is a part of the process of

recovery of ethnic identity, even though it is under threat from globalization” (Gumucio 68).

However, this political and religious movement contrasts greatly with the solutions proposed by

liberation theology. While liberation theology insists on a collective restructuring of society,

indigenous groups, aided with the empowerment given to them through religious identification,

are not engaging in a revolutionary discourse.

Liberation theology and indigenous religions in Latin America both confront histories

that involve centuries of institutionalized oppression and human rights abuses. Liberation

theology serves as a tool of empowerment for the impoverished, people who have time and again

been told their place in the world by the social and political institutions of their respective

homelands. Similarly, indigenous religions have also served as a source of strength for

indigenous groups that have experienced inhumane marginalization and mistreatments for far too

long. Although the religious revitalization has accompanied political movements, indigenous

religions in Latin America have served an essential function of unification and power for their

respective groups. However, liberation theology proposes as a solution to the now-endemic

poverty a complete restructuring of society, while indigenous groups are demanding recognition

in the existing social structure. Despite these differences in aims, liberation theology and

indigenous religions both directly address the sociological conditions they find themselves in.

Both of these religions involve an assertion of basic human rights that have been largely

marginalized and/or suppressed in present-day society. Both of these religious movements

involve a demand for acknowledgment of historical injustices. Finally, both of these religions are

providing their followers with assurances of an improved tomorrow.

Works cited

Harvey, Graham, ed. Indigenous Religions: A Companion. London: Cassell Inc., 2000.

Gumucio, Cristián Parker. “Religion and the Awakening of Indigenous People in Latin

America.” Social Compass 2002; 49; 67.

Livingston, James C. Anatomy of the Sacred: An Introduction to Religion, 6th ed. New Jersey:

Pearson Education, Inc., 2009.

Núñez, Emilio A. Liberation Theology. transl. Paul E.Sywulka. Chicago: Moody Press, 1985.

Partridge, Christopher, ed. “Indigenous Religions.” Introduction to World Religions.

Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005.

Rowland, Christopher, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Liberation Theology. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Ruether, Rosemary. Liberation Theology: Human Hope Confronts Christian History and

American Power. New York: Paulist Press, 1972.

Tombs, David. Latin American Liberation Theology. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc.,

2002.

Vitebsky, Piers. “Shamanism.” Introduction to World Religions. Minneapolis: Fortress Press,

2005.