Lecture 7: The Oceans (1)Lecture 7: The Oceans (1)EarthsClimate_Web_Chapter.pdf, p. 22-24

General features of oceansArea: covers ~70% of Earth’s surfaceArea: covers ~70% of Earth’s surfaceVolume: ~97% of all the water on EarthVolume: ~97% of all the water on EarthDepth: ~4 kilometersDepth: ~4 kilometersAlbedo: 5-10%, lowest on Earth’s surfaceAlbedo: 5-10%, lowest on Earth’s surfaceHeat capacity: high; thermal inertia: highHeat capacity: high; thermal inertia: highTemperature: less variable than in the atmosphereTemperature: less variable than in the atmosphereFreezing point: –1.9Freezing point: –1.9°°C, not 0C, not 0°°CCSalinity: water and dissolved salts; most common salt: table salt (NaCl).Salinity: water and dissolved salts; most common salt: table salt (NaCl).Density: 1034-1035 kg/mDensity: 1034-1035 kg/m33 (greater than pure water 1000kg/m (greater than pure water 1000kg/m33))Average salinity = 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or 3.5% by weightAverage salinity = 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or 3.5% by weightDensity depends on temperature and salinity:Density depends on temperature and salinity:

Cold water Cold water high density high density Formation of sea ice Formation of sea ice high density high densityEvaporation Evaporation high salinity high salinity high density high densityPrecipitation and river discharge Precipitation and river discharge low salinity low salinity low density low density

Two main forms of circulationTwo main forms of circulationSurface currents: wind-driven, horizontal, surface waters, fastSurface currents: wind-driven, horizontal, surface waters, fastDeep-ocean circulation: thermohaline, vertical, deep waters, slowDeep-ocean circulation: thermohaline, vertical, deep waters, slow

Surface is not level due to currents, waves, atmosphere pressure, and Surface is not level due to currents, waves, atmosphere pressure, and variation in gravity.variation in gravity.

Vertical Profiles of Temperature and Salinity

A. Unlike the atmosphere, which is heated from below, oceans are heated from above, primarily by Sun, largely at the Equator.

B. Two overall layers

1. Thin, warm, less dense surface layer well mixed by turbulence generated by wind

3. Thermocline is the boundary between the layers

2. Thick, cold, denser deep layer that is calm and marked by slow currents

Surface currents

A result of three primary forces

Warm currents (moving out of the tropics): e.g., Gulf Stream

Cold currents (moving away from the poles): e.g., California Current

Wind-induced drag forceCoriolis force

Pressure gradient force

Hemispherical Gyres

Effects of surface winds on the oceans

1. Currents converge toward Equator following Trade Winds and ITCZ

2. Westward flow along Equator (i.e., North and South Equatorial Currents)

3. Equatorial Currents turn poleward where they encounter land barriers (e.g., Gulf Stream)

4. Eastward flow of currents is enhanced by the Westerlies

5. Currents turn toward the Equator where they encounter land barriers, completing the gyres

Effects of surface currents on heat transfer

The equator-to-pole energy transport by the ocean is important in reducing the pole-to-equator temperature differences.

Currents moving out of the tropics carry heat polewardCurrents moving away from the poles carry cold water equatorward

Heat Transfer in the North Atlantic OceanHeat Transfer in the North Atlantic Ocean

Image by NOAA’s Image by NOAA’s AVHRR Satellite in AVHRR Satellite in June of 1984.June of 1984.

The warm Gulf The warm Gulf Stream current Stream current ((27°C, 80°F) 27°C, 80°F)

redistribute heatredistribute heat by by swirling through the swirling through the cooler water to the cooler water to the north and east.north and east.

Ekman Spiral

c. To depth of 100 m

a. The Coriolis effects cause surface current to move 20–45° from the wind direction (45° in theory)

b. Deflection continues with depth, forming a spiral

d. Net transport of water is 90° from the wind direction

More on subtropical gyres

1. Trade winds blowing SW push shallow waters toward the NW.

2. Mid-latitude westerlies blowing NE push surface water to the SE.

3. A lens of warm water piles in the center (2 meters higher than the surrounding ocean).

4. Spinning clockwise in the northern hemisphere – a balancing act of pressure gradient force and Coriolis force.

Upwelling and Downwelling

a. Deflection of water away from continent

b. Upwelling of deeper water to replace surface water

c. Commonly nutrient rich

a. Deflection of water towards continent

b. Downwelling of surface water to push deep water

Cold Water UpwellingCold Water Upwelling

Maps of Maps of west coastwest coast sea surface sea surface temperature temperature indicate regions of indicate regions of significantly significantly cooler cooler waterwater that has that has up up welled from belowwelled from below..

Zones of upwelling in global oceans

Summary:

• What percentage of the earth does ocean cover and how deep the ocean is on average?

• Why is ocean so important in determining Earth’s climate?

• What is the ranges of sea water density, freeze point, salinity and albedo?

• What determine the ocean currents?

• What role does ocean play in heat transport of the climate system?

• What cause upwelling and downwelling of ocean water?

Summary:

• What percentage of the earth does ocean cover and how deep the ocean is on average?– Covers 72% of the earth and about 4 km deep.

• Why is ocean so important in determining Earth’s climate?– greatest storage for water and heat for the climate system.

• What is the ranges of sea water density, freeze point, salinity and albedo?– 1.034-1.035 X1000 kg/m3, -1.9C, 3.4~3.5%, 5-10%

• What determine the ocean currents?– Wind stress, Coriolis forcing, sea level gradient

• What role does ocean play in heat transport of the climate system?– Subtropical gyros transport warmer water poleward and cooler

water equatorward.

• What cause upwelling and downwelling of ocean water?– Wind stress and Ekman effect