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Marieb’s HumanAnatomy and Physiology

Ninth Edition

Marieb Hoehn

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Chapter 15

Special Senses

Lecture 22

Lecture Overview

• Introduction to the senses and sensation

• Types of sensors

• Anatomy of the ear

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• Physiology of hearing and equilibrium

• Anatomy of the eye

• Physiology of vision

First, a few questions…

Sensory ReceptorsSensory Receptors

• specialized cells or multicellular structures that collect information (transduce information into nerve impulses)• stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory fibers to the brain (receptor vs. generator [action] potentials)

Chemoreceptors (general)• respond to changes in chemical concentrations

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Pain receptors or nociceptors (general)• respond to stimuli likely to cause tissue damage

Thermoreceptors (general)• respond to changes in temperature

Mechanoreceptors (general, special)• respond to mechanical forces

Photoreceptors (special)• respond to light

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Mechanoreceptors

• Sense mechanical forces such as changes in pressure or movement of fluid

• Two main groups

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• baroreceptors – sense changes in pressure (e.g., carotid artery, aorta, lungs, digestive & urinary systems)

• proprioceptors – sense changes in muscles and tendons

Stretch Receptors - Proprioceptors

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Muscle spindle – initiates contraction (stretch reflex)

Golgi tendon organ – inhibits contraction

Sensory Adaptation

• reduction in sensitivity of sensory receptors from continuous stimulation (painless, constant)

• stronger stimulus required to activate receptors

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• smell and touch receptors undergo sensory adaptation

• pain receptors usually do not undergo sensory adaptation (at level of receptor)

• impulses can be re-triggered if the intensity of the stimulus changes

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Temperature Sensors (Thermoreceptors)

Warm receptors • sensitive to temperatures above 25oC (77o F)• unresponsive to temperature above 45oC (113oF)

Cold receptors (3-4x more numerous than warm)• sensitive to temperature between 10oC (50oF) and 20oC

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(68oF)• unresponsive below 10oC (50oF)

Pain receptors are activated when a stimulus exceeds the capability (range) of a temperature receptor

• respond to temperatures below 10oC• respond to temperatures above 45oC

Sense of Pain

• pain receptors are called nociceptors• free nerve endings• Substance P or glutamate (inhib. by endorphins/enkephalins) • widely distributed • nervous tissue of brain lacks pain receptors (but meninges have nociceptors)

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have nociceptors)• stimulated by tissue damage, chemical, mechanical forces, or extremes in temperature• nociceptors do not adapt (at the level of the receptor)

Visceral Pain• usually only type of visceral receptors that exhibit sensation• stretch, chemical irritation, ischemia (usu w/nausea)• may exhibit referred pain• not well localized

Special Senses

• sensory receptors are within large, complex sensory organs in the head

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• hearing and equilibrium in ears• sight in eyes•smell in olfactory organs• taste (gustation) in taste buds

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The Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)

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Typanic (attenuation) reflex: Elicited about 0.1 sec following loud noise; causes contraction of the tensor tympani m. and stapedius m. to dampen transmission of sound waves

Auditory Tube

• Eustachian, auditory, or pharyngotympanic tube

• connects middle ear to throat

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• helps maintain equal pressure on both sides of tympanic membrane

• usually closed by valve-like flaps in throat When pressure in tympanic cavity is higher than in

nasopharynx, tube opens automatically. But the converse is not true, and the tube must be forced open (swallowing, yawning, chewing).

Inner Ear

3 Parts of Labyrinth• cochlea

• functions in hearing

• semicircular canals

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semicircular canals• function in equilibrium

• vestibule• functions in equilibrium• utricle and saccule

Labyrinth

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Cochlea

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Scala tympani• lower compartment• extends from apex of the cochlea to round window• part of bony labyrinth

Scala vestibuliupper compartmentleads from oval window to apex of spiralpart of bony labyrinth

Cochlea as it would look ‘unwound’

Organ of Corti

• group of hearing receptor cells(hair cells)• on upper surface of basilar

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• on upper surface of basilar membrane• different frequencies of vibration move different parts of basilar membrane• particular sound frequencies cause hairs (stereocilia) of receptor cells to bend• nerve impulse generated

Physiology of Hearing

Figure from: Marieb, Human Anatomy & Physiology, Pearson, 2013

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Know pathway for exam

Tympanic membrane malleus incus stapes oval window scala vestibuli scala tympani round window

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Vestibule

• Utricle• communicates with saccule and membranous portion of semicircular canals

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• Saccule• communicates with cochlear duct

• Macula• contains hair cells of utricle (horizontal) and saccule (vertical)

Utricle and saccule provide sensations of: 1) gravity and 2) linear acceleration

These organs function in static equilibrium (head/body are still)

Macula

• responds to changes in head position

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• bending of hairs results in generation of nerve impulse

Semicircular Canals

• three canals at right angles

• ampulla (expansion)• swelling of membranous labyrinth that communicates

ith th tib l

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with the vestibule

• crista ampullaris• sensory organ of ampulla• hair cells and supporting cells• rapid turns of head or body stimulate hair cells

Acceleration of fluid inside canals causes nerve impulse

These organs function in dynamic equilibrium (head/body are in motion)

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Crista Ampullaris

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Semicircular canals respond to rotational, nonlinear movements of the head

The Eye and Deep Orbital Region

Visual Accessory Organs

• eyebrows

• eyelids ( l b )

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(palpebrae)

• conjunctiva

• lacrimal apparatus

• extrinsic eye muscles

Limbus

Eyelids• palpebrae = eyelids• composed of four layers

• skin• muscle • connective tissue• conjunctiva

• orbicularis oculi – closes eye(CN VII)

Fornix

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• levator palpebrae superioris –raises eyelid (CN III)

• tarsal (Meibomian) glands –secrete oil onto eyelashes; keep lids from sticking together

• conjunctiva – mucous membrane; lines eyelid and covers portion of eyeball; keeps eye from drying out

Sagittal section of right eye

Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007

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Lacrimal (Tear) Apparatus

• lacrimal gland• lateral to eye• secretes tears

• canaliculi• collect tears

• lacrimal sac• collects from canaliculi

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• nasolacrimal duct• collects from lacrimal sac• empties tears into nasal cavity

Tears:- supply oxygen and nutrients to cornea (avascular)- are antibacterial (contain antibodies and lysozyme)- lubricate and bathe the conjunctiva

Extraocular Eye Muscles

Superior rectus• rotates eye up and slightly medially

Inferior rectus

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• rotates eye downand slightly medially

Medial rectus• rotates eye medially

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Lateral rectus• rotates eye laterally

Superior oblique• rolls eye, rotates

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Inferior oblique• rolls eye, rotates eye up and laterally

yeye down and laterally

Which cranial nerves innervate each of the muscles in the diagram above? LR6SO4AO3

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Extraocular Eye Muscles & their CN

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Which cranial nerves innervate each of the muscles in the diagram above? LR6SO4AO3

Outer (Fibrous) TunicCornea

• anterior portion• transparent• light transmission• light refraction• well innervated• avascular

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• avascular

Sclera• posterior portion• opaque• protection• support• attachment site for extrinsic eye muscles Transverse section, superior view

Aqueous Humor• fluid in anterior cavity of eye• secreted by epithelium on inner surface of the ciliary processes• provides nutrients• maintains shape of anterior portion of eye• leaves cavity through canal of Schlemm (scleral venous sinus)

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Lens

• transparent, avascular• biconvex• lies behind iris• largely composed of lens fibers

• enclosed by thin elastic capsule• held in place by suspensory ligaments of ciliary body• focuses visual image on retina

36Loss of lens transparency = cataracts

(Crystallins)

Accommodation

• changing of lens shape to view objects nearby

Far vision (emmetropia)(20 ft. or greater)

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Near visionPresbyopia is the loss of the ability to accommodate with age

Middle (Vascular) Tunic = Uvea1. Iris

• anterior portion• pigmented CT• controls light intensity

2. Ciliary body• anterior portion

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• pigmented• holds lens• muscles reshape lens for focusing• aqueous humor

3. Choroid coat• provides blood supply• pigments absorb extra light

This layer contains the intrinsic muscles of the eye- Regulate the amount of light entering the eye- Regulate the shape of the lens

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Iris

• composed of connective tissue and smooth muscle

• pupil is hole in iris

mydriasis

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• dim light stimulates (sympathetic) radial musclesand pupil dilates

• bright light stimulates (parasympathetic, CN III) circular muscles and pupil constricts

How would viewing near objects affect pupil size?

miosis

Inner (Neural) Tunic• retina• contains visual receptors• continuous with optic nerve• ends just behind margin of the ciliary body• composed of several layers• macula lutea – yellowish spot i ti d f

Visual axis

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in retina surrounds fovea• fovea centralis – center of macula lutea; produces sharpest vision; only cones• optic disc – blind spot; contains no visual receptors• vitreous humor – thick gel that holds retina flat against choroid coat

Transverse section, superior view

Optic Disc (Blind Spot)

Figure from: Martini, Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Benjamin Cummings, 2004

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Layers of Retina

• receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells- provide pathway for impulses triggered by photoreceptors to reach

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p pthe optic nerve

• horizontal cells and amacrine cells – modify impulses

Visual ReceptorsRods

• long, thin projections• contain light sensitive pigment called rhodopsin• hundred times more sensitive to light than cones

Cones• short, blunt projections• contain light sensitive pigments called erythrolabe, chlorolabe, and cyanolabe (photopsins)

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g• provide vision in dim light• produce colorless vision• produce outlines of object• view off-center at night

(p p )• provide vision in bright light• produce sharp images• produce color vision

Dark adaptation by the rods takes approximately 30 minutes. This adaptation can be destroyed by white light in just milliseconds

Rods and Cones

Figure from: Martini, Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Benjamin Cummings, 2004

Storage site of vitamin A

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Retinal is chemically related to vitamin A and is made from it.

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Rods and Cones – Neural Connections

Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007

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(in fovea centralis)

Many rods synapse with a single bipolar cell giving poor resolution (acuity). In fovea, 1 cone synapses with one bipolar cell. Therefore, the resolution (acuity) is better using cones and they produce sharp vision.

Image Information

50Figure from: Martini, Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Benjamin Cummings, 2004

Stereoscopic VisionBecause the pupils and fovea are 6-7 cm apart, each eye receives a slightly different image.

Thi ll th

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This allows the slightly different pictures to be integrated by the brain resulting in stereoscopic vision and depth perception.

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Visual Pathway

Figure from: Martini, Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Benjamin Cummings, 2004

The right side of the brain receives input from the left half of the visual field

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The left side of the brain receives input from the right half of the visual field

Touch and Pressure Senses

Class of mechanoreceptor

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Referred Pain

55Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007

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Spinal Gating of Pain SignalsDescending Analgesic Fibers (What is an ‘analgesic’, anyway?)

56Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007

Smell (Olfaction)

Figures from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007

Adaptation occurs here

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Taste (Gustation)Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007

CN VII

CN IX

CN X

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Life-Span Changes

Age related hearing loss due to • damage of hair cells in organ of Corti• degeneration of nerve pathways to the brain• tinnitus (ringing in the ears)

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Age-related visual problems include• dry eyes• floaters (crystals in vitreous humor)• loss of elasticity of lens – difficult accommodation• glaucoma• cataracts• macular degeneration