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LESSON PLAN – AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVE: To determine that the student exhibits knowledge of the elements related to operation of systems on an airplane single-engine land

REFERENCES:- U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, . Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. FAA-H-8083-25. AFS-630, Oaklahoma City, OK, 1999.- U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Flight Standards Service. Private Pilot For Airplane Single- Engine Land Practical Test Standards. FAA-S-8081-14S. 1995. Newcastle, WA: Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., 2002. IA Certificates and Documents

ELEMENTS: Primary Flight Controls, Trim, Flaps, Leading Edge Devices Powerplant, Propeller Landing Gear, Fuel, Oil, Hydraulic Systems Electrical, Pitot-Static, Vacuum Environmental Systems, Deicing and Anti-icing Systems Avionics System

SCHEDULE: EQUIPMENT:Introduction :03 White BoardDevelopment :60 Dry Erase MarkersStudent Questions :05 Aircraft POHReview/Conclusion :05Total: 1:13

INSTRUCTOR’S ACTIONS: Introduce lesson (attention, motivation, overview) Describe each type of system found in a student’s training aircraft Provide practical test standards Provide time for student questions Ask review questions Summarize lesson

STUDENT’S ACTIONS: Arrive prepared by reading Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

chapters 4, 5, and 6 Listen actively (taking notes when necessary) Participate in discussion Ask pertinent questions

COMPLETION STANDARDS: The student will understand all the systems in his/her training aircraft including its purpose, location, limitations, and proper use through explanation and oral quizzing

Erich Fitschen Rev. 08-31-20048-1

LESSON OUTLINE – AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

I. Introduction A. Attention 1. Pilot on a cross country flight decided to switch his tank from left tank to full right tank 2. About one minute after the pilot switched his tank, the engine coughed and cut out 3. Pilot initiated an emergency engine out landing off field damaging both the gear and propeller 4. If pilot knew his fuel system well, he would have known that for this particular aircraft, the electric fuel pump must be on before tanks are switched to maintain fuel pressure B. Motivation 1. Understanding the systems of your aircraft are critical to efficient and safe flight 2. Knowledge of systems will allow you to be able to troubleshoot problems with viable options C. Overview

1. Systems include the description of each system including, flight controls, power plant, propeller, landing gear, hydraulic , electrical, pitot-static, flight instruments, environmental, de-icing, and avionics2. Systems also include the limitations and proper usage in the flight environment

II. Development A. Primary Flight Controls 1. Ailerons a. Control roll about the longitudinal axis b. Attached to outboard trailing edge of each wing c. Move in opposite direction from eachother d. Connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys or push-pull tubes to control yoke e. Moving yoke/stick to right: 1.) Moves right aileron up creating negative camber and decreasing lift 2.) Moves left aileron down increasing camber and increasing lift 3.) Resultant differential in lift rolls the aircraft to right f. Adverse Yaw 1.) Downward deflected aileron creates lift and as a result, induced drag 2.) Drag yaws aircraft in direction of raised wing 3.) Rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw g. Differential Ailerons 1.) One aileron is raised greater than the aileron is lowered 2.) Produces greater drag on descending wing 3.) Helps to counteract adverse yaw h. Frise-Type Ailerons 1.) Raised aileron pivots on an offset hinge 2.) Projects leading edge of aileron into airflow and creates drag 3.) Helps equalize drag created by lowered aileron 4.) Creates slot for airflow over aileron making it effective at high AOA i. Coupled Ailerons and Rudder 1.) Linked aileron rudder


2.) Deflects rudder at same time ailerons are moved 3.) Rudder force can be overriden if necessary to slip 2. Elevator a. Controls pitch about the lateral axis b. Connected to yoke/stick by series of mechanical linkages c. Aft movement of yoke/stick deflects trailing edge up d. Decreases camber and created downward force on empennage e. Causes nose to pitch up f. Opposite direction of yoke/stick causes the opposite action g. Stabilator 1.) One-piece horizontal stabilizer 2.) Pivots around a central hinge making it very sensitive 3.) Antiservo tabs on trailing edge decrease sensitivity and act as trim h. T-Tail 1.) Above effects of downwash 2.) Makes control movement consistent 3.) Control forces greater at slow speeds due to reduced propwash i. Canard 1.) Horizontal stabilizer located in front of main wings 2.) Creates lift and holds nose up 3.) Will lose authority before main wing will stall 3. Rudder a. Controls yaw about the vertical axis b. Located on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer c. Moving pedals moves the rudder in the same direction creating lift on the vertical stabilizer in the opposite direction and yawing the nose in the desired direction d. V-Tail 1.) Two slanted tail surfaces acting as horizontal and vertical stabilizers 2.) Ruddervators - Moveable surfaces used to control pitch and yaw 3.) Moving yoke/stick back or foreward causes ruddervators to move in same direction for pitch 4.) Moving rudder pedals causes ruddervators to move in opposite direction for yaw B. Secondary Flight Controls 1. Flaps a. High lift device b. Attached to trailing edge of wing c. Increase both lift and induced drag for any given angle of attack d. 4 Types: 1.) Plain Flap a.) Increases airfoil camber b.) Increases coefficient of lift at a given AOA c.) Increases drag and moves center of pressure aft on airfoil nosing-down pitch 2.) Split Flap a.) Deflected from lower surface of airfoil b.) Slightly increases lift c.) Produces signifigant drag due to turbulent air behind airfoil


3.) Slotted Flap a.) High energy air from lower surface ducted to upper surface b.) Accelerates upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation c.) Increases the coefficient of lift dramatically 4.) Fowler Flap a.) Changes camber and increases area of the wing b.) First portion increases lift with little drag as it moves aft c.) Second portion increases drag as flap begins to move down with little lift 2. Leading Edge Devices a. Fixed Slots 1.) Direct airflot to the upper wing surface delaying airflow separation at higher AOA 2.) Creates a higher coefficient of lift b. Movable Slats 1.) Leading edge segments that move on a track 2.) High pressure holds slats against wing 3.) At high angles of attack, high pressure moves back alowing slat to fall and allows air to flow over top of wing delaying airflow separation c. Leading Edge Flaps 1.) Increase camber and coefficient of lift 2.) Reduces nose down effect while increasing lift and drag 3. Spoilers a. Spoil smooth airflow b. Reduces lift and increases drag c. Used for roll control on some aircraft due to lack of adverse yaw d. Used to descend without gaining speed e. Used to shorten ground roll after landing 4. Trim Systems a. Used to relieve pilot to maintain constant pressure on controls b. Trim Tabs 1.) Attached to trailing edge of elevator 2.) Moves in opposite direction of desired movement of elevator 3.) Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration is changed, airplane will need to be retrimmed c. Balance Tabs 1.) Coupled to the control surface rod 2.) When primary control surface is moved, balance tab moves in opposite direction 3.) Used for excessively high control forces d. Antiservo Tabs 1.) Decreases sensitivity of stabilator 2.) When stabilator moves down, antiservo tab moves down e. Ground Adjustable Tabs 1.) Non-moveable metal trim tab on rudder 2.) Tab bent in one direction on ground to apply force 3.) Usually on small aircraft f. Adjustable Stabilizer


1.) Linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its rear spar 2.) Use of jackscrew mounted on leading edge of stabilizer 3.) Small planes operated with trim wheel or crank 4.) Large planes operated with motor C. Powerplant - Airplane engine and propeller 1. Reciprocating Engines a. Back and forth movement of pistons b. Classification 1.) By cylinder arrangement of crankshaft (radial, v-type, opposed) 2.) By method of cooling (liquid or air-cooled) c. Radial - Rows of cylinders in a circular pattern creating a favorable power to weight ratio d. In-line Engine 1.) Small frontal area 2.) Power-to-weight ratio is low 3.) Rear cylinders receive little cooling in air cooled engines 4.) Limited to four or six cylinders e. V-Type Engines 1.) More horsepower than in-line 2.) Small frontal area f. Opposed-type Engines 1.) Air cooled 2.) High power-to-weight ratio 3.) Compact fronal area 2. Main parts of a Reciprocating Engine a. Cylinder b. Crankcase c. Accesory Housing d. Intake / Exhaust Valves e. Spark Plugs f. Pistons 3. Four-Stroke Operating Cycle a. Conversion of chemical to mechanical energy b. Intake 1.) Piston starts downward travel 2.) Intake valve opens 3.) Fuel/air mixture drawn into cylinder c. Compression Stroke 1.) Intake valve closes 2.) Piston starts moving up 3.) Compresses air/fuel mixture d. Power Stroke 1.) Fuel/air mixture ignited 2.) Increases pressure immensely 3.) Forces piston downward e. Exhaust Stroke


1.) Exhaust valve opens 2.) Purges cylinder of burned gases 3.) Cylinder moves back up f. Each cylinder operates on a different stroke D. Propeller 1. Rotating airfoil 2. Provides thrust to push or pull an airplane 3. Propeller is twisted to produce uniform lift due to outer blade rotating faster than inner 4. Fixed-Pitch Propeller a. Pitch set by manufacturer b. Climb Propeller - Lower pitch, less drag, higher rpm, increasing performance during takeoffs and landings but lacks performance during cruise c. Cruise Propeller - Higher pitch, more drag, lower rpm, less horsepower , decreases performance during takeoffs and climbs, but efficient at cruise flight d. Tachometer is indicator of engine power calibrated in hundreds of rpm 5. Adjustable-Pitch Propeller a. Converts high percentage of brake horsepower (BHP) into thrust horsepower (THP) over a wide range of RPM and airspeed b. Throttle controls power output c. Propeller control regulates engine rpm d. When rpm is selected, govenor adjusts to new propeller blade angle to maintain selected rpm e. Power output is indicated by manifold pressure guage in inches f. Reduce manifold pressure (throttle) before reducing rpm (prop) g. Increase rpm (prop) before increasing manifold pressure (throttle) h. Operation at maximum rpm and low manifold pressure should be avoided E. Landing Gear 1. Principal suport of airplane on surface 2. Wheels, floats, or skis 3. Tricycle Landing Gear a. Allows more forceful break application b. Better forward visibility during takeoff, landing, and taxiing c. Prevents goundlooping due to more stability 4. Tailwheel Landing Gear a. Two main wheels up front and one tail wheel b. More ground clearance for larger propeller c. CG behind main gear making directional control more difficult d. Lack of good forward visibility 5. Fixed Landing Gear - Always remain extended, simple, and low maintenance cost 6. Retractable Landing Gear - Stow inside structure making it streamlined 7. Brakes a. Located on main wheels b. Actuated by hand or foot pedals c. Differential braking supplements nose steering F. Fuel Systems 1. Provide uninterupted flow of clean flow from the fuel tanks to the engine


2. Gravity fed systems use gravity to pull fuel down to the engine 3. Fuel pumps a. Engine Driven - Main fuel pump b. Electrically Driven - Auxiliary pump used for increased pressure during events that may interrupt normal fuel flow 4. Fuel Primer a. Draws fuel from tanks to vaporize directly into the cylinders prior to starting b. Helpful in cold weather when not enough heat present to vaporize fuel c. Make sure to lock after use to avoid excessively rich mixture 5. Fuel Tanks a. Located inside wings b. Filler cap on top c. Vented outside to maintain atmospheric pressure inside d. Allows fuel to expand with increase in temperature 6. Fuel Guages a. Indicate fuel in gallons or pounds b. Only require accuracy when they read empty c. Always visually inspect fuel tanks 7. Fuel Selectors a. Allows selection of fuel from various tanks b. Monitor guages closely to not run fuel tank dry c. Air may enter fuel line and cause vapor lock 8. Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains a. Strainer - Removes moisture and sediments b. Sump - Low point in fuel system or tank

c. Should drain fuel to check for water, contaminants, and proper grade fuel 9. Fuel Grades a. Identified by octane number (Grade) designating the antiknock value b. The higher the grade, the more pressure the fuel can withstand without detonating c. Higher grades used in higher-compression engines because they must ignite at higher temperatures d. Dyes are added to help identify type and grade of fuel 1.) Red - Avgas 80 2.) Green - Avgas 100 3.) Blue - Avgas 100LL 4.) Jet A - Colorless e. Refueling - Grounding the aircraft is necessary to discharge any static electricity and igniting fuel or fuel fumes using a metal cable and a clip G. Oil Systems 1. Functions of oil a. Lubrication of engine’s moving parts b. Cooling of engine by reducing friction c. Removing heat from cylinders d. Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons e. Carries away contaminants 2. Dry Sump - Oil contained in separate tank and circulated by pumps


3. Wet Sump - Oil is located in the sump as part of the engine 4. Oil pressure guage measures pressure in pounds per square inch 5. Oil temperature guage measures temperature 6. Oil filler cap and dipstick accessable under the engine cowling for required quantity H. Hydraulic Systems 1. Used to move objects that require large amounts of force over small distances 2. Consists of reservoir, pump, filter, selector valve, relief valve, and actuator 3. Hydraulic fluid pumped through system to an actuator or servo 4. Single-acting - Power in one direction 5. Double-acting - Power in both directions 6. Servo - Cylinder with a piston inside that turns fluid power into work 7. Selector valve allows fluid direction to be controlled 8. Relief valve provides an outlet for system in case of excessive pressure 9. Uses: a. Landing Gear b. Brakes c. Prop Hub d. Control Surfaces I. Electrical System 1. Equipped with 14 or 28 volt direct-current electrical system 2. Consists of : a. Alternator/generator - Provide current and charge battery b. Battery - Provide electricity when engine is low or not running c. Master/battery switch - d. Alternator/generator switch e. Bus bar, fuses, or circuit breakers f. Ammeter/loadmeter g. Associated wiring 3. Alternators produce enough current to operate entire system even at slow speeds 4. Ground Power Unit (GPU) may be connected to provide supplemental power during starting 5. Master switch turns electrical system on/off 6. Alternator switch isolates alternator in case of failure 7. Battery switch controls power in the same way as the master 8. Bus bar used as a terminal to connect all the equipment to the battery/alternator 9. Fuses or circuit breakers used to protect the equipment from overload 10. Ammeter used to monitor performance by showing if alternator is producing enough electrical charge (zero, positive, or negative charce) 11. Loadmeter shows load in amps placed on the alternator from electrical equipment 12. Voltage regulator controls rate of charge to the battery J. Pitot-Static System 1. Impact Pressure Chamber a. Air striking airplane enters through pitot tube located in minimum disturbance area b. Impact pressure affects pressure in pitot chamber and transmits pressure to airspeed indicator through pitot line 2. Static Pressure Chamber


a. Vented through small holes to the free undisturbed air b. As pressure increases or decreases, the pressure in the static chamber changes c. Alternate source provided in some planes usually lower in pressure than normal 3. Altimeter a. Measures height of airplane above a given pressure level b. As aircraft ascends, static pressure decreases c. An aneroid wafer is sealed inside the altimeter case and expands as the surrounding air pressure from the static line decreases d. Linkages connect this expanding wafer mechanically to the pointers on the face of the altimeter indicating a higher altitude e. Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature 1.) If flying from a high pressure to a low pressure area and maintaining altitude off the altimeter, the aircraft would actually be lower than indicated. 2.) High below, lookout below 3.) Warm temperature has a larger volume due to its expanding nature increasing the pressure levels 4.) Cold temperature works opposite by decreasing the pressure levels 5.) Hot to cold, lookout below f. Altimeter Setting 1.) Kollsman window allows for altimeter to be updated with local barometric pressure 2.) All aircraft adjust for same pressure for proper altitude separation g. Types of Altitude: 1.) Indicated Altitude - Altitude read directly from altimeter 2.) True Altitude - Vertical distance above sea level 3.) Absolute Altitude - The vertical distance fo an aircraft above the terrain (AGL( 4.) Pressure Altitude - Altitude when altimeter is set to 29.92 Is theoretical plane where air pressure (at 15C) equals 29.92”. Used to compute density altitude and true altitude 5.) Density Altitude - Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature h. Altimeter Check - Should be accurate within 75’ of known elevation 4. Vertical Speed Indicator a. Works solely off static pressure measuring differential pressure b. Calibrated leak in an aneroid wafer measures the amount of pressure that cannot escape fast enough c. In a climb, there is more pressure in the aneroid wafer than outside so it expands showing a positive rate of climb d. In a descent, there is less pressure in the aneroid wafer than outside so it contracts showing a negative rate of climb e. Instrument Check - Verify by making sure needle is near zero on the ground 5. Airspeed Indicator a. Measures differential pressure from impact pressure and static pressure b. Registered on airspeed indicator as miles per hour or knots c. Types of Airspeed: 1.) Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - Read off the airspeed indicator 2.) Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Indicated airspeed corrected for installation and


instrument error 3.) True Airspeed - Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and nonstandard temperature (use computer or add 2% to CAS for each 1,000’ of altitude) 4.) Groundspeed (GS) - True airspeed adjusted for wind. d. Markings 1.) White Arc - Flap operating range 2.) Lower limit of White Arc (VSO) - Stall speed in landing configuration (dirty) 3.) Upper limit of White Arc (VFE) - Maximum flap extended speed 4.) Green Arc - Normal operating range 5.) Lower limit of Green Arc (VS1) - Stall speed in specified configuration typically with flaps up, gear up, and cowl flaps closed (clean) 6.) Upper limit of Green Arc (VNO) - Maximum structural cruising speed not to exceed except in smooth air 7.) Yellow Arc - Caution range only to be flown in smooth air. 8.) Red Line (VNE) - Never exceed speed d. Other Airspeed Limitations 1.) Maneuvering Speed (VA) - Maximum airspeed for abrupt maneuvers 2.) Landing Gear Operating Speed (VLO) - Maximum airspeed for extending or retracting the gear 3.) Landing Gear Extended Speed (VLE) - Maximum speed for flying the airplane with the landing gear extended and locked 4.) Best Angle-of-Climb Speed (VX) - Airspeed at which the airplane gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given distance 5.) Best Rate-of-Climb Speed (VY) - Airspeed at which the airplane gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given time 6.) Minimum Control Speed (VMC) - Minimum speed at which a twin-engine airplane can maintain directional control when one engine becomes inoperative

7.) Best Rate-of-Climb Single-Engine (VYSE) - Speed with most altitude gain in a period of time with one engine operating on a twin-engine airplane

e. Instrument Check - Airspeed indicator should read zero when not moving 6. Blockage of Pitot-Static System a. Blocked Pitot System 1.) 2 Drains; pitot tube, drain hole 2.) Blocked Pitot Tube a.) Air in system vents through drain hole b.) Remaining pressure drops to ambient pressure c.) Airspeed indicator decreases to zero 3.) Blocked Pitot Tube, Drain Hole, Static System a.) Trapped pressures b.) Changes in airspeed will not be indicated 4.) Blocked Pitot Tube, Drain Hole a.) Static system remains clear b.) Airspeed indicator acts as altimeter b. Blocked Static System 1.) Airspeed indications are slower than actual speed 2.) At lower altitude, a faster than actual airspeed is indicated tue to low static


pressure trapped in the system K. Gyroscopic Flight Instruments 1. Gyroscopic Principles a. Rigidity in Space - Gyroscope remains in fixed position in plane in which it is spinning b. Precession - The tilting or a gyro in response to a deflective force. Reaction to a force reacts 90 away from where the force was applied. 2. Turn and Slip Indicator a. Gyro rotates in a vertical plane b. Single gimbal limits the planes which gyro can tilt c. Turn needle shows direction and rate of turn 3. Turn Coordinator a. Shows rate of roll and rate of turn due to cant b. Used to establish standard rate turn (3 per second) c. Does not show angle of bank 4. Inclinometer a. Curved glass tube, housing a glass ball, damped with fluid b. Used to show relationship between gravity and centrifugal force in a turn c. Centered by using rudder d. Slipping Turn - Turn to right and ball is right of center, push right rudder to correct e. Skidding Turn - Turn to right and ball is left of center, push left rudder to correct 5. Attitude Indicator a. Relationship of mianature airplane to horizon bar is same as real airplane to earth b. Instantaneous indication of changes in attitude c. Gyro mounted on horizontal plane with 2 gymbals pitched and banked about its lateral or longitudinal axis d. Adjustment of miniature airplane made by knob to align with horizon e. Markings on outer ring indicate banks of 10, 20, 30, 60, and 90 f. Markings on horizon indicate pitch of up and down of 10, and 20 6. Heading Indicator (Directional Gyro) a. Irons out errors found with the magnetic compass b. Rotor turns in a vertical plane c. Points to the same position on vertical plane while aicraft rotates around d. Precession causes DG to be off so update to compass is needed every 15 minutes L. Magnetic Compass 1. Works off Earth’s magnetic field by pointing to magnetic north 2. Magnetic field has vertical component of pull which is zero% at the equator and 100% at poles 3. Causes compass needle to dip as they get closer to poles 4. Two steel magnetized needles fastened to a float mounted on a compass card 5. Variation - Difference between true and magnetic course varies depending on your location and may have to add or subtract the variation (subtract in west and and in east) 6. Deviation - Errors due to magnetic fields in cockpit are small and located on compass card 7. Acceleration/Deceleration Errors - When heading East/West turns north when accelerating and turns south when decelerating initially (ANDS)


8. Turning Errors - When heading North/South in northern hemisphere compass lags behind on a northern heading and leads on a southern heading (UNOS) M. Outside Air Temperature Guage - Thermometer in Celcius and Farenheight N. Environmental System 1. Heating System a. Includes heat shroud, heat ducts, defroster outlets, and defroster controls b. Ram air flows over the heater shroud surrounding the muffler and into the heater shut-offs. c. When heater shut-offs are opened then heated air enters the heat ducts located along each side of the center console 2. Defrosting System a. Accomplished by heat outlets located on the left and right side of the cowl cover b. Heated air ducted to defroster shut-off valves at fire wall then into the defroster outlets c. Airflow is regulated by a defroster control located below the heat control 3. Ventilation a. Overhead fresh air outlets supply fresh air from an air inlet located on the side of the left aft fuselage beneath the dorsal fin b. Blower forces outside air through the overhead vents for ground use O. De-icing and Anti-Icing Systems 1. De-icing Equipment - Designed to remove ice once it has formed a. De-icing Boots - Rubber boots on leading edge of wings inflate to break ice up b. Pitot heat - Heat created from electrical current on metal pitot tube melts ice c. Carbureator Heat - Deflects hot air from engine shroud enriching the mixture with hot air in the venturi melting ice formation 2. Anti-icing Equipment - Designed to prevent the formation of ice a. Thermal anti-icing System - Heat from compressor section on engine directed to leading edge of wings melt ice from underneath b. Weeping Wing - Small holes on leading edge pumps chemicals (antifreeze) c. Alcohol bled onto windshield d. Embedded wires in windshield heated electrically melts ice from windshield e. Alcohol discharged at base of propeller flows outward preventing ice from forming f. Propeller Boot - Embedded with electrical wires that alternate heating up on inboard and outboard sections on propeller blade P. Avionics System - 1. Transponder a. Enhances your aircraft’s identity on an ATC radar screen b. Required to operate in controlled airspace c. Transponder code consists of 4 numbers from zero to seven (4,096 possible codes) d. Standard Codes: 1.) VFR - 1200 2.) Hijacked - 7500 3.) Communication Failure - 7600 4.) Emergency - 7700 5.) IFR - Assigned by ATC e. Squawk - Term used to set transponder to a specified code


f. Mode C - Transponder capable of encoding your altitude for radar display 2. VHF Communication Equipment a. VHF - Very High Frequency range b. Works on line of sight c. Transciever - Transmitter and receiver combined d. Frequency range from 118.0 mhz to 135.975 mHz in spacing of 50kHz or 25kHz e. On/Off control turns radio on and typically controls volume f. Squelch Control - Adjust how strong a received signal has to be to hear it g. Frequency Selector - To change the frequency h. Flip/Flop - Change between active and standby frequencies 3. Intercom - Allows for intra-cockpit conversation a. Volume Control - To adjust intercom volume b. Squelch - To adjust amount of volume required from mouth to transmit through intercom c. Radio Selectors - Selects from various installed radios including Com1, Com2, Nav1, Nav2, Marker Beacons, and both d. Pilot Button - Isolates all occupants except pilot from radios e. Crew Button - Isolates all occupants except crew from radios f. PA Button - Opens communication for public address from in-cockpit speaker 4. GPS - Global Positioning Satellite 5. TCAS - Traffic Collision Avoidance System 6. GPWS - Ground Proximity Warning System 7. Timer

III. Common Errors A. Rudder is used to coordinate a turn, not to turn the aircraft itself B. Flaps are a high lifting device but are also used to create drag C. Trim tabs move in the opposite direction of an elevator where antiservo tabs move in same direction of stabilator D. Propeller angle on incidence on a fixed pitch propeller is not consistent throughout length but reduces as propeller moves outboard due to the difference in rotating speeds E. Altimeter measures pressure of ambient air, not the actual distance to the ground F. Density altitude is not a usable altitude except for performance considerations with the wings, engine, propellers, and altimeter G. VX is the fastest way to climb with respect to horizontal distance even though it may take longer to climb to the same altitude at VY

H. Turn coordinator does not show angle of bank, that is the attitude indicator’s job I. Must undershoot a heading by up to 30 when making a compass turn heading north since the compass lags from the magnetic fields J. Must adjust squelch, volume, and check frequency of radio before conducting lost communication procedures

IV. Conclusion - Thouroughly understanding all the systems of your particular airplane are critical in solving problems when failures occur. It allows you to identify when a failure has occurred and allows you to rely on other systems to complete your flight at hand. Some of the worst accidents could have been avoided if the pilot simply knew how to use all his


systems in his airplane.

V. Possible Review Questions A. If you move the airplane’s yoke/stick to the right, what direction will each aileron move? B. Does the horizontal stabilizer provide positive or negative lift? C. What are the 4 stages of a 4-stroke engine? D. What is the correct grade and color for the aircraft we train in? E. What are the oil volume limitations for the aircraft we train in? F. How many amperes does the alternator on our aircraft put out? G. Will the engine still run if the electrical system fails? H. What is the difference between calibrated airspeed and true airspeed? I. What type of anti-icing equipment do we have on the aircraft we train in? J. If we make a turn from 270 to 180 using only the compass and stop right when the compass indicates 180, what will the compass read once it is stabilized?


VI. Figures

Figure 7-1 Aircraft Axes of Rotation

Figure 7-2 Adverse Yaw from Ailerons

Figure 7-3 Control of Elevator


Figure 7-4 Control of Rudder

Figure 7-5 Types of Flaps

Figure 7-6 Types of Leading Edge Devices


Figure 7-7 Four Stroke Cycle

Figure 7-8 Changes in Propeller Blade Angle

Figure 7-8 RPM of Propeller


Figure 7-9 Cross Section of a Carburetor

Figure 7-10 Formation of Carburetor Ice


Figure 7-11 Wet Sump Oil System

Figure 7-12 Schematic of Electrical System


Figure 7-13 Basic Hydraulic System
