lele - indian armed forces and space technology

India Review, vol. 10, no. 4, OctoberDecember, 2011, pp. 379393Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN 1473-6489 print; 1557-3036 onlineDOI: 10.1080/14736489.2011.624023

Indian Armed Forces and Space Technology

AJEY LELE

IntroductionA country like India faces both asymmetric as well as conventionalthreats. Externally, the two main sources of threat to Indias stabilityare Pakistan and China. Pakistan, in particular, consistently impingeson Indias domestic stability by supporting terrorism on Indias terri-tory. The nature of the China-Pakistan relationship vis--vis India isthat of the enemys enemy being a friend. In the past, India has foughtwars with the two countries and there continue to be several unresolvedbilateral issues with both of them. The security dynamics of the regionis further complicated by the fact that all the three are nuclear weaponstates.

Indias geographic borders are mostly surrounded by either failedor failing states, which generate deep security concerns. Terrorismremains a significant threat for India, but other asymmetric threatslike the use of weapons of mass destruction, cyber terrorism, andinformation warfare also loom large. Massive urbanization and indus-trialization is fast depleting Indias limited natural resources. Thetopography, terrain and climatic conditions of the Indian peninsulamake the country more prone to natural disasters. Threats from climatechange, epidemics, and food and energy insecurity also persist.

The Indian armed forces are guardians of Indias sovereignty andterritorial integrity. They also form a part of the countrys disastermanagement setup and are also involved in United Nations peacekeep-ing operations. To address such a complicated threat and risk matrix,India has evolved a multilayered security architecture. Indias armedforces are among the worlds largest. They also have a few supportservices for specific roles such as the Border Security Force (BSF),Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), and the Indian Coast Guard,

Ajey Lele is a Research Fellow at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses(IDSA), New Delhi, India.

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among others. For the last couple of years, Indias defense budget hasbeen almost steady at around 22.5% of its GDP (the Union bud-get 201112 allocates US$36.03 billion for defense, around 1.8% ofprojected GDP).1

The Indian armed forces dependence on technology has increasedin the post-Cold War era. The Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)2

has become a reality for Indias defense establishment. Theoretically,the concept of RMA goes much beyond technology. Its technologicalelement revolves around intelligent use of information and communi-cation technology. A combination of various high-tech sensors, robustinformation systems and stealth technologies which support the C4ISR(command, control, communication, computers, intelligence, surveil-lance, and reconnaissance) structures of the armed forces have madeRMA possible. RMA is also about the induction of unfailing andother modern state-of-the-art weapons and weapon delivery platformtechnologies.

Only rich and technology-savvy nations like the US can afforda full-scale RMA model in their defense doctrines. India follows atwo-pronged approach of investing in indigenous development of tech-nologies and also signing agreements for technology purchase/transferwith other countries. The Indian armed forces have a mix of both con-ventional and emerging technologies. They appear to be opting for ahybrid RMA3 model, combining both conventional and modern tech-nologies. In these circumstances, space becomes an extremely impor-tant segment of Indias security architecture. This article attempts tounderstand how the Indian state views space in its overall securitycalculus.

The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is the only agencyin India responsible for the development of space assets. Indias armedforces are still in the process of evolving their space strategy: no majorcommand and control structures exist to address issues related tospace.4

Encapsulating Indias Space ProgramVikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan were the chief architects of theIndian space program. From a modest beginning in the early 1960s,the journey of the Indian space program has been mostly a story ofmajor successes, though it has also had its share of failures. Untilrecently, space had essentially remained in the sphere of civilian

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influence. Currently, the Indian space agenda portrays a promis-ing integrated program, which is largely independent and driven bypotential applications.5

The Indian space program focuses on the application of space tech-nology as a tool for socioeconomic development of the country. Itsbasic aim is to use space technology in vital areas of development suchas communications, meteorology, and natural resource management.The Indian space program was not born out of any military programlike the ballistic missile program, but was focused on establishing satel-lite launch capabilities. Over the years, ISRO has established a stronginfrastructure for remote sensing and communications satellite systemswith launcher autonomy. In 1992, ISRO established its commercialoutlet, that is, the Antrix Corporation (antrix is an Anglicizedspelling of antariksha, which is a Sanskrit term roughly translatableto space). Antrix markets ISROs space and telecommunicationsproducts.6

Initially, the Indian space program focused on mainly experimental,low capability projects that allowed Indian scientists to gain experiencein the construction and operation of satellites and launch vehicles.7

Subsequently, from the mid-1980s, India focused on more capable,mission-specific systems. India has demonstrated its capabilities to putsatellites weighing around 2500 kg into geostationary orbits. India hasplans to develop launch vehicles to launch 4400 kg satellites to geosta-tionary transfer orbit with growth potential towards a 6000 kg payloadcapability through minor improvements.8 However, India is yet tosuccessfully make cryogenic engines. The ISRO suffered two majorfailures with its GSLV (geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle) pro-gram in 2010: the April 15, 2010 launch of GSLVD3 and December 25,2010 launch of GSLV F06 were failures.

On the other hand, Indias success in the arena of remote sens-ing satellites is noteworthy. Indias products in this field match thebest in the world. ISRO has also made progress in small, micro andnano satellites. Over the years, Indias space program has added thenew dimension of exploring planets to its agenda. India has alreadysuccessfully finished its first Moon mission.

India launched its first satellite in 1975. Thus, approximatelytwenty-five years of the initial phase of the program were devotedto developing satellite technology mainly for social purposes. Thefirst indication of Indias attempts to develop satellite technology for

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military purposes came with the launch of the Technology ExperimentSatellite (TES), weighing 1108 kg, in October 2001. With this, Indiabecame the only country after the US to offer images with one meterresolution commercially. TES, however, is a dual-use system: it hasbeen reported that TES helped the US army with high-resolutionimages during the 9/11 counter-insurgency against the Taliban.9

Military Space Program

ContextIndias military operates under a democratically elected government.The military leadership understands that the traditional view ofsecurityfocused on the application of force at the state levelis afairly narrow view, hinging on military security alone,10 and is notfully valid in modern times. On the other hand, the broader definitionof security encompassing issues like economic, environmental, socialand human security, and, at times, security discourse brings every issueunder the security umbrella and as a consequence makes the processof prioritization difficult. To address this challenge, the Governmentof India has tasked its National Security Advisory Board (NSAB)11 toarticulate a coherent national security strategy.

Some Indian states are larger than several countries of the world.12

India has no political ambitions beyond its own borders. However,Indias contribution to various UN missions demands that Indiantroops operate in different theaters all over the world. Also, someIndian-owned oil assets are spread over other parts of the world. Indianoil companies have succeeded in getting a significant foothold globallyand are operating in 14 countries.13 Geographically, Indias location atthe base of continental Asia astride the Indian Ocean places it at a van-tage point in maritime trade. India has a strong stake in the security andstability of these waters since a large proportion of Asian oil and gassupplies is shipped through the Indian Ocean.14 Therefore, this entirearea is of considerable importance to India. Theoretically, this entirearea becomes an area of interest not from a classical military sense, butmore from a wider strategic sense. Space technologies offer a significantadvantage in monitoring this region.

Space technologies have military utility in regard to communica-tion, reconnaissance and navigation. The 1991 Gulf War and a fewsubsequent military campaigns like Kosovo and the wars in Iraq and


Afghanistan have demonstrated that space technologies have significantmilitary utility. Such usage of space assets is known as militarizationof space, a globally-accepted phenomenon. On the other hand,weaponization of space involves putting weapons in space and/orintentionally damaging the space assets of other states by using anti-satellite (ASAT) or jamming technologies and other such acts; such actsare universally unacceptable.

Indian analysts are of the view that the use of space where theIndian armed forces are concerned is currently limited to areas likecommunication and navigation; but in the future, dependence is likelyto increase for surveillance and even for counter space capabilities.15 Afew analysts, both Indian and non-Indian, are of the view that alongwith conventional uses of space for the militaries, it is also importantthat the use of space to conduct defensive and offensive cyber warfaregets due recognition.16 Given the ongoing modernization of the Indianmilitary, references to the importance of space in certain Indian doc-trinal documents, Indias widening national interests in Central Asia,Middle East, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and North- and South-EastAsia, and the wider trend of Indias emergence as a world power, it islikely that the Indian militarys dependence on space assets will deepenin the years to come.17

Space Assets of Military ImportanceCommunication satellites form an important element of Indias spaceinfrastructure. India has a large network of optical fiber cables, digitalmicrowave and satellite communication systems.18 Its telecommunica-tions industry is growing rapidly; it is projected that Indias mobilesubscribers will exceed the subscriber count in China by 2013.19

It appears at present that India is making a transition from totallydepending on dual-use satellite technology to having dedicated defensesatellites. The IAF and the Indian Navy have been expressing theirinterest in acquiring dedicated satellites in the last couple of years. TheIndian Army is also keen to have a satellite to cater to its require-ments exclusively. The IndianNavy is poised to become the first serviceamong the Indian armed forces to get a dedicated satellite to facilitateits communication- and network-centric warfare requirements. Thissatellite is expected to be launched into geostationary orbit by ISROin 2011. With a dedicated satellite at its command, the Indian Navy,like other major naval powers, will be in a position to network all

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its warships, submarines and aircraft with each other and operationalcenters on shore with the help of high-speed data links, allowing formaritime threat detection and sharing of real-time data to enable swiftreaction.

The Indian Navys primary area of strategic interest is from thePersian Gulf to the Malacca Straits. A dedicated satellite is expected tomake available dedicated sensors to provide a clear picture of all actorsin the constantly changing maritime environment. The Indian Navyis to induct eight P-8i long-range maritime patrol aircraft between2013 and 2017 from the United States. This satellite will guarantee theavailability of state-of-the-art C4ISR capabilities for these aircrafts.20

A dedicated satellite for the IAF is likely to be launched in the nearfuture.21 The IAF is planning to integrate space-based applicationsextensively into conventional strategies and operations. It is alreadyusing space for telecommunications, reconnaissance, navigation target-ing, and many other operations. The IAF is adopting a focused and fasttrack approach to harness space effectively to provide synergy with allfacets of its operational roles.22

The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of Earthobservation satellites built, launched, and maintained by ISRO sincethe 1980s. The Indian capabilities in this field match the best in theworld. A few of the IRSs launched since 2000 are particularly beingviewed as satellites with dual-use utility. TES, launched in 2001, wasdescribed by ISRO chief K. Kasturirangan as a satellite meant forcivilian use consistent with states security concerns.23 Subsequently,India has launched the Cartosat (Cartographic satellite) series. Theseare believed to have significant military utility. Defense MinisterPranab Mukherjee told Parliament in August 2005 that India wasassembling a military surveillance and reconnaissance system that wasplanned to be operational by 2007.24 Cartosat 1 and Cartosat 2 highresolution satellites, with 2.5 meter and one meter resolution, respec-tively, were launched in 2005 and 2007, respectively. These satellites areuseful for urban and rural development. Cartosat 2A was launched inApril 2008 and has a resolution of 0.8 meter. Cartosat-2B was put intoorbit on July 12, 2010. All these satellites together allow India a 24 x7 capability to monitor its region and the surroundings.

India also has plans to launch a series of defense-dedicated satellitesin the coming years. According to V.K. Saraswat, Director General ofthe Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO), Indiacould launch one or two satellites every year to boost its capability


to scan multiple activities on and across its borders. Also, India isexpected to send data and commands through such satellites to itscruise missiles.25

ELINT (electronic intelligence) satellite is another area where theDefense Electronics Research Laboratory (DLRL), a unit of DRDO,is developing a dedicated network-centric communication intelligencesatellite for detecting conversations and espionage activities in theregion. This program was announced in February 2010 by DLRLdirector G. Bhoopathy. He has disclosed that DRDL is in the pro-cess of designing and developing a spacecraft fitted with an intelligentsensor that will pick up conversations and communications across theborders. The spacecraft is expected to be ready for launch by 2014.

For satellite navigation, which would have both civilian and mil-itary utility, ISRO is developing a system called the Indian RegionalNavigation Satellite System (IRNSS). This would be a constellation ofseven satellitesthree in GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit) and fourin GSO (geostationary Earth orbit). This system would provide posi-tion accuracies similar to the Global Positioning System (GPS) (10mover the Indian landmass and 20m over the Indian Ocean) in a regioncentered on the country, with coverage extending up to 1500 km fromIndia.26

Policymaking StructuresThe Standing Committee on Defense in its seventh report to thethirteenth Lok Sabha (Lower House of Parliament) in 2000 had rec-ommended the development of an aerospace command as a part of theplan for modernization of the IAF. The Ministry of Defense was of theview that development in space technologies can be utilized by the IAFin the following ways:

a) To build real-time situational awareness through space communi-cation and space sensors.;

b) To link radar and other communications networks over the entirelength and breadth of the country;

c) To assist in Ballistic Missile Defense;d) To gather real-time intelligence about enemy aircraft, missiles and

space-borne threats; ande) To prevent the enemy from using its space assets by resorting to

jamming.

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The committee again recommended in 2003 (thirteenth report) thatthere was an immediate need to form an Aerospace Command,27 butthe proposal appears to be stillborn.

Meanwhile, India has established a Space Cell under the com-mand of the Integrated Defense Services (IDS) Headquarters. HQ IDSis a single tri-Service window for interaction in space by all agencies,including external ones. It also acts as a single organization for inte-gration among the armed forces, the Department of Space, and ISRO.Such a body is probably required because of offensive counter spacestructures and an improved array of military space systems emerg-ing in Indias vicinity.28 HQ IDS has developed Defense Space Vision(DSV) 2020 and has the task of formulating a Draft Space Doctrine.29

Intelligence, reconnaissance, surveillance and navigation have beenidentified as the thrust areas in the first phase (200712) of this vision.Since IDS is a nodal agency, it is expected that the space visions ofindividual services will be fed into this vision. V.K. Saraswats state-ments indicate that there is a definitive space roadmap ready; plans forundertaking different satellite launches are in progress; and, in fact,a few launches have already taken place.30 Naturally, it is likely totake some more time to fit the defense requirements into its mandate.It also needs to be noted that developing space vision is a dynamicprocess.

India is planning to conduct various missions over the nextfive years to achieve multiple objectives in navigation, positioning,advanced communications, space transportation, Earth observation,and space science. The Indian government realizes the need for a proac-tive policy on the dual use of technology, capacity building and equalaccess to space resources. India also recognizes that there is a need tofacilitate a greater role for private investment in exploration, infras-tructure building, and technology development, keeping in view thechanging policy environment in the post-Cold War era.31

The technology focus for the future could be more on develop-ing launch-on-demand facilities; this could have military connotationstoo. Also, developments in material sciences and nano-technologycould dictate the future of space technologies. The potential for Indianinvestments in future could revolve around small satellites and clustersof nano-satellites. ISRO is planning up-gradation of all technologiesfrom propulsion to power systems. It would also be inducting lightweight composites and fiber structures into its platform systems. This


is expected to bring about a major revolution in the weight carryingcapacity of the satellites.

V. K. Saraswat has also announced that India has plans for an ASATsystema weapon system to neutralize enemy satellites operating inlow Earth orbit (LEO)even though no tests have been planned.32

Apparently, ISRO would have no role to play in this project because itcould essentially involve the development of a missile system.

Capabilities of Potential AdversariesChina has emerged as a major global space power while Pakistansspace ambitions are still nascent. China celebrated the fiftieth anniver-sary of its space program in 2006. Its space program is a sweepingplan for lofting Earth orbiting satellites for a large number of duties,expanding its human spaceflight abilities, and carrying out a multi-stepprogram of lunar exploration and mission to explore Mars. Currently,five of Chinas different operational systems are in service namely,telecommunications, meteorological, Earth remote sensing, recover-able satellites, and technology demonstration spacecraft.33 China alsohas plans to establish a space-based laboratory and to set up a perma-nent space station. All these efforts seem guided toward promoting thediplomatic interests of the state and its national security concerns, allin an effort to garner greater prestige.34

The dual use nature of space technology is deeply influencing thedevelopment of Chinas military thinking. In October 2003, Chinasuccessfully launched and recovered its first manned space mission.China has successfully completed its first Moon mission, Change-1,and launched Change-2 on October 1, 2010. China has developed atechnical plan for an independent Mars orbiter exploration project; thelaunch could be around 2013. China also proposes to send a mannedcraft to the Moon by 2020.

It is believed that since 2006 China has been launching a series ofradar and electro-optical spy satellites into orbit. The developmentof a space-based Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) system has been apriority for the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA). Such a system isconsidered as a critical component for achieving information domi-nance. On August 9, 2010, China launched the remote sensing satellite,Yaogan-10 (military designation Jianbing), into orbit from the TaiyuanSatellite Launch Center. This site is probably a space and defenselaunch facility and is being used for testing the Chinese militarys

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intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and overland submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). China is rapidly improving itsnetwork of space-based (ISR) sensors. The Yaogan series is believed tobe a new fleet of high-resolution optical and radar reconnaissance satel-lites used for security purposes. The spacecrafts, which was launchedearlier, that is, Yaogan-9A, -9B and -9C, are believed to be navalobservation satellites.35

Navigational satellite system is another area where China has majorplans for the future, both for commercial and military purposes. TheBeidon Navigation Satellites (BNTS) program is a regional positioningsystem, mainly covering the country and its neighboring areas. Thistechnology is of great use for the 2.5 million strong PLA.36 China alsohas plans to develop its own GPS on the lines of the US GPS constel-lation. Compass (Beidou 2) global system is expected to offer Chinaa global reach. This system would have 35 satellites to cover Chinaand the entire Asia-Pacific region by 2012. The project is in the secondstage; the ninth satellite in this constellation was launched in July 2010.

The Chinese quest for a global navigation system does not end here.China is also one of the major partners in Europes navigation and posi-tioning system called Galileo. However, China does not have right toentry to Galileos military applications. China will not have access toGalileos public regulated service (PRS), an encrypted signal which canbe used only by European security and emergency forces.37

There had been much speculation for long as regards Chinas inter-est in space weaponization. This speculation was put to rest when; onJanuary 11, 2007 China destroyed its own aging weather satellite (FY-1C) by firing a rocket toward it. This satellite had a mass of 750 kgand was orbiting at an altitude of 850 km. To kill this satellite, Chinaused a KT-2 missile with a non-explosive payload called kinetic killvehicle (KKV)a metal piece mounted on top of the missile, whichdestroyed its target simply by colliding with it. This Chinese act hascreated significant anxiety globally about Chinas intentions in regardto weaponization of space.

The Chinese interest in developing and testing various technologiesfor carrying out ASAT operations is currently being debated. There arereports that China has completed ground tests of an advanced ASATweapon called Parasitic satellite. This is likely to be deployed on anexperimental basis and tested in the near future. These satellite sys-tems have probably already been ground-tested. This ASAT systemcan be used against various types of satellites such as communication


satellites, navigational satellites and early warning satellites in differentorbits. The cost of building this satellite system is 0.011% of a typicalsatellite.38

According to a Pentagon report, PLA is building lasers to destroysatellites and already has beam weapons capable of damaging sensorson space based reconnaissance and intelligence systems. Consequently,China could blind the US intelligence and military space equipmentsystems vital for deploying US military forces in current and futurewarfare.39

Over the years, Pakistan has made significant investments in themissile field. However, space has been a more or less neglected fieldin that country. Pakistans space program suffers from technologicallimitations and economic difficulties. So far, it has succeeded in puttingonly a few satellites into orbit and that too with the help of Russiaand China. Pakistan has established various commercial linkages withWestern nations and companies, which could possibly help in meetingthat countrys peacetime military requirements along with other civil-ian commitments. In any case, in the near future, the overall impact ofPakistans space policies on the security calculus of South Asia is likelyto remain limited.40

Quantifying the ThreatTwo principal and obvious sources of threat to Indias space assetsare China and Pakistan. From Pakistan, the threat could be multi-fold. It could attack Indias space infrastructure on the ground, andperhaps even key Indian space personnel or senior leaders, throughproxy terrorist groups such as Lashkar-e-Taiba. Pakistan could proba-bly modify part of its own ballistic missile arsenal into a direct-ascentASAT capability, and could plausibly acquire sophisticated laser andjamming equipment. Pakistans close relationship with China willprobably enable it to source most of these capabilities.41 Many Indiananalysts are also of the view that Indias ground infrastructure faces athreat from non-state actors; to secure it, India has developed inbuiltredundancy measures.

China has proven ASAT capability, which it could use againstIndias space assets. ASAT cannot attack geostationary satellites(INSAT series). China can use its current ASAT weapons only againstIndias LEO satellites positioned at around 300400 km over theEarths surfacethe IRS series. Among these, the Cartosat networkcould be the major target, these being dual-purpose. Space mines is

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another option for targeting satellites in space. There have been reportsthat China is developing executable space mines micro-satellites.

It has also been reported that China is procuring state-of-the-arttechnology to improve its intercept, direction finding, and jammingcapabilities. A possible target for jammers could be the receivers in theGPS satellite constellation.42 However, in case of conflict with India,it would be extremely difficult politically for China either to jam GPSor Glonass (a Russian navigational system; much of the Russian-originmilitary hardware in the Indian inventory is Glonass friendly). Chinamay attempt temporary jamming of such systems depending upon theimmediate demands of the battlefield. Would China be able to disruptIndias Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), which is likelyto be operational by the end of 2014? This could be a difficult proposi-tion. This is because a major portion of IRNSS would not be placed inmedium Earth orbits (MEOs) like all other navigational systems but ingeostationary Earth orbits (GEOs).

Chinas Compass satellite is expected to become operational beforeGalileo. Initially, this system is expected to make a dent in the existingGPS market. On the strategic front, the presence of such an indepen-dent system, besides being a force multiplier, projects both military andeconomic power and prestige for the Chinese state.

On August 12, 2011 China launched Pakistans first communi-cations satellite PAKSAT-1R, indicating its deepening technologicalcooperation with Pakistan. This satellite has 30 transponders on boardfor the purposes of broadband Internet, telecom and broadcasting ser-vices. This launch signifies Pakistans increasing interest in the spacearena. Pakistan would have an interest in using satellite technology forits nuclear architecture.

Space Security MilieuMilitarization of space is a reality and a globally-accepted phe-nomenon. As an emerging space power, India is bound to harness itsexpertise in space to assist its armed forces. Chinas space programis surging ahead and so is Indias. The former is bound to take noteof Indias plans to develop and launch dedicated military satellites.Pakistans space program will continue to remain in infancy for sometime. Space has not been one of Pakistans thrust areas: its policy for allthese years has been to try to match India in the conventional militaryhardware and nuclear arenas. In the years to come, it is likely to depend


more on China to develop its space program.Hence, in the South AsianTheater, the prospects of a space arms race look negligible.

At the global level, issues related to space security are not restrictedto weaponization of space; they also involve issues like missile defense.The formation of any broadly accepted space regime is possible onlywhen some agreement emerges on missile defense. The issues of spacesecurity are complex and development of a few military satellitesby India is unlikely to obstruct the formation of any global spaceregime. However, India could face a problem if it develops and testsspace weapons. It could attract US attention in the context of theInternational Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR).43

India could take the lead for developing transparency andconfidence-building measures (TCBMs) in space activities. It couldattempt to canvass for international consensus for limits to military useof space, which can serve to prevent further exploitation of space formilitary advantage.44 More importantly, India could think of engagingits neighbors by signing a few important pacts of mutual interest. In themissile field, India has a Missile Notification Pact with Pakistan, signedin October 2005. Similarly, various options in the space arena could beidentified to seek greater transparency and reciprocity.

ConclusionThe Indian armed forces rely on space systems both for strategic andtactical purposes. However, the current level of space instrumentsavailable for the armed forces are minimal; and, more importantly,they are not specifically designed and developed to satisfy their opera-tional needs. Indias space program is still evolving as far as its militaryrequirements are concerned. The proposed launch of a satellite for theNavy in the near future would actually announce Indias arrival in themilitary space territory.

Indias proposed induction of various military satellites is goingto make long-range eyes and ears available to its armed forces.Geopolitical circumstances in the subcontinent could dictate Indiasfuture investments in this field. To date, Indias interests in spacehave been restricted to using space assets for reconnaissance, naviga-tion and communication. However, Chinas ASAT test could influenceIndias policies in the field of counter-space capabilities. To addressthe concerns raised at the regional and global level about this Chinesebravado, the best option for India could be to follow the disarmamentand arms control route.

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NOTES

1. In the defense budgetary allocation, the Indian Army gets around half the budget money,the IAF gets 2530%, and the Navy gets 1520%. One analysis of the defense deals thatIndia has made since the Kargil conflict in 1999 reports that over $50 billion has beenspent on the acquisition of fighters, warships, tanks, missiles, and other weapon systemsin the last decade. Available at http://www.indiadefenceonline.com and http://www.idsa.in.

2. The US DoDs Office of Net Assessment under the leadership of Andrew Marshalldefines RMA as: A major change in the nature of warfare brought about by the innova-tive application of new technologies which, combined with dramatic changes in militarydoctrine and operational and organizational concepts fundamentally alters the characterand conduct of military operations.

3. Paul Dibb, The RMA and Asian Security, Survival Vol. 39, No. 4 (Winter 199798),pp. 93116.

4. On the lines of say Indias Strategic Forces Command (SFC), which is responsible for themanagement and administration of the tactical and strategic nuclear weapon stockpileand strategic forces.

5. Subrata Ghoshroy and Gotz Neuneck, eds., South Asia at a Crossroads (Hamburg:Nomos, 2010), p. 169.

6. India Space program Research - India department of space, Science advancement.Accessible via http://www.indianchild.com (accessed April 19, 2010).

7. Dinshaw Mistry, Indias Emerging Space Program, Pacific Affairs Vol. 71, No.2(Summer 1998), p. 153.

8. Accessible via http://www.bharat-rakshak.com (accessed April 19, 2010).9. Bhargavi Kerur, India has got a spy in the sky, Daily News and Analysis (DNA),

Bangalore, February 10, 2010. Accessible via http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report_India-has-got-a-spy_in-the-sky-1345921 (accessed October 14, 2001).

10. Address by the Indian Navy Chief and Chairman Chiefs of Staff Committee AdmiralSureesh Mehta on August 10, 2009 at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi.

11. NSAB is an important element of the National Security Council system working underthe PrimeMinister. It is a multi-disciplinary body comprising persons from outside gov-ernment, mostly retired senior government officials and academics to develop policyoptions.

12. Available at www.thecolorsofindia.com (accessed March 14, 2011).13. Indias Quest for Energy Security: The Oil and Gas Perspective, Speech delivered

by Murli Deora, Indias Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas, at Rice University onMarch 31, 2006. Accessible via http://www.bakerinstitute.org

14. From the lecture delivered by M.M. Pallaum Raju, Indias Minister of State for Defence,in the P.C. Lal Memorial Lecture, organized by the Air Force Association onMarch 19, 2007 at New Delhi.

15. Prof Amitav Mallik, ex-Director DRDOs Laser Laboratory, interview with author,February 26, 2011.

16. Air Marshal (Retd) Vinod Patney, former Vice Chief of the IAF, interview with author,February 26, 2011.

17. Dr. John B. Sheldon, visiting professor at the School of Advanced Air and Space Studies,Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama and Editor Emeritus of Astropolitics, interviewwith author, February 26, 2011. The views expressed are personal.

18. www.fas.org (accessed August 16, 2009).19. India Will Become Worlds No. 1 Mobile Market by 2013, Hindu Business Online,

May 22, 2010. Accessible via http://www.thehindubusinessline.com20. Integrated HQ of MoD (Navy) and Confederation of Indian Industry, Building Indias

Navy: Requirements and Indigenous Capability, 2010. Accessible via http://www.ciidefence.com/


21. The Chief of Air Staff Air Chief Marshal Fali Homi Major made an announcement tothis effect at Aero India, Bangalore in February 2009.

22. D. C. Kumaria, Leveraging Space Capabilities for Indias Defence, Air Power JournalVol. 1, No. 2 (Winter 2006), pp. 8687.

23. Joe Katzman, Indias Emerging Military Satellite System, August 10, 2005. Accessiblevia http://www.windsofchange.net

24. India Building a Military Satellite Reconnaissance System, Defense Industry Daily,August 10, 2005. Accessible via http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com

25. Masood-Ur-Rehman Khattak, Indian Militarys Space Programme: Implicationsfor Pakistan-Analysis, Eurasia Review, June 10, 2011. Accessible via http://www.eurasiareview.com/

26. Department of Space, Indian Space Research Organisation, Report of the WorkingGroup on Space on the Eleventh Five Year Plan Proposals 20072012 for Indian SpaceProgramme, 2006. Accessible via http://dst.gov.in/

27. Report of the Standing Committee on Defense (2003), (13th Lok Sabha), pp. 6263,164.100.24.208.

28. Radhakrishna Rao, Will India Prepare for Space War?, January 7, 2010. Accessible viahttp://www.ipcs.org (accessed August 18, 2010).

29. Accessible via http://www.mod.nic.in (accessed January 30, 2011).30. Neelam Mathews, India Aims High with Satellite Technology, Aviation Week,

November 10, 2010. Accessible via http://www.aviationweek.com/ (accessed February24, 2011).

31. Minister of State in the Prime Ministers Office (PMO), Prithviraj Chavan, said this inParliament. Accessible via http://www.sify.com (accessed March 24, 2011).

32. India Readying Weapon to Destroy Enemy Satellites: Saraswat, Indian Express,January 3, 2010. Accessible via http://www.indianexpress.com/news/india-readying-weapon-to-destroy-enemy-satel/562776 (accessed October 14, 2011).

33. Accessible via http://www.space.com (accessed May 12, 2011).34. John J. Klein, Space Warfare (New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 37.35. Russell Hsiao, PLA Expands Network of Military Reconnaissance Satellites, China

Brief , Vol. 10, Issue 17, August 19, 2010. Accessible via http://www.jamestown.org36. Jon Sigurdson, Technological Superpower China (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar,

2005), p. 208.37. Ajey Lele, Chinas Posture in Space and its Implications, Strategic Analysis Vol. 32,

No.4 (July 2008), pp. 605620.38. Desmond Ball, Assessing Chinas ASAT program, Austral Special Report 0714S,

June 14, 2007. Accessible via http://www.nautilus.rmit.edu.au. and http://www.spacedaily.com

39. Annual Report to Congress, The Military Power of the Peoples Republic of China 2005(Washington DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense, July 2005), p. 36. Accessible viahttp://www.defenselink.mil

40. Ajey Lele, Pakistans Space Capabilities, Air Power Vol. 2, No. 1 (Spring 2005),pp. 129148.

41. John Sheldon, interview with author, February 26, 2011. He is also of the opinion thata rapidly-growing India will clash against other regional actors who might find theirown interests threatened by India. Hence, India could find its space assets threatened byothers beyond China and Pakistan.

42. Accessible via http://www.space.com (accessed September 2, 2011).43. Ram Jakhu, expert on space laws, McGill University, Canada, interview. The US gov-

ernment regulations set under ITAR control the export and import of defense-relatedhardware on the US munitions list (USML). On July 20, 2009, Indias Minister forExternal Affairs, S.M. Krishna and the US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton signedthe Technology Safeguards Agreement (TSA) which strengthens Indo-US space ties.Subsequently, India has launched satellites with a large number of US components.

44. Amitav Mallik, interview.

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