Lecture 2

Lecture 2

Reading of the 2nd Lecture: content as follows:

Reading of the 2nd Lecture: content as follows:

1

GRAMMAR STRUCTURE.

PRONOUNS.VERBS.ADJECTIVES.ADVERB/DERIVITIVES/PARTICIPLES/CONJUNCTIVE.

Pronouns:

Pro, this means in place of. Pro is used in place of nouns!So, Personal Pronouns: are used in place of nouns.Which people refer to (i.e. He, She)Some more examples are: It, they, we, you and I.SINGULAR: 1ST PERSON = ISINGULAR 2ND PERSON = YOU SINGULAR 3RD PERSON = THEY OR SHE/GENDER SPECIFIC.A PRONOUN THAT DIFFERENTIATES! Between GENDER:This above category is in the 3RD PERSONAND it is the only category that does this.E.G. LION, LIONESS, ACTOR, ACTRESS.

E.g. I spoke of myself as in the third person. She was eating cake today. Meaning that I was eating the cake today. 3Personal Pronouns:PLURALNUETRALITHEYTHEMSINGULARMALE. FEMALEHE SHE PLURALYOUSINGULARYOUPLURALWESINGULARI SUBJECT HIM HER IT ITSYOU YOUME US OBJECTHIS HERS THEIRSYOUR YOURSMINE OURS GENETIVEPOSSESSIVE 1st PERSON: 2ND PERSON: 3RD PERSON:

Personal Pronouns: Subject, 1, WE YOU, HE AND SHE. Object: ME, US, YOU, HIM, HER, IT AND ITS. Genetive Possessive: MINE, OURS, YOURS AND THEIRS.4PROPER NOUNS:

These are naming nouns: of people: E.G. Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher, George Bush. AND of places: E.G. London, England, Cairo, Egypt.The word SHE is BOTH a personal pronoun AND a cohesive device. The word SHE can be used for this dual or double purpose. In a sentence as a joining or linking word (COHESIVE DEVICE) E.G. Mandy went to the supermarket because she had run out of milk.VERBS:DEMAND VERBS:Use INFLECTIONS to form TENSES:E.G.WALK: PRESENT TENSE.WALKED: INFLECTION, MAKES IT PAST TENSE.WALKS: THIRD PERSON.TO WALK: INFINITIVE VERB.Put into a sentence becomes:I wanted to walk.

These are naming nouns: of people: E.G. Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher, George Bush. AND of places: E.G. London, England, Cairo, Egypt.

5Some examples of irregular verbs in English are: saw, became.But there are also ACTIVE and PASSIVE verbs:E.G. I broke the glass. = ACTIVE.The glass was broken by me. = PASSIVE.Therefore, WAS GIVEN = The PASSIVE FORM of the verb.AND: GAVE = ACTIVE FORM OF THE VERB.

The past is passive and the future or the present is activeSo we could say, in general then that as a rule: The past is passive and the future or the present is active. So keep it in mind as a rough guideline.Some more examples of this in passive form are: was, grew, older, lost. All are past tense and therefore passive.Bought (irregular verb) the past simple tense of the verb TO BUY and INVITED, (the past tense form of the regular verb) to invite are further examples of passive verb forms in the PAST SIMPLE TENSE.

Verbs: Both active and passive form: I broke the Glass ( Active). Passive: The glass was broken by me. 7Some examples of: PHRASAL VERBS:These verbs are used to make a verb phrase or phrases:E.G. SPEAK UP! PUT OUT, GIVE UP!E.G. The word PUT (CAN ALSO BE A JOINING/LINKING VERB) And the word THOUGHT, (The PAST of THINK), a PHRASAL VERB.E.G. A penny for your THOUGHTS. (PLURAL FORM)We also have, as you must know already the NEGATIVE FORM OF THE VERB. E.G. DIDNT WANT, HAVENT GOT (regular verbs) ETC. To name but a few.

Phasal Verbs: E.G. SPEAK UP! PUT OUT, GIVE UP! 8

AND SO: If we group these words together:

WAS (PASSIVE FORMOLDER (COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVEBECAME (IRREGULAR VERBGREW (PAST TENSE)BROUGHT (IRREGULAR, PAST SIMPLE)INVITED (REGULAR, PAST SIMPLE)*ONLY DIDNT WANT, HAVENT GOT AND INVITED ARE: IRREGULAR VERBS.

WAS (PASSIVE FORMOLDER (COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVEBECAME (IRREGULAR VERBGREW (PAST TENSE)BROUGHT (IRREGULAR, PAST SIMPLE)INVITED (REGULAR, PAST SIMPLE)9We begin to see the pattern of ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL RULESALL WORDS ENDING WITH ED ARE REGULAR, PAST TENSE FORM. ALL OTHERS ARE: REGULAR VERBS.In REGULAR VERBS the PAST PARTICIPLE is ALWAYS the same!E.G. I have walked.Please note: Irregular verbs can change their form!E.G.BUY becomes BOUGHT.TEACH TAUGHT.COME CAME.

ALL WORDS ENDING WITH ED ARE REGULAR, PAST TENSE FORM. ALL OTHERS ARE: REGULAR VERBS.

10PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE.THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE:I decided to wear the blue blouse and the long red skirt, when I was dressing this morning.This verb phrase: WAS DRESSING = PHRASAL VERB, IN THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE.ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF THIS:I WAS RIDING my horse today. = The irregular verb TO RIDE and is in PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE OR FORM

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: A verb in the past form, coupled with a present participle. PAST PROGRESSIVE = U.S. English. 11

AUXILIARY VERB.

AUXILIARY VERB.E.G. They were all still laughing at him.Lets look more closely now at the word WERE Which can take the form of WAS WHICH IS: From THE VERB TO BE AS IM SURE YOU ALREADY KNOW!The word WERE is an AXILLARY VERB as well as being DERIVATIONAL OF: THE VERB TO BE.ALSO IN THIS ABOVE SENTENCE: The MAIN VERB is LAUGHING, Which is also: AN AXILLARY VERB.THE AUXILIARY VERB: THIS TENSE, is FORMED by WAS and WERE and also by words ENDING with ING.AUXILIARY VERB, Attached to the MAIN VERB describes HAPPENING of CONTINUOUS ACTION in the PAST.

Linguistically, anauxiliary is(also calledhelping verb,helper verb,auxiliary verb, orverbal auxiliary,12So then we can conclude our brief study of English verbs with:

THREE MAIN FORMS: OF THE VERB:Using the example of an IRREGULAR VERB:SHOW; (PRESENT TENSE)SHOWED; (PAST TENSE)SHOWN; (PAST PARTICIPLE)FINALLY, I would just like to add a further aspect about PAST TENSES and PAST PARTICIPLES.To FORM the PAST PERFECT you MUST use a PAST PARTICIPLE.

THREE MAIN FORMS: OF THE VERB: SHOW; (PRESENT TENSE), SHOWED; (PAST TENSE), SHOWN; (PAST PARTICIPLE)

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13ADJECTIVES:

Here is a tip for all keen and interested students of English language, wishing to improve their knowledge and those who have a yearning to broaden their spoken ability and grammatical memory.ADJECTIVES: IF OR WHEN IN DOUBT ABOUT THEM,SEE IF you can MAKE a COMPARATIVE FORM of them:E.G. ERAND put MORE in front of itE.G.MORE HOTMORE HOTTERMORE HARDMORE HARDERMORE FRESHMORE FRESHER

ADJECTIVES: When in doubt, SEE IF you can MAKE a COMPARATIVE FORM of them:E.G. ER

14COMPARATIVE: SUPERLATIVE:

ADJECTIVE FORMS: COMPARATIVE: SUPERLATIVE:MOSTATTRACTIVE MORE ATTRACTIVE ATTRACTIVESLIM SLIMMER SLIMMESTHOT HOTTER HOTTESTMOSTRELIABLE MORE RELIABLE RELIABLEGENTLE GENTLER GENTLESTPOSSIBLE MORE POSSIBLE MOSTPOSSIBLELETHAL MORE LETHAL MOSTLETHALIRREGULARADJECTIVES:GOOD BETTER BEST BAD WORSE WORSE

IRREGULAR: GOOD, BETTER, BEST, BAD, WORSE AND WORSE SUPERLATIVE.

15Finally, a brief look at: ADVERBS

ADVERBS: are DERIVED from ADJECTIVES!, OFTEN, FREQUENT OR FREQUENCY.3. ADVERB PARTICIPLES:Their MAIN USE is to COMBINE with VERBS TO FORM PHRASAL VERBS.4. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS:E.G. These words serve the purpose of joining or linking words together.THE FOLLOWING ARE JUST A FEW EXAMPLES:HOWEVER, THEREFORE, MOREEXAMPLES ARE: words ending with LY,The following words are: ADVERBS, SLOWLY, SUPERBLY, CAREFULLY, And INTELLIGENTLY.2. SIMPLE ADVERBS: with TIME MEANINGS.E.G. ALWAYS, MOREOVER, HENCE.Remember then, that there are: 4 CLASSES OF ADVERBS.* A REMINDER: PLEASE ALWAYS! BRING YOUR LECTURE NOTES, TO THE FOLLOWING SEMINAR. YOU WILL NEED THEM FOR GROUP DISCUSSIONS AT THE SEMINARS.END OF LECTURE 2.

ADVERBS: are DERIVED from ADJECTIVES!

16Preview of Lecture 3: With VERBS of FEELING and PERCEPTION, we dont often like to use THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM!TO LOVETO NEEDTO HATETO UNDERSTANDAlthough, this is starting to change in English now

UNACOUNTABLE NOUNS: Often refer in a rather general way to substances and abstract qualities, processes and states. (E.G. CHINA, PETROL, POVERTY, RAIN and WELFARE) rather than discrete units.

To have made a mistake is understandable. (perfect infinitive)It was upsetting to be questioned. (passive infinitive)I expected you to be waiting for me (progressive infinitive)

Other even more COMPLEX INFINITIVES are also possible,GOODBYE! And see you all at this weeks Seminar!

PREVIEW OF LECTURE 3: And Goodbye! 17