lecture 4 a practice economics
TRANSCRIPT
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PRACTICE ECONOMICS…1
Ms Rosmin Bt Iqbal Hussain
BOptom (UKM), CMBA (UNIMAS)
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Introduction• Hi! Today I am
going to teach you about economics of practice.
• We shall learn accountings & finance of a business practice
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EntrepreneurI saw my friend Cole walking down the
street. “How are you today?”, I asked Cole.
• “I am fantastic! I just thought of a new idea: a bowling ball that expands as you throw it so that it is guaranteed to knock down every pin! I am going to be famous!”
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What is an entrepreneur?
• Cole is an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur is a person who comes up with a product or service, or a better way to produce one / provide one
• He found the resources, the money, and the time to produce a new product / service
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Specialization
• Adam Smith and the “division of labor”
• Don’t try to do everything!– It’s more costly and less efficient
• Focus your prime target on producing only a few specialist goods / services– It lowers costs and increases efficiency
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Specialization…cont• The practice owner counted on others to do the
necessary work of sales & “job completion”, but then he would examine the customers himself & conduct the eye examination entrance test as a bonus to customers
Specialization is when an individual or a company specializes in doing one part of a task, and relies on others to complete the other parts
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Profits
Total Profits = T Revenues – T Costs
• What Revenues?
• What are Costs?
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Revenue• Total Sales = Revenue
Revenue = cost of goods sold + mark-up
Revenue = price of perunit good sold x total units
P x Q
Goods = tangible goods / intangible (services)
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Costs• Opportunity costs• Fixed Cost• Variable cost• Product Cost• Period Cost• Unit Cost
Total cost TC = VC + FC
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Opportunity Costs• Opportunity cost is the
process of choosing one good or service over another
• The item that you don’t pick is the opportunity cost – The spectacles is Sara’s
opportunity cost – The edging machine is
Andy’s opportunity cost
Opportunity Costs
Rm170
Rm240: color CL
Purchases
Rm240
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Questions• What is your
opportunity cost when you start an optometry practice?
• Capital = cud be used for direct investments / FDI
• Time & energy = to work as an employee & enjoy
• Anything else??
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Opportunity Cost & Comparative Advantage
• Compares producers of a good / services according to their opportunity cost– Whatever must be given up to obtain some item
• The producer who has the smaller opportunity cost of producing a good / service is said to have a comparative advantage in producing that good / service
• Specialize in producing the goods /service for which you have the lowest opportunity cost
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Question
• What are your comparative advantages you can think that you could have for your practice?– Services…– Goods…
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Profit & Loss Accts
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Product Costs• Costs that “attach” to the units that are produced (i.e.,
manufacturing costs) and are not reported expenses until the goods are sold – Direct costs– Indirect costs
• Cost Assignment – Direct costs are traced to a cost object – Indirect costs are allocated or assigned to a cost object
• Both direct & indirect costs can be either fixed or variable
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Product Costs…cont• Direct Costs
– Costs that can be traced to a given cost object (product, department, etc.) in an economically feasible way
• Salary of direct labor of production• Employee benefits of direct labor of production• Consultant fees of production• Travel • Materials • Supplies • Equipment of direct production
– Which is fixed & which ones are variable cost?
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Product Costs…cont• Indirect Costs
– Costs that cannot be traced to a given cost object in an economically feasible way. These costs are also known as “overhead”. Not associated with a particular operation
• QA• Design services• Allocation for R&D• Costs related to ongoing professional training of staff• Rental• Depreciation• Utilities bill & communication costs
– Which is fixed & which ones are variable cost?
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Direct Cost A
Direct Cost B
Indirect Cost C
Product A Product B
Product Costs…cont
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Traditional Costing System
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Fixed & Variable Costs• Fixed Cost : are those that are spent and cannot be
changed in the period of time under consideration– Costs that do not vary with the level of output– Usually refers to a short-run term– E.g: rent, rates (interest & tax), salaries, insurance
• Variable Cost– Costs that vary with the level of output – E.g. labor (overtime, commission), bonuses, materials
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Period Costs
• Costs that must be charged against income in the period incurred and cannot be inventoried – E.g.: selling and administrative expense,
tel, water electricity, postage, interest
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Relationships of Types of Costs
Direct
Indirect
Variable Fixed
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Total Cost
Total cost TC = VC + FC
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Unit Cost
Total cost of units divided by units produced
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Break-Even Analysis• R(X) - VC(X) - FC = P, • where R = revenue (selling price ) per unit; X
= number of units• sold or to be sold; R(X) = total revenue; FC =
fixed costs; VC = variable cost per unit;• VC(X) = total variable costs; P = profit• n BEP in units = X = FC /(R-VC) • n BEP in dollars = FC/ (1- VC%)
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ACCOUNTS
1. TRADING PROFIT & LOSS ACCTS
2. BALANCE SHEET
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TRADING PROFIT &
LOSS ACCOUNTS
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Purpose of Accounts
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Purpose of Accounts• Provide information for stakeholders –
customers, shareholders, suppliers, etc.• Provides the opportunity for the business to
monitor its own activities• Provides transparency to enable
the firm to attract investment• Reduces the chance for fraud –
not 100% successful!!– E.g ENRON!
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Profit / Loss• Profit
– The supplier made profit when selling the Slit lamp for Rm2500
– The cost of the Slit lamp: e. g. Rm1000
• Loss– The optical practise
made a loss when he sold the contact lenses because it was a clearing off stock sales:
Buy 1, Free 1
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T Profit & Loss Accts
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T Profit & Loss Account
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Tr Profit & Loss Account
• A T Profit and Loss Account shows the following information for a business over a period of time (norm. one yr)– Sales Revenue earned by the business– Costs of Production that the business has
paid– Profit earned by the business
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Profit and Loss Account - Flow
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Profit and Loss Account
• Shows the flow of sales and costs over a period
• Shows the level of profit or loss made
• Shows what has been done with the profit or loss
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Trading Profit & Loss Account For the Year Ended (date)
Sales
Less Sales Return / Return Inward
Less Cost of Goods Sold
X
X
X
= Gross Profit x
Add Other Revenue / Income X
Less Expenses / Overheads x
= Net Profit / Loss x
Debit Credit
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Calculating Cost Of Goods SoldPurchases (Product costs: cash/cdt) X
+ Opening Stock (Goods oredi a/v for sale; finished goods)
X
- Purchase Return / Return outward (including carriage inward, custom duty, stamp duty)
X
- Closing Stock (finished goods) X
= Cost of Goods Sold X
(Purchases + Opening Stock) - Closing Stock of goods left - Purchase Return = CoGS (the goods that were actually sold)
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Other Revenues / IncomesA sum of all of these:
• Interest received• Dividend received• Rent received• Discount received• Commission received• Provision for doubtful debts (overprovided)• Gains of sales from fixed asset sales
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Income (Sales) Sources For Optometric Practice
1. Merchandise:• Spectacle frames• Spectacle lenses• Accessories
2. Professional services:• Eye examinations• Contact lens services• Shared care & co-management services• Other professional services e.g. LV, BV, ….• Subscription schemes
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Expenses / Overheads / Operational Expenses
• Carriage outward• Telephone, water, electricity
(inclusive: accrual expenses + actual amt paid)
• Advertising • Commission paid• Depreciation• Discount allowed• Bad debts• Interest
• Rate & rent• Repair & maintenance• Postage• Stationeries• Salaries & wages• General Expenses• Insurance• Provision for doubtful debt
(under provided)• etc
Also known as Normal Product Costs. A sum of all these:
Accrual = amt pending
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Profit & Loss Account
Sales Revenue 70,000
-Cost of Goods Sold 20,000
= Gross Profit 50,000
- Expenses: Wages 30,000
Marketing 5,000
Accountant 1,000
Loan Interest 4,000
= Total Expenses 40,000
= Net Profit 10,000
Debit Credit
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BREAK
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EXTRA NOTES
• All costs which are eventually allocated to products are classified as either…
1 Direct materials,
2 Direct labor, or
3 Indirect manufacturing
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Direct Material Costs...– Include the acquisition costs of all materials
that are physically identified as a part of the manufactured goods and that may be traced to the manufactured goods in an economically feasible way
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Direct Labor Costs...– Include the wages of all labor that can
be traced specifically and exclusively to the manufactured goods in an economically feasible way
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Indirect Manufacturing Costs...
• Or factory overhead, include all costs associated with the manufacturing process that cannot be traced to the manufactured goods in an economically feasible way
manufactured = edging / completing a product
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Product Costs...– Are costs identified with goods
produced or purchased for resale• Product costs are initially identified as
part of the inventory on hand• These costs, inventoriable costs,
become expenses (in the form of cost of goods sold) only when the inventory is sold
refers to “raw materials”/ supplies
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Period Costs...– Are costs that are deducted as
expenses during the current period without going through an inventory stage