lecture 2: virtue ethics & introduction to natural law theory

Lecture 2: Virtue Ethics & Lecture 2: Virtue Ethics & Introduction to Natural Law TheoryIntroduction to Natural Law Theory

Basic Framework of Virtue Ethics:Basic Framework of Virtue Ethics:What type of a person should you be?What type of a person should you be?

Premise 1: An action is right iff it is what a Premise 1: An action is right iff it is what a virtuous agent would do in similar virtuous agent would do in similar circumstances.circumstances.

Premise 1a: A virtuous agent is one who acts Premise 1a: A virtuous agent is one who acts virtuously, i.e., one who has and exercises the virtuously, i.e., one who has and exercises the virtues.virtues.

Premise 2: A virtue is a character trait a human Premise 2: A virtue is a character trait a human being needs to flourish or live well.being needs to flourish or live well.

Overview of Ethical Systems: Virtue Ethics:Overview of Ethical Systems: Virtue Ethics:Rather than focusing on what we ought to do, Virtue ethics offers a distinctive approach

whereby we focus on human character asking the question, “What should I be?” Thus, ethical life involves envisioning ideals for human life and embodying those ideals in one’s life. Virtues

are ways in which we embody those ideals.

Plato (c.427-347c):

To be virtuous we must understand what contributes to our

overall good & have our desire (appetitive;

workers), spirit (warriors), & reason

(ruler-guardians) educated properly so

they will aggregate with the guidance provided by the rational part of the soul (Books 2 & 3 of Republic). When

these 3 parts of the soul conflict with each other, it might move us to act in ways that go against

the greater good (become incontinent).

Virtue is an excellence of some sort.

Originally the word meant “strength”

and referred to as

“manliness.” In Aristotle’s ethics (arete) is used which

is trans. as “excellences of various

types.”

Socrates: Virtue is Knowledge. No one intentionally pursues what is wrong;. Ignorance and forgetfulness are at fault when one does something wrong.

Plato (c. 427-347) is concerned with the quality of a person’s inner state & he prized beauty, health, harmony, & strength of a soul as the virtues we should emulate. We must have a well-ordered soul whereby our appetites (temperance), emotions (courage), and reason (wisdom) operate in their respective roles. When reason governs, justice manifests itself from out of the well-ordered person.

Aristotle (384-322): The function of man is reason (the good of the thing is when it performs its function well) which is peculiar to him. Thus, the function of man is reason and the life that is distinctive of humans is the life in accordance with reason. If the function of man is reason, then the good man is the man who reasons well This is the life of excellence (eudaimonia; human flourishing & well-being).

Aristotle: “Must have knowledge, second he must choose the acts and choose them for their own sakes, & finally

his actions must proceed from a firm character” (1105a).

Aristotle says there are 2 types of virtue: intellectual virtues:

excellences of the mind (e.g., ability to

understand, reason, & judge well);

moral virtues: learned by repetition

(e.g., practicing honesty we become

honest. To be virtuous requires knowledge,

practice, & consistent effort at character

building.

Overview of Ethical Systems: Plato (427-347 B.C.)Overview of Ethical Systems: Plato (427-347 B.C.)

Plato believed our natural desires are greedy and depraved. Thus, they must be held in tight check by the powers of reason. He compared the human soul to a city-state made up of ruler-guardians, guardians, and the peasants/artisans.

Every reality is an archetype of a corresponding eternal form. The goal of life is to actualize one’s true nature together with one’s many innate potentialities.

If reason for a moment

lets down its guard, then the desires will exert

their power, seize control, and lead the

person to corruption

and immorality.

So long as the individual is governed by the power of reason, and

reason is assisted by

courage and will power

(guardians), the unruly

desires can be suppressed.

The highest good is the well-ordered whole to which

each part contributes

according to its own capacity. A thing in reality is good insofar as it participates in &

corresponds to the form of the good (which is the high

point of the forms).

4 primary integrated

virtues: Wisdom:

corresponds to reason; courage: corresponds to

the will: temperance,

corresponds to desire: justice: links individual

to society.

Main Points to Know:Main Points to Know: Plato writes dialogues rather than philosophical Plato writes dialogues rather than philosophical

treatises. Hence, most of his philosophical treatises. Hence, most of his philosophical positions are voiced through the character of positions are voiced through the character of Socrates. Even though Socrates was Plato's Socrates. Even though Socrates was Plato's actual teacher, the positions and doctrines actual teacher, the positions and doctrines traditionally attributed to Socrates are actually traditionally attributed to Socrates are actually Plato's account of his teacher. Socrates never Plato's account of his teacher. Socrates never wrote anything. wrote anything.

Plato advances a teleological conception of Plato advances a teleological conception of morality, "we live the good life insofar as we morality, "we live the good life insofar as we perform our distinctively human function well." perform our distinctively human function well."

Main Points to Know:Main Points to Know:

The soul is divided into three parts: appetitive, The soul is divided into three parts: appetitive, spirit, and reason. Each part helps us to fulfill spirit, and reason. Each part helps us to fulfill critical needs, but in Plato's view, only the critical needs, but in Plato's view, only the rational part of the soul is fit to rule. rational part of the soul is fit to rule.

In order to live a virtuous life, it is necessary for In order to live a virtuous life, it is necessary for the individual to cultivate balance in his/her soul. the individual to cultivate balance in his/her soul. Thus, persons ruled by appetite or spirit Thus, persons ruled by appetite or spirit (emotion) are "out of balance" and their actions (emotion) are "out of balance" and their actions are apt to provoke personal or social are apt to provoke personal or social disharmony. disharmony.


Appetite: In cases where appetite rules (oligarchic and Appetite: In cases where appetite rules (oligarchic and tyrannical characters fit here) individuals are at the mercy tyrannical characters fit here) individuals are at the mercy of the their biological or material whims. Alcohol addiction of the their biological or material whims. Alcohol addiction fits this profile. Individuals who are addicted to self-fits this profile. Individuals who are addicted to self-destructive patterns of behavior are apt to feed their destructive patterns of behavior are apt to feed their appetites at the expense of other life pursuits. People can appetites at the expense of other life pursuits. People can also be ruled by material greed in much the same way. also be ruled by material greed in much the same way. The key here is that desire is determinative; these are The key here is that desire is determinative; these are cravings of the highest degree. cravings of the highest degree.


Spirit: The emotional, passionate side of our Spirit: The emotional, passionate side of our character is centered on the idea of status on a character is centered on the idea of status on a social level. Ambition, desire for honor and glory, social level. Ambition, desire for honor and glory, moral indignation, and cravings for admiration, moral indignation, and cravings for admiration, all fit under the umbrella of spirit. Love all fit under the umbrella of spirit. Love relationships fit into this category as well. Our relationships fit into this category as well. Our interactions with others provide core experiences interactions with others provide core experiences that influence our emotional development. that influence our emotional development.


Reason: The intellectual, thinking part of the soul Reason: The intellectual, thinking part of the soul that must weigh options, decide between that must weigh options, decide between alternatives, and "suppress dangerous urges.“ alternatives, and "suppress dangerous urges.“ Plato clearly puts reason in control of the soul Plato clearly puts reason in control of the soul because it acts as good counsel seeking because it acts as good counsel seeking understanding and insight before acting. Rational understanding and insight before acting. Rational individuals possess a strong contemplative individuals possess a strong contemplative faculty. They think before they act and are faculty. They think before they act and are unlikely to take rash action in any given situation. unlikely to take rash action in any given situation.

Know Thyself:Know Thyself: Plato contends that each one of us performs/does one thing best. Plato contends that each one of us performs/does one thing best.

We each have one best skill and it is the development of this skill We each have one best skill and it is the development of this skill that is of paramount importance in creating a harmonious existence. that is of paramount importance in creating a harmonious existence. If we do not have insight into what we do best, the chances of If we do not have insight into what we do best, the chances of achieving a balanced soul are likely reduced. Hence the Socratic achieving a balanced soul are likely reduced. Hence the Socratic imperative, "know thyself." imperative, "know thyself."

Just Society: First ask yourself: is it possible to have a just society? Just Society: First ask yourself: is it possible to have a just society? What would it look like? How would we direct education, the What would it look like? How would we direct education, the economy, leisure, and social resources? What is fair? economy, leisure, and social resources? What is fair?

Plato wrestles with the idea of justice in his most famous work Plato wrestles with the idea of justice in his most famous work entitled, entitled, The RepublicThe Republic. .

Plato views social justice exactly parallels his notion of Plato views social justice exactly parallels his notion of individual justice. There are three parts of the soul and three individual justice. There are three parts of the soul and three

corresponding divisions in the social order. The social order is corresponding divisions in the social order. The social order is constructed as follows:constructed as follows:

SOCIETYSOUL

Reason

Spirit

Appetite

Philosopher-King

Auxiliaries/Guardians

Craftsmen/Artisans/Traders

Overview of Ethical Systems: Overview of Ethical Systems: Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):

Though we are naturally suited to moral goodness, we don’t automatically develop such inclinations

Ideal of virtue is doing the right thing because you

want to do the right thing: you desire to act virtuously.

Carefully cultivate moral goodness by rigorous

practice.

In order to desire to act virtuously you must

carefully and consistently practice doing right until it

becomes habitual & natural.

If you act selfishly then you will become a selfish person. Eventually what feels right to you may be very wrong.

Your habits &

inclinations develop

with practice; what you

sow is what you

reap.

With practice & diligence you can develop the habits & inclinations of a virtuous

person.

Thus, choose to be virtuous. Desire +

judgment must agree.

What is Virtue Ethics?What is Virtue Ethics?

Virtue Ethics emphasizes the development of character Virtue Ethics emphasizes the development of character as its central theme rather than trying to define 'goodness' as its central theme rather than trying to define 'goodness' or 'rightness'. It is a eudaimonistic theory as it holds or 'rightness'. It is a eudaimonistic theory as it holds 'happiness' to be our highest goal. According to Aristotle, 'happiness' to be our highest goal. According to Aristotle, we attain happiness by cultivating both intellectual and we attain happiness by cultivating both intellectual and moral virtue. We become virtuous by habit: we moral virtue. We become virtuous by habit: we deliberately and consistently choose the mean between deliberately and consistently choose the mean between excess and deficiency until it becomes second-nature.excess and deficiency until it becomes second-nature.

What is Virtue Ethics?What is Virtue Ethics?

““We are what we repeatedly do. We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a Excellence, then, is not an act, but a

habit.” habit.”

~ Aristotle, ~ Aristotle, Nicomachean EthicsNicomachean Ethics

Virtue = excellence:Virtue = excellence: Intellectual virtue can be taught.Intellectual virtue can be taught.

A good person succeeds at rational A good person succeeds at rational activity.activity.

Moral virtue is acquired through excellent Moral virtue is acquired through excellent habits.habits.

We become good by doing good things. We become good by doing good things.

We become virtuous by practicing virtuous We become virtuous by practicing virtuous acts.acts.

On Becoming Agathos & EudaimonOn Becoming Agathos & EudaimonFrom Aristotle’s Point of View:From Aristotle’s Point of View:

Cited from Michael Boylan, Cited from Michael Boylan, Basic EthicsBasic Ethics (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000), 52. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2000), 52. Step 1:Step 1: Master the functional requirements within a given type of task or behavior. Master a good Master the functional requirements within a given type of task or behavior. Master a good

habit.habit.

Step 2:Step 2: Possess the habitual mastery of the functional requirements to an appropriate degree. Possess the habitual mastery of the functional requirements to an appropriate degree. Possess habitual mastery of that habit.Possess habitual mastery of that habit. `̀

Step 3:Step 3: Steps 1 & 2: excellence in that task or behavior. Achieve excellence in the habit.Steps 1 & 2: excellence in that task or behavior. Achieve excellence in the habit.

Step 4:Step 4: Possess habitual excellence in a number of key tasks or behavior.Possess habitual excellence in a number of key tasks or behavior.

Step 5:Step 5: Possess habitual excellence in those tasks or behavior that the common opinion judges Possess habitual excellence in those tasks or behavior that the common opinion judges to be to be the most worthy.the most worthy.

Step 6:Step 6: Steps 4 & 5 leads to agathos.Steps 4 & 5 leads to agathos.

Step 7:Step 7: Possessing Agathos leads to eudaimon.Possessing Agathos leads to eudaimon.

Thus, on balance, excellent traits in human character generally produce excellent actionsThus, on balance, excellent traits in human character generally produce excellent actions ..

Virtue Ethics: What kind of person should I be?Virtue Ethics: What kind of person should I be?

What is a virtue?What is a virtue?

A virtue is a habit of excellence, a beneficial tendency, a skilled A virtue is a habit of excellence, a beneficial tendency, a skilled disposition that enables a person to realize the crucial potentialities disposition that enables a person to realize the crucial potentialities that constitute proper human flourishing (that constitute proper human flourishing (eudaimoniaeudaimonia).).

What is a habit? A disposition to think, feel, desire, and act in a What is a habit? A disposition to think, feel, desire, and act in a certain way without having a tendency to consciously will to do so.certain way without having a tendency to consciously will to do so.

What is a character: The sum-total of one’s habits, tendencies, and What is a character: The sum-total of one’s habits, tendencies, and well-being.well-being.

Four cardinal virtues: temperance, courage, prudence, and justice. Four cardinal virtues: temperance, courage, prudence, and justice. Piety (reverence to the gods) is sometimes considered a fifth virtue.Piety (reverence to the gods) is sometimes considered a fifth virtue.

Closer Look at Virtue:Closer Look at Virtue: ““A virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency A virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency

to do what is honest or generous, nor is it to be helpfully to do what is honest or generous, nor is it to be helpfully specified as a "desirable" or "morally valuable" character trait. specified as a "desirable" or "morally valuable" character trait. It is, indeed a character trait — that is, a disposition which is It is, indeed a character trait — that is, a disposition which is well entrenched in its possessor, something that, as we say well entrenched in its possessor, something that, as we say "goes all the way down", unlike a habit such as being a tea-"goes all the way down", unlike a habit such as being a tea-drinker — but the disposition in question, far from being a drinker — but the disposition in question, far from being a single track disposition to do honest actions, or even honest single track disposition to do honest actions, or even honest actions for certain reasons, is multi-track. It is concerned with actions for certain reasons, is multi-track. It is concerned with many other actions as well, with emotions and emotional many other actions as well, with emotions and emotional reactions, choices, values, desires, perceptions, attitudes, reactions, choices, values, desires, perceptions, attitudes, interests, expectations and sensibilities. To possess a virtue is interests, expectations and sensibilities. To possess a virtue is to be a certain sort of person with a certain complex mindset. to be a certain sort of person with a certain complex mindset. (Hence the extreme recklessness of attributing a virtue on the (Hence the extreme recklessness of attributing a virtue on the basis of a single action)” ~ Stanford Encyclopediabasis of a single action)” ~ Stanford Encyclopedia

Three Central Themes:Three Central Themes:

Three Central Themes:Three Central Themes:

A.A. Virtue (arete): A habit of excellence, a beneficial tendency, a Virtue (arete): A habit of excellence, a beneficial tendency, a skilled disposition that enables a person to realize the crucial skilled disposition that enables a person to realize the crucial potentialities that constitute proper human flourishing. potentialities that constitute proper human flourishing.

A habit is a disposition to think, feel, desire, and act in a certain way without A habit is a disposition to think, feel, desire, and act in a certain way without having a tendency to will consciously to do so.having a tendency to will consciously to do so.

““Character” may be defined as the sum-total of one’s habits.Character” may be defined as the sum-total of one’s habits.

C.C. Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing; Successful Living): Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing; Successful Living):

C.C. Phronesis (practical wisdom): How?Phronesis (practical wisdom): How?

Practice The Golden Mean: Be moderate in all things to an appropriate Practice The Golden Mean: Be moderate in all things to an appropriate degree; avoid both deficiency and excessiveness; cultivate proper virtues that degree; avoid both deficiency and excessiveness; cultivate proper virtues that are deemed most worthy by your community;are deemed most worthy by your community;

Mimic, follow the virtuous person.Mimic, follow the virtuous person.

Practical Wisdom (Practical Wisdom (PhronesisPhronesis):):

A good person consistently does the right thing A good person consistently does the right thing at the right time, in the right way, and for the at the right time, in the right way, and for the right reason.right reason.

There is no rule for becoming good, or for There is no rule for becoming good, or for distinguishing good from bad, right from wrong.distinguishing good from bad, right from wrong.

Practical wisdom:Practical wisdom: ability to draw the right ability to draw the right distinctions and tell right from wrong.distinctions and tell right from wrong.

Virtue Excess Deficiency Sphere

Courage Rashness Cowardice Danger

Temperance Self-indulgence Insensibility Sensual pleasure

Liberality Wasteful Stinginess Money

Magnificence Vulgarity Penny pinching Great wealth

Pride Vanity Humility Honor & self-respect

Right Ambition Overly ambitious Lack of ambition Honor

Good temper No emotion Quick-temper Insult

Ready wit Buffoonishness Boorishness Humor

Truthfulness Boastfulness Modesty Self-description

Friendliness Flattery Quarrelsome Social association

Shame Bashfulness Pretense Wrongdoing

Righteous Spite Envy Fortune of others

Justice Greed ? Scarce goods

A Character Trait is a Virtue IFF it is conducive to eudaimonia: The Golden Mean:

Duration

Objects

Occasions

Degree

People

Vice (cowardice)

Virtue (courage)

Vice (Rashness)

Brutish

Virtue as a Mean:Virtue as a Mean:

We must give in to desire in the right We must give in to desire in the right circumstances, in the right way, for the right circumstances, in the right way, for the right reason, etc.reason, etc.

Practical wisdom allows us to find the mean.Practical wisdom allows us to find the mean.

There’s no rule for doing this.There’s no rule for doing this.

You must learn to see what is rightYou must learn to see what is right

Virtue as a MeanVirtue as a Mean

Virtues are means between extremesVirtues are means between extremesVirtues constrain desiresVirtues constrain desiresBut we may constrain too little or too muchBut we may constrain too little or too much

MODERATION IN ALL THINGS IS MODERATION IN ALL THINGS IS PARAMOUNT!PARAMOUNT!

The akratic:

The akratic is the morally weak person

who desires to do other than what he knows ought to be

done and acts on this desire against his better judgment.

The enkratic:

The enkratic is the morally strong

person who shares the akratic agent’s desire to do other

than what he knows ought to be done, but

acts in accordance with his better

judgment.

In the virtuous person, desire and judgment agree whereby the In the virtuous person, desire and judgment agree whereby the choices and actions will be free of the conflict and pain that choices and actions will be free of the conflict and pain that inevitably accompany those who are inevitably accompany those who are akratic akratic and/or and/or enkraticenkratic::

In neither kind of choice are desire and judgment in harmony. In the virtuous desire and judgment agree.

Why does desire and judgment Why does desire and judgment agree for the virtuous?agree for the virtuous?

The reason why the choices and actions will be The reason why the choices and actions will be free of the conflict and pain that inevitably free of the conflict and pain that inevitably accompanies those of the accompanies those of the akratic akratic and and enkratic enkratic agent is because the part of their soul that agent is because the part of their soul that governs choice and action is so disposed that governs choice and action is so disposed that desire and judgment coincide. The disposition is desire and judgment coincide. The disposition is concerned with choices as would be determined concerned with choices as would be determined by the person of practical wisdom (phronesis); by the person of practical wisdom (phronesis); these will be actions lying between extreme these will be actions lying between extreme alternatives. They will lie in a man-popularly alternatives. They will lie in a man-popularly called the “golden mean”-relative to the talents called the “golden mean”-relative to the talents and stores of the agent. and stores of the agent.

Why does desire and judgment Why does desire and judgment agree for the virtuous?agree for the virtuous?

Choosing in this way is not easily done. It involves, for Choosing in this way is not easily done. It involves, for instance, feeling anger or extending generosity at the instance, feeling anger or extending generosity at the right time, toward the right people, in the right way, and right time, toward the right people, in the right way, and for the right reasons. Intellectual virtues, such as for the right reasons. Intellectual virtues, such as excellence at mathematics, can be acquired by teaching, excellence at mathematics, can be acquired by teaching, but moral virtues cannot. I may know what ought to be but moral virtues cannot. I may know what ought to be done and even perform virtuous act without being able to done and even perform virtuous act without being able to act virtuously. Nonetheless, because moral virtue is a act virtuously. Nonetheless, because moral virtue is a disposition concerning choice, deliberate performance of disposition concerning choice, deliberate performance of virtuous acts can, ultimately, instill a disposition to virtuous acts can, ultimately, instill a disposition to choose them in harmony and with pleasure, and hence, choose them in harmony and with pleasure, and hence, to act virtuously.to act virtuously.

What does it take to be fully virtuous?What does it take to be fully virtuous? The fully virtuous do what they should without a struggle against contrary The fully virtuous do what they should without a struggle against contrary desire; possess practical wisdom (desire; possess practical wisdom (phronesisphronesis) which is the knowledge or ) which is the knowledge or understanding that enables its possessor to do just that in any given understanding that enables its possessor to do just that in any given situation. Most contend that situation. Most contend that phronesisphronesis comes out of at least three sources: comes out of at least three sources:

1.1. Comes only with the experience of life. The virtuous are mindful of Comes only with the experience of life. The virtuous are mindful of the the consequences of possible actions. How could they fail to be consequences of possible actions. How could they fail to be reckless, reckless, thoughtless and short-sighted if they were not? Moreover, thoughtless and short-sighted if they were not? Moreover, they have they have developed the capacity to recognize some features of a developed the capacity to recognize some features of a situation as situation as more important than others, or indeed, in that situation, as more important than others, or indeed, in that situation, as the only the only relevant ones. relevant ones. The wise do not see things in the same way The wise do not see things in the same way as the as the nice adolescents who, with their imperfect virtues, still tend to see nice adolescents who, with their imperfect virtues, still tend to see the the personally disadvantageous nature of a certain action as competing personally disadvantageous nature of a certain action as competing in in importance with its honesty or benevolence or justice. importance with its honesty or benevolence or justice.

2.2. They mimic, follow the virtuous person.They mimic, follow the virtuous person.

* We might add that it also takes a certain set of external goods (e.g., right * We might add that it also takes a certain set of external goods (e.g., right background, right education, right financial resources, right community, etc).background, right education, right financial resources, right community, etc).

3 Commonly Ascribed “Advantages” of Virtue Ethics:3 Commonly Ascribed “Advantages” of Virtue Ethics:

Focuses on the development of habits that promote human Focuses on the development of habits that promote human excellence.excellence.

Focuses on an account in which being virtuous means Focuses on an account in which being virtuous means recognizing how rational behavior requires being sensitive to recognizing how rational behavior requires being sensitive to the social and personal dimensions of life.the social and personal dimensions of life.

Focuses on how “rational” actions are not based on abstract Focuses on how “rational” actions are not based on abstract principles but on moderation.principles but on moderation.

Common Criticisms of Virtue Ethics (VE):Common Criticisms of Virtue Ethics (VE):

Vast differences on what constitutes a virtue (e.g., different people, societies, Vast differences on what constitutes a virtue (e.g., different people, societies, opinions, etc).opinions, etc).

VE lacks clarity in resolving moral conflicts.VE lacks clarity in resolving moral conflicts.

VE is self-centered because its primary concern is the agent’s own character.VE is self-centered because its primary concern is the agent’s own character.

““Well-being” is a master value & all other things are valuable only to the extent Well-being” is a master value & all other things are valuable only to the extent that they can contribute to it.that they can contribute to it.

VE is imprecise: It fails to give us any help with the practicalities of how we VE is imprecise: It fails to give us any help with the practicalities of how we should behave.should behave.

VE leaves us “hostage to luck” for only some will attain moral maturity; others VE leaves us “hostage to luck” for only some will attain moral maturity; others will not. Moreover, life is very fragile. One small misstep and it will cost you will not. Moreover, life is very fragile. One small misstep and it will cost you everything; it will forever be beyond your reach.everything; it will forever be beyond your reach.

New Material:New Material:

We will now turn to examine We will now turn to examine Theistic Theistic Deontological EthicsDeontological Ethics with Natural Law with Natural Law Theory:Theory:

Next Time we will explore Thomas Next Time we will explore Thomas Aquinas’ “four cardinal virtues” and Aquinas’ “four cardinal virtues” and Introduce Kant’s deontological model as a Introduce Kant’s deontological model as a model that became secular.model that became secular.

Deontological Framework:Deontological Framework:

An action is right if and only if (iff) it is in accordance with a An action is right if and only if (iff) it is in accordance with a moral rule or principle.moral rule or principle.

This is a purely formal specification, forging a link This is a purely formal specification, forging a link between the concepts of right and action and moral rule, between the concepts of right and action and moral rule, and gives one no guidance until one knows what a moral and gives one no guidance until one knows what a moral rule is.rule is.

Deontological Framework:Deontological Framework: So, the next thing the theory needs is a premise about that: A moral rule is So, the next thing the theory needs is a premise about that: A moral rule is

one that would have been historically:one that would have been historically:

A.A. Theistic:Theistic:

1.1. Given to us by God;Given to us by God;

2.2. Is required by Natural Law (theistic connection);Is required by Natural Law (theistic connection);

B.B. Secular (though can still be connected to God):Secular (though can still be connected to God):1.1. Is laid on us by reason.Is laid on us by reason.

2.2. Is required by rationality;Is required by rationality;

3.3. Would command universal acceptance;Would command universal acceptance;

4.4. Would be the object of choice of all rational Would be the object of choice of all rational beings.beings.

Deontological Ethics:Deontological Ethics:

In sum, we should choose actions based on their In sum, we should choose actions based on their inherent, intrinsic worth; evangelical approaches to inherent, intrinsic worth; evangelical approaches to ethics are deontological because it presupposes ethics are deontological because it presupposes Scripture as revelation.Scripture as revelation.

““DeontologicalDeontological” comes from the Greek word ” comes from the Greek word ““deondeon”, meaning that which is binding, in particular ”, meaning that which is binding, in particular a binding duty. So, you are bound to your duty.a binding duty. So, you are bound to your duty.

Deontological EthicsDeontological Ethics

For example, a deontologist might argue that a For example, a deontologist might argue that a promise ought to be kept simply because it is right promise ought to be kept simply because it is right to keep a promise, regardless whether the doing so to keep a promise, regardless whether the doing so will have good or bad consequences. will have good or bad consequences.

In contrast, a utilitarian will argue that we should In contrast, a utilitarian will argue that we should keep our promises only when keeping them results keep our promises only when keeping them results

in better consequences than the alternativesin better consequences than the alternatives..


It holds that acts are right or wrong in and of It holds that acts are right or wrong in and of themselves because of the kinds of acts they are and themselves because of the kinds of acts they are and not simply because of their ends or consequences. not simply because of their ends or consequences.

-- The ends do not justify the means. The ends do not justify the means. -- A good end or purpose does not justify a bad A good end or purpose does not justify a bad

actions.actions.- You are duty-bound; binding is not dependent - You are duty-bound; binding is not dependent on consequences, no matter if it is painful or on consequences, no matter if it is painful or pleasurable.pleasurable.


For example:For example:

1.1. You are duty-bound to keep your promise to be You are duty-bound to keep your promise to be faithful to your spouse, even if a more attractive faithful to your spouse, even if a more attractive person comes along.person comes along.

2.2. You are duty-bound to always telling the truth, even You are duty-bound to always telling the truth, even if it cost you a job. if it cost you a job.

Duty is not based on what is pleasant or beneficial, but rather Duty is not based on what is pleasant or beneficial, but rather upon the obligation itself.upon the obligation itself.

Natural Law Theory:Natural Law Theory:

““I do not feel obliged to believe that the I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, same God who has endowed us with sense, reason, and intellect has intended us to reason, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use.”forgo their use.”

~ Galileo Galilei.~ Galileo Galilei.


1.1. It is moral law presumed to be grounded in It is moral law presumed to be grounded in nature itself. A natural law is a norm for ethical nature itself. A natural law is a norm for ethical behavior that is deemed binding on all humans behavior that is deemed binding on all humans because it coheres with the human essence or with the because it coheres with the human essence or with the structure of the universe (grounded in nature itself), structure of the universe (grounded in nature itself), perhaps because it was legislated by God. perhaps because it was legislated by God.

2.2. Insofar as natural law can be known by reason Insofar as natural law can be known by reason alone, without special revelation, they provide alone, without special revelation, they provide guidance for all humans, and when followed they guidance for all humans, and when followed they enhance the common good, but also render each enhance the common good, but also render each person morally responsible to a divine judge.person morally responsible to a divine judge.

What is Natural Law?What is Natural Law?

““What do we mean by natural law? In its simplest definition, What do we mean by natural law? In its simplest definition, natural law is that ‘unwritten law’ that is more or less the natural law is that ‘unwritten law’ that is more or less the same for everyone everywhere. To be more exact, natural same for everyone everywhere. To be more exact, natural law is the concept of a body of moral principles that is law is the concept of a body of moral principles that is common to all humankind and, as generally posited, is common to all humankind and, as generally posited, is recognizable by human reason alone. Natural law is recognizable by human reason alone. Natural law is therefore distinguished from -- and provides a standard for -- therefore distinguished from -- and provides a standard for -- positive law, the formal legal enactments of a particular positive law, the formal legal enactments of a particular

societysociety.”.” ~ Dr. Jonathan Dolhenty ~ Dr. Jonathan Dolhenty


““Since law must always be some dictate of reason, natural Since law must always be some dictate of reason, natural law also will be some dictate of reason. In fact, it is law law also will be some dictate of reason. In fact, it is law discovered by human reason. Our normal and natural grasp discovered by human reason. Our normal and natural grasp of the natural law is effected by reason, that is, by the of the natural law is effected by reason, that is, by the thinking mind, and in this service reason is sometimes thinking mind, and in this service reason is sometimes called ‘conscience.’” ~ Jonathan Dolhenty, “An Overview of called ‘conscience.’” ~ Jonathan Dolhenty, “An Overview of Natural Law Theory.”Natural Law Theory.”


Dr. Dolhenty goes on to say:Dr. Dolhenty goes on to say:

““We, in all our human acts, inevitably see them in their We, in all our human acts, inevitably see them in their relation to the natural law, and we mentally pronounce upon relation to the natural law, and we mentally pronounce upon their agreement or disagreement with the natural law. Such their agreement or disagreement with the natural law. Such a pronouncement may be called a ‘judgment of conscience.’ a pronouncement may be called a ‘judgment of conscience.’ The ‘norm’ of morality is the natural law as applied by The ‘norm’ of morality is the natural law as applied by conscience. Lastly, we can say that the natural law is the conscience. Lastly, we can say that the natural law is the disposition of things as known by our human reason and to disposition of things as known by our human reason and to which we must conform ourselves if we are to realize our which we must conform ourselves if we are to realize our proper end or ‘good’ as human beings.”proper end or ‘good’ as human beings.”


3. The idea initially arose among the Jews, 3. The idea initially arose among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, esp. promoted by Greeks, and Romans, esp. promoted by Judaism and Stoics. But it came to the Judaism and Stoics. But it came to the foreground in the Christian tradition as foreground in the Christian tradition as thinkers drew from both philosophy and the thinkers drew from both philosophy and the Bible to devise a theory of morality and Bible to devise a theory of morality and politics that could be understood to be politics that could be understood to be universally applicable.universally applicable.

Natural Rights: Entitlements with which Natural Rights: Entitlements with which humans are endowed by nature or by virtue humans are endowed by nature or by virtue of their status as being human.of their status as being human.

Consider:Consider:

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) states, “one part of what Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) states, “one part of what is politically just is natural, and the other part is politically just is natural, and the other part legal. What is natural has the same validity legal. What is natural has the same validity everywhere alike, independent of its seeming so everywhere alike, independent of its seeming so or not. What is legal is what originally makes no or not. What is legal is what originally makes no difference [whether it is done] one way or difference [whether it is done] one way or another, but makes a difference whenever another, but makes a difference whenever people have laid down the rule, e.g., … that a people have laid down the rule, e.g., … that a goat rather than two sheep should be goat rather than two sheep should be sacrificed.” ~ Aristotle, sacrificed.” ~ Aristotle, Nicomachean EthicsNicomachean Ethics, , Book V, 133.Book V, 133.

Consider:Consider:

Aristotle also states in Aristotle also states in On RhetoricOn Rhetoric, book , book 1, chap. 13: 1, chap. 13:

““there is in nature a common principle of there is in nature a common principle of the just and unjust that all people in some the just and unjust that all people in some way divine [discern], even if they have no way divine [discern], even if they have no association or commerce with each other.”association or commerce with each other.”

Consider:Consider:

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.):43 B.C.):

He described “Law” as “the He described “Law” as “the reason highest, implanted reason highest, implanted in Nature, which in Nature, which commands what ought to commands what ought to be done and forbids the be done and forbids the opposite” [opposite” [LawsLaws, in , in Great Great Legal PhilosophersLegal Philosophers, 44]., 44].

He said that “right is based, He said that “right is based, not upon men’s opinions, not upon men’s opinions, but upon Nature” [Ibid., 45].but upon Nature” [Ibid., 45].

Cicero goes on to say:Cicero goes on to say:

““What is right and true is also eternal, and does not What is right and true is also eternal, and does not begin or end with written statutes…. From this point of begin or end with written statutes…. From this point of view it can readily understood by that those who view it can readily understood by that those who formulated wicked and unjust statutes for nations, formulated wicked and unjust statutes for nations, thereby breaking their promises and agreements, put thereby breaking their promises and agreements, put into effect anything but ‘laws.’ It may thus be clear that into effect anything but ‘laws.’ It may thus be clear that in the very definition of the term ‘law’ there inheres the in the very definition of the term ‘law’ there inheres the idea and principle of choosing what is just and true…. idea and principle of choosing what is just and true…. Therefore Law is the distinction between things just and Therefore Law is the distinction between things just and unjust, made in agreement with that primal and most unjust, made in agreement with that primal and most ancient of all things, Nature; and in conformity to nature’s ancient of all things, Nature; and in conformity to nature’s standard are framed those human laws which inflict standard are framed those human laws which inflict punishment upon the wicked but defend and protect the punishment upon the wicked but defend and protect the good” (Ibid., 51).good” (Ibid., 51).

In his article, “Natural Law in the Teachings of the In his article, “Natural Law in the Teachings of the Reformers”, Reformers”, Journal of ReligionJournal of Religion 168 (1946), 26, John T. 168 (1946), 26, John T.

McNeill writes:McNeill writes:

““There is no real discontinuity between the teaching of the There is no real discontinuity between the teaching of the Reformers and that of their predecessors with respect to Reformers and that of their predecessors with respect to natural law. Not one of the leaders of the Reformation natural law. Not one of the leaders of the Reformation assails the principle. Instead, with the possible exception of assails the principle. Instead, with the possible exception of Zwingli, they all are on occasion express a quite ungrudging Zwingli, they all are on occasion express a quite ungrudging respect for the moral law naturally implanted in the human respect for the moral law naturally implanted in the human heart and seek to inculcate this attitude in their readers. heart and seek to inculcate this attitude in their readers. Natural law is not one of the issues on which they bring the Natural law is not one of the issues on which they bring the Scholastics under criticism. With safeguards of their Scholastics under criticism. With safeguards of their primary doctrines but without conscious resistance on their primary doctrines but without conscious resistance on their part, natural law enters into the framework of their thought part, natural law enters into the framework of their thought and is an assumption of their political and social teaching…. and is an assumption of their political and social teaching…. For the Reformers, as for the Fathers, canonists, and the For the Reformers, as for the Fathers, canonists, and the Scholastics, natural law stood affirmed on the pages of Scholastics, natural law stood affirmed on the pages of Scripture.Scripture.

English judge Sir William Blackstone (1723-1780) writes:English judge Sir William Blackstone (1723-1780) writes:

““As man depends absolutely upon his Maker for everything, it is As man depends absolutely upon his Maker for everything, it is necessary that he should, in all points conform to his Maker’s necessary that he should, in all points conform to his Maker’s will. This will of his Maker is called the law of nature…. This will. This will of his Maker is called the law of nature…. This law of nature being coeval with mankind, and dictated by God law of nature being coeval with mankind, and dictated by God himself, is, of course, superior in obligation to any other. It is himself, is, of course, superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all of their force and all of their them as are valid derive all of their force and all of their authority mediately or immediately from this original.” ~ authority mediately or immediately from this original.” ~ William Blackstone, “Introduction”, William Blackstone, “Introduction”, Commentaries on the Laws Commentaries on the Laws of Englandof England, sec. 2, 1:29-31., sec. 2, 1:29-31.


Things in nature have a nature. Things in nature have a nature. Things are “bad” when they are unnatural.Things are “bad” when they are unnatural.Things are “good” when they fulfill their Things are “good” when they fulfill their

nature.nature.People are good when they fulfill their true People are good when they fulfill their true

nature; bad humans are those who don’t.nature; bad humans are those who don’t.Moral law is the natural law: the law that Moral law is the natural law: the law that

requires us to act in accordance with our requires us to act in accordance with our nature.nature.


““At its most basic, natural law theory tells At its most basic, natural law theory tells us that actions are right just because they us that actions are right just because they are natural, and wrong just because they are natural, and wrong just because they are unnatural. And people are good to the are unnatural. And people are good to the extent that they fulfill their true nature, bad extent that they fulfill their true nature, bad insofar as thy flout it.” ~ Russ Shafer insofar as thy flout it.” ~ Russ Shafer Landau, Landau, The Fundamentals of EthicsThe Fundamentals of Ethics, 72., 72.

In summary:In summary:Natural law:Natural law:

1.1. Is not made by human beings;Is not made by human beings;

2.2. Is based on the structure of reality; Is based on the structure of reality;

3.3. Is the same for all human beings and at all times;Is the same for all human beings and at all times;

4.4. It is an unchanging rule or pattern which is there for It is an unchanging rule or pattern which is there for human beings to discover; human beings to discover;

5.5. It is the naturally knowable moral law;It is the naturally knowable moral law;

6.6. It is a means by which people everywhere (individuals It is a means by which people everywhere (individuals and as communities) can be enriched and rewarded.and as communities) can be enriched and rewarded.

~Adapted from John Dolhenty’s article, “An Overview of Natural Law Theory.”~Adapted from John Dolhenty’s article, “An Overview of Natural Law Theory.”

Consider:Consider:

“ “ We are designed to be moral.”We are designed to be moral.”

~ Paul R. Shockley~ Paul R. Shockley

““We are definitely at our most peaceful We are definitely at our most peaceful state when we adhere to natural law.”state when we adhere to natural law.”

~ Jeremy R. Poland.~ Jeremy R. Poland.

Justification:Justification:

Witness of Deep Conscience;Witness of Deep Conscience;Witness of Cosmos (purpose; design);Witness of Cosmos (purpose; design);Witness of Human Design;Witness of Human Design;Witness of Godward longings;Witness of Godward longings;Witness of Consequences.Witness of Consequences.


Consider this statement from John Dolhenty:Consider this statement from John Dolhenty:

““It is interesting to note that virtually everyone It is interesting to note that virtually everyone seems to have some knowledge of natural law seems to have some knowledge of natural law even before such knowledge is codified and even before such knowledge is codified and formalized. Even young children make an appeal to formalized. Even young children make an appeal to "fair play," demand that things be "fair and "fair play," demand that things be "fair and square," and older children and adults often apply square," and older children and adults often apply the "golden rule." When doing so, they are the "golden rule." When doing so, they are spontaneously invoking the natural law. This is why spontaneously invoking the natural law. This is why many proponents of the natural law theory say it is many proponents of the natural law theory say it is the law which is "written upon the hearts of men."the law which is "written upon the hearts of men."


Consider this statement from John Dolhenty:Consider this statement from John Dolhenty:

These are examples of what is called "connatural These are examples of what is called "connatural knowledge," that is, a knowledge which:knowledge," that is, a knowledge which:

follows on the "lived experience" of the truth;follows on the "lived experience" of the truth;

is the living contact of the intellect with reality is the living contact of the intellect with reality itself;itself;

is not always given expression in concepts;is not always given expression in concepts;

may be obscure to the knower;may be obscure to the knower;

is overlaid with elements from the affective or is overlaid with elements from the affective or feeling side of man's nature.feeling side of man's nature.


John Dolhenty goes on to say:John Dolhenty goes on to say:

Now, our reflection on our own conduct gives rise to the Now, our reflection on our own conduct gives rise to the explicit formulation of the precepts of the natural law. explicit formulation of the precepts of the natural law. We as human beings put our "commonsense" notions We as human beings put our "commonsense" notions of natural law under "critical examination." In other of natural law under "critical examination." In other words, our natural impulses toward "fair play," justice, words, our natural impulses toward "fair play," justice, and so on are subject to a rigorous investigation and and so on are subject to a rigorous investigation and rationalization. And our understanding of natural law rationalization. And our understanding of natural law becomes more precise as we consider and codify the becomes more precise as we consider and codify the principles or precepts of natural law. The primary principles or precepts of natural law. The primary precept of natural law will be the most basic principle precept of natural law will be the most basic principle about human action that can be formulated.about human action that can be formulated.

What is the Nature of Man?What is the Nature of Man?

““The essential nature of man is unalterable The essential nature of man is unalterable because it is a reflection of the unchanging because it is a reflection of the unchanging divine essence.” Rice, 52.divine essence.” Rice, 52.

What is the Nature of Man?What is the Nature of Man?Aquinas states:Aquinas states:

““all those things to which man has a natural inclination are naturally all those things to which man has a natural inclination are naturally apprehended by reason as being good, and consequently as objects of apprehended by reason as being good, and consequently as objects of pursuit, and their contraries as evil, and objects of avoidance” [S.T., I, II, pursuit, and their contraries as evil, and objects of avoidance” [S.T., I, II, Q. 94, art. 2] The basic inclinations of man are five: Q. 94, art. 2] The basic inclinations of man are five:

1.1. To seek the good, including his highest good, which is eternal To seek the good, including his highest good, which is eternal happiness with God.happiness with God.

2.2. To preserve himself in existence.To preserve himself in existence.3.3. To preserve the species-that is, to unite sexually.To preserve the species-that is, to unite sexually.4.4. To live in community with other men.To live in community with other men.5.5. To use his intellect and will-that is, to know the truth and to To use his intellect and will-that is, to know the truth and to make his own decisions.make his own decisions.

These inclinations are put into human nature by God to help man achieve These inclinations are put into human nature by God to help man achieve his final end of eternal happiness. From these inclinations we apply the his final end of eternal happiness. From these inclinations we apply the natural law by deduction: Good should be done; this actions is good; this natural law by deduction: Good should be done; this actions is good; this actions therefore should be done.actions therefore should be done.

What is natural law theory?What is natural law theory?

There are foundational moral principles There are foundational moral principles which are not only right for all, but at which are not only right for all, but at some level known to all.some level known to all.

In other words, there exists ethical In other words, there exists ethical standards which are the same for all, standards which are the same for all, meaning they are right for everyone; at meaning they are right for everyone; at some level, everyone knows them.some level, everyone knows them.

It is natural law because it is “built into the It is natural law because it is “built into the design of human nature and woven into design of human nature and woven into the fabric of the normal human mind; it is the fabric of the normal human mind; it is genuine knowledge “written on the heart.”genuine knowledge “written on the heart.”

Therefore, there are no moral skeptics; Therefore, there are no moral skeptics; supposed skeptics are playing make-supposed skeptics are playing make-believe.believe.

Clarifying Natural Law Theory:Clarifying Natural Law Theory:

Natural law is not innate for we are not Natural law is not innate for we are not born knowing it. With the capability of born knowing it. With the capability of understanding we come to understand understanding we come to understand what is meant by “murder” and by what is meant by “murder” and by “wrong.”“wrong.”

Natural law is not merely biological Natural law is not merely biological instinct though it does take into account instinct though it does take into account of certain biological realities.of certain biological realities.

Natural law is not mere custom-though Natural law is not mere custom-though customs of almost all times and places customs of almost all times and places more or less acknowledge it.more or less acknowledge it.

Natural law is not a law of nature in the Natural law is not a law of nature in the same sense that gravitation is a law of same sense that gravitation is a law of nature.nature.

Consider the following statement by Charles Rice:Consider the following statement by Charles Rice:

““Natural law will seem mysterious if we forget Natural law will seem mysterious if we forget that everything has a law built into its nature. that everything has a law built into its nature. The nature of a rock is such that it will sink if you The nature of a rock is such that it will sink if you throw it into a pond. An automobile will function throw it into a pond. An automobile will function if you feed it gasoline. If you put sand in the if you feed it gasoline. If you put sand in the tank instead, you may be sincere in your belief tank instead, you may be sincere in your belief that the car will run, but you will end up a that the car will run, but you will end up a pedestrian. The natural law is the story of how pedestrian. The natural law is the story of how things work. If you want your body to function things work. If you want your body to function well, you ought not to treat it as if it were a trash well, you ought not to treat it as if it were a trash compactor. Natural law is easy to understand compactor. Natural law is easy to understand when we are talking about the physical nature. when we are talking about the physical nature. But it applies as well to the moral sphere.” But it applies as well to the moral sphere.”


““Morality is governed by a law built into the nature of man Morality is governed by a law built into the nature of man and knowable by reason. Man can know, through the use and knowable by reason. Man can know, through the use of his reason, what is in accord with his nature and of his reason, what is in accord with his nature and therefore good. Every law, however, has to have a therefore good. Every law, however, has to have a lawgiver. Let us say up front that the natural law makes no lawgiver. Let us say up front that the natural law makes no ultimate sense without God as its author…The natural law ultimate sense without God as its author…The natural law is a set of manufacturer’s directions written into our nature is a set of manufacturer’s directions written into our nature so that we can discover through reason how we ought to so that we can discover through reason how we ought to act. It ‘is nothing other can than the light of understanding act. It ‘is nothing other can than the light of understanding infused in us by God, whereby we understand what must infused in us by God, whereby we understand what must be done and what must be avoided’ [citation from Aquinas]. be done and what must be avoided’ [citation from Aquinas]. The Ten Commandments, and other prescriptions of the The Ten Commandments, and other prescriptions of the divine law, specify some applications of that natural law.” divine law, specify some applications of that natural law.”

~ Charles Rice, ~ Charles Rice, 50 Questions on the Natural Law50 Questions on the Natural Law, rev. ed., , rev. ed., 30-31.30-31.


““Morality is governed by a law built into the nature of man Morality is governed by a law built into the nature of man and knowable by reason. Man can know, through the use and knowable by reason. Man can know, through the use of his reason, what is in accord with his nature and of his reason, what is in accord with his nature and therefore good. Every law, however, has to have a therefore good. Every law, however, has to have a lawgiver. Let us say up front that the natural law makes no lawgiver. Let us say up front that the natural law makes no ultimate sense without God as its author…The natural law ultimate sense without God as its author…The natural law is a set of manufacturer’s directions written into our nature is a set of manufacturer’s directions written into our nature so that we can discover through reason how we ought to so that we can discover through reason how we ought to act. It ‘is nothing other than the light of understanding act. It ‘is nothing other than the light of understanding infused in us by God, whereby we understand what must infused in us by God, whereby we understand what must be done and what must be avoided’ [citation from Aquinas]. be done and what must be avoided’ [citation from Aquinas]. The Ten Commandments, and other prescriptions of the The Ten Commandments, and other prescriptions of the divine law, specify some applications of that natural law.” divine law, specify some applications of that natural law.”

~ Charles Rice, ~ Charles Rice, 50 Questions on the Natural Law50 Questions on the Natural Law, rev. ed., , rev. ed., 30-31.30-31.

Clarification: What Natural Law Does Not Do:Clarification: What Natural Law Does Not Do:

““The natural law provides a guide through which The natural law provides a guide through which we can safely and rightly choose to love by God we can safely and rightly choose to love by God by acting in accord with our nature and by by acting in accord with our nature and by helping others to do the same. We can know helping others to do the same. We can know the requirements of the natural law through the requirements of the natural law through reason unaided by explicit revelation. But, reason unaided by explicit revelation. But, because of the weakness and disorder caused because of the weakness and disorder caused in our nature by original sin, we are likely to in our nature by original sin, we are likely to make mistakes; So God has provided revelation make mistakes; So God has provided revelation to enable to us know with certainty how we to enable to us know with certainty how we ought to act….the natural law and revelation ought to act….the natural law and revelation compliment each other” (Ibid., 32).compliment each other” (Ibid., 32).


““There is not a natural morality and a There is not a natural morality and a supernatural morality but only one salvific supernatural morality but only one salvific morality…of which natural law morally is morality…of which natural law morally is existentially a part….” ~ Joseph F. existentially a part….” ~ Joseph F. Costanzo, S.J., Costanzo, S.J., The Historical Credibility of The Historical Credibility of Hans KungHans Kung, 359., 359.

Consider this quote by Pascal…Consider this quote by Pascal…

But isn’t it interesting that we care little so little But isn’t it interesting that we care little so little about the nature of our soul:about the nature of our soul:

“The immortality of the soul is something of such vital importance to us, affecting us so deeply, that one must have lost all feeling not to care about knowing the facts of the matter. All our actions and thoughts must follow such different paths, according to whether there is hope of eternal blessing or not, that the only possible way of acting with sense and judgment is to decide our course in the light of this point, which ought to be our ultimate objective.” Pascal’s Pensees, 427/194.


““The natural law provides an objective standard of The natural law provides an objective standard of right and wrong. But it is essential to distinguish right and wrong. But it is essential to distinguish the objective wrongness of an act from the the objective wrongness of an act from the subjective culpability, if any, of the person who subjective culpability, if any, of the person who does it. Jeffrey Dahmer committed objective wrong does it. Jeffrey Dahmer committed objective wrong acts when he lured fifteen men to his Milwaukee acts when he lured fifteen men to his Milwaukee apartment and murdered them. The sole question apartment and murdered them. The sole question in is trial, however, was whether he was sane and in is trial, however, was whether he was sane and therefore culpable. The jury decided that he was therefore culpable. The jury decided that he was sane. John Hinkley, however, shot President sane. John Hinkley, however, shot President Ronald Reagan, and three others on March 30, Ronald Reagan, and three others on March 30, 1981, and was found not guilty by reason of 1981, and was found not guilty by reason of insanity; he was committed to a mental hospital” insanity; he was committed to a mental hospital” (Rice, 32).(Rice, 32).


Rice continues:Rice continues:

““To be morally culpable for committing a wrong, one To be morally culpable for committing a wrong, one must know it is wrong and yet choose to do it. The must know it is wrong and yet choose to do it. The abortionist, for example, performs actions that abortionist, for example, performs actions that objectively violate the natural law and the divine law. objectively violate the natural law and the divine law. But his subjective culpability may be diminished or But his subjective culpability may be diminished or perhaps even eliminated (or increased) by perhaps even eliminated (or increased) by circumstances. In general, the culpability is not ours circumstances. In general, the culpability is not ours to judge. The presence of absence of subjective to judge. The presence of absence of subjective culpability, however, cannot change the objective culpability, however, cannot change the objective rightness or wrongness of the act: the act either is or rightness or wrongness of the act: the act either is or not in keeping with the Manufacturer’s directions not in keeping with the Manufacturer’s directions written in our nature” (Ibid., 33).written in our nature” (Ibid., 33).


“ “The distinction between yes and no, true and The distinction between yes and no, true and false, good and evil, cannot be given up unless false, good and evil, cannot be given up unless men want to give up being human.” men want to give up being human.”

~ Walter Kasper, ~ Walter Kasper, Transcending All Transcending All Understanding: The Meaning of Christian Faith Understanding: The Meaning of Christian Faith TodayToday, 41., 41.

Aquinas: 4 Kinds of Law:Aquinas: 4 Kinds of Law:

Aquinas defines “law” in general as “an Aquinas defines “law” in general as “an ordinance of reason for the common good, made ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community, and by him who has care of the community, and promulgated.” promulgated.”

The four kinds of law are:The four kinds of law are:

The Eternal Law;The Eternal Law; The Natural Law;The Natural Law; The Human Law;The Human Law; The Divine Law.The Divine Law.

The Eternal Law: The Eternal Law: It is God’s “plan” for the world.It is God’s “plan” for the world.

Flowing from God who is eternal and timeless, Flowing from God who is eternal and timeless, there is a “universal rational orderliness” that is there is a “universal rational orderliness” that is “characteristic of the whole universe.”“characteristic of the whole universe.”

The whole community of the universe is The whole community of the universe is governed by God, the ruler of the Universe.governed by God, the ruler of the Universe.

St. Augustine described it as “St. Augustine described it as “the reason or the the reason or the will of God, who commands us to respect the will of God, who commands us to respect the natural order and forbids us to disturb itnatural order and forbids us to disturb it .”.”

The Natural Law: The Natural Law: All things partake somewhat of the eternal law.All things partake somewhat of the eternal law.

““[The] light of natural reason, whereby we discern what [The] light of natural reason, whereby we discern what is good and what is evil, which is the function of the is good and what is evil, which is the function of the natural law, is nothing else than an imprint on us of the natural law, is nothing else than an imprint on us of the Divine Light. It is therefore evident that the natural law is Divine Light. It is therefore evident that the natural law is nothing else than the rational creature’s participation of nothing else than the rational creature’s participation of the Divine Law.” ~ Aquinas, S.T. I, II, Q. 91, art 2.the Divine Law.” ~ Aquinas, S.T. I, II, Q. 91, art 2.

The first, self-evident precept of the natural law is that The first, self-evident precept of the natural law is that “good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be “good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based on this self-evident law.on this self-evident law.

The Human Law: The Human Law:

Since the eternal law is the plan of Since the eternal law is the plan of government in the Chief Governor, all the government in the Chief Governor, all the plans of government, in the inferior plans of government, in the inferior governors must be derived from the governors must be derived from the eternal law.eternal law.

The Divine Law:The Divine Law:

The Scriptures. Besides the natural and The Scriptures. Besides the natural and human it was necessary for the directing human it was necessary for the directing of human conduct to have Divine Law: The of human conduct to have Divine Law: The Old and New Testament.Old and New Testament.

Thus, the divine law compliments the Thus, the divine law compliments the natural law.natural law.

Divine Law Compliments Natural & Human law.Divine Law Compliments Natural & Human law.

““It is necessary for man to accept by faith not only things It is necessary for man to accept by faith not only things which are above reason, but also those which can be which are above reason, but also those which can be known by reason: and this for three motives. First, in known by reason: and this for three motives. First, in order that man may arrive more quickly at the knowledge order that man may arrive more quickly at the knowledge of Divine truth…. Second,... In order that the knowledge of of Divine truth…. Second,... In order that the knowledge of God may be more general. For many are unable to make God may be more general. For many are unable to make progress in the study of science, either through dullness of progress in the study of science, either through dullness of mind, or through having a number of occupations and mind, or through having a number of occupations and temporal needs, or even through laziness in learning, all of temporal needs, or even through laziness in learning, all of whom would be altogether deprived of the knowledge of whom would be altogether deprived of the knowledge of God, unless Divine things were brought to their knowledge God, unless Divine things were brought to their knowledge under the guise of faith.”under the guise of faith.”

He goes on to say…He goes on to say…

Divine Law Compliments Natural & Human law.Divine Law Compliments Natural & Human law.

““The third reason is for the sake of certitude. For The third reason is for the sake of certitude. For human reason is very deficient in things human reason is very deficient in things concerning God. A sign of this is that concerning God. A sign of this is that philosophers in their researches, by natural philosophers in their researches, by natural investigation, into human affairs, have fallen into investigation, into human affairs, have fallen into many errors, and have disagreed among many errors, and have disagreed among themselves. And consequently, in order that themselves. And consequently, in order that mean might have knowledge of God, free of doubt mean might have knowledge of God, free of doubt and uncertainty, it was necessary for divine and uncertainty, it was necessary for divine matters to be delivered to them by way of faith, matters to be delivered to them by way of faith, being told to them, as it is were, by God Himself being told to them, as it is were, by God Himself Who cannot lie” [S.T., II, II, Q. 1, art. 4].Who cannot lie” [S.T., II, II, Q. 1, art. 4].

Consider the following from Aquinas:Consider the following from Aquinas:

““[As to] certain most general precepts that are known to [As to] certain most general precepts that are known to all,… the natural law, in the abstract, can nowise be all,… the natural law, in the abstract, can nowise be blotted out from men’s hearts. [However, the natural law] blotted out from men’s hearts. [However, the natural law] is blotted out in the case of a particular action, in so far is blotted out in the case of a particular action, in so far as reason is hindered from applying the general principle as reason is hindered from applying the general principle to a particular point of practice, on account of to a particular point of practice, on account of concupiscence or some other passion…. But as to the concupiscence or some other passion…. But as to the other, i.e., the secondary precepts, the natural law can other, i.e., the secondary precepts, the natural law can be blotted out from the human heart, either by evil be blotted out from the human heart, either by evil persuasions, just as in speculative matters errors occur persuasions, just as in speculative matters errors occur in respect of necessary conclusions; or by vicious in respect of necessary conclusions; or by vicious customs and corrupt habits, as among some men, theft, customs and corrupt habits, as among some men, theft, and even unnatural vices, as the Apostle states (and even unnatural vices, as the Apostle states (RomRom. i), . i), were not esteemed sinful.” ~ S.T., I, II, Q. 94, art. 6.were not esteemed sinful.” ~ S.T., I, II, Q. 94, art. 6.

Consider the following from Rice:Consider the following from Rice:

“ “ A person can so dull his conscience with A person can so dull his conscience with repeated sin that he will no longer repeated sin that he will no longer acknowledge that what he is doing is acknowledge that what he is doing is wrong. As Saint Thomas said, “Through wrong. As Saint Thomas said, “Through sin, the reason is obscured, especially in sin, the reason is obscured, especially in practical matters, the will hardened to evil, practical matters, the will hardened to evil, good actions become more difficult, and good actions become more difficult, and concupiscence [yearning of the soul for concupiscence [yearning of the soul for the good] more impetuous.” the good] more impetuous.”

Comparison:Comparison: Aquinas’ System of Laws:Aquinas’ System of Laws:

The integration of natural The integration of natural and human laws with the and human laws with the eternal and divine laws.eternal and divine laws.

Enlightenment:Enlightenment:

Operates entirely on the Operates entirely on the basis of human law-even if basis of human law-even if the affirm natural law.the affirm natural law.

Secular and humanistic, Secular and humanistic, without reliance on God and without reliance on God and His revelation, divorcing man His revelation, divorcing man from God’s precepts, leaves from God’s precepts, leaves man entirely on his own.man entirely on his own.

Yet, there is angst, because Yet, there is angst, because no man can actually free no man can actually free himself from God and from himself from God and from himself as He is designed by himself as He is designed by God. Can Man Really Live God. Can Man Really Live Apart from God?Apart from God?


The “conscience” is the The “conscience” is the pedagogue to the soul pedagogue to the soul (teacher).(teacher).

Judaism, Origen, and Aquinas Judaism, Origen, and Aquinas say that all ten of the say that all ten of the Commandments (the Commandments (the Decalogue) are in some sense Decalogue) are in some sense self-evident. Modern Christian self-evident. Modern Christian scholars such as J. scholars such as J. Budziszewski defend this view.Budziszewski defend this view.

ConscienceConscience

We We knowknow that we are to pursue good that we are to pursue good and avoid evil because natural law is and avoid evil because natural law is written on the heart (prescriptive, not written on the heart (prescriptive, not descriptive).descriptive).

We have the ability to tell right from We have the ability to tell right from wrong.wrong.

We can violate natural law, but when We can violate natural law, but when we do, we personally suffer (e.g., we do, we personally suffer (e.g., guilt).guilt).

Next Time…Next Time…

More on Natural Law;More on Natural Law;Aquinas’ four cardinal virtues;Aquinas’ four cardinal virtues; Introduction to Kant’s Categorical Introduction to Kant’s Categorical

Imperative.Imperative.

lecture 2: virtue ethics & introduction to natural law theory

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reason courage

power of reason

human life

reason wisdom

powers of reason

character of socrates

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