learned hopelessness
TRANSCRIPT
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AchievementM otivation:Fromthe
Perspective of
Learned
Hopelessness
A U
C H UN G - P AR K
Hong Kong Institute
of
Education
This
article givesabrief
introduction
ofteamed
hopelessness with special
emphasis on how the hopelessness theory of depression is developed
(Abramson, Metalsky,
Alloy,
19 89) and its application to
studies
of
learned hopelessness
in
achievement domains. W ithin
the
theoretical
framework,
the
concepts
of
attributional styles, causal
attributions,
learned hopelessness,
and
hopelessness
deficits
are
discussed.
The re-
search problems in conceptual and assessment
issues,
particularly on
learned hopelessness
and
attributional styles
are
highlighted.
Achievement Mot ivat ion
M o t i v a t i o n is
impor tan t because
i tc o n t r i b u t e s to and
pred ic t s , a long
w i t h
othe r va r iab le s , more v i s ib le ou tcomes such as ach ievement . Ach ievem ent
mot iva t i on
research has been developed inf o u r s tages. In s tage one du r in g
th e
1940s,
th e
experimental
s tudy o f mot iva t ion w as in i t i a l ly
concerned
w i t h th e search fo r t he m o t o r s o f b e h a v i o r a n d w a s l i n k e d w i t h c onc e p t s
such
a s
i n s t i n c t ,
des i r e , a rousa l and need (Spence , 1958) . In s t age tw o
d u r i n g
t h e
1960s,there
w a s th e
more gene ra ls h i f t
in
m o t i va t i on a l p s y ch o l -
ogy
away f rom mechani sm toward cogni t ion (Weine r , 1972) .
I t was
gradua l ly
bel ieved
that i f reward was perceived as controll ing, then i t
unde rmined fu ture e f for t , w he reas r eward pe rce ived as pos i t ive feedback
w as motivat in g (Deci, 1975). Fur thermore, rew ard for easy task w as a cue
to low
ab i l i ty ,
a
be li e f t ha t inh ib i t s mo t iva t ion , w hereas r ew ard
fo r
di ff icul t
task
communica ted t ha t ha rd work w as expended in c on ju nc t i on w i t h
h i g h ab i l i ty ,
a
b e l i ef t h a t a u g m e n t s m o t i va t i on .
A s
co gn i t ive approach
w as
init ially
accepted,
researchers began to concentrate o n h um an rather
t h a n infra h u m a n b e h a v i o r w i t h s tud ie s a s soc ia ted w i t h expec tancy ,
anxiety a b ou t f a i lu re , locus o fcont ro l an d ach ievement needs . Mot iva t ion
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84 AuChung-park
de termined by wha t one expected to get and the l ikel ihood of get t ing i t
w as
t he cen tra l concept ion i n expec t ancy-va lue t heor i es (A tk inso n , 1964;
Rot ter, 1966).
I n
stagethreedu r ing
th e
1980s, t here
w a s a
g rea t e r foc us
on
se l f- es teem, curios i ty , a t t r ibut ional theory, a n d par t i cu la r lya c h i e v e m e n t
s t r iv ings (Ball, 1982).
In
a d d i ti o n ,
th e
b e g i n n i n g s
o f
a t t e n t ion p a i d
to the
self were observed in s tudies o f self -ascrip t ion fo r success and f a i lu re ,
self -concept and self -ef f icacy (Band ura , 1977; Shav elso n, H ubn er, &
Stanton, 1976), Final ly in
stage
four during the 1990s , there are
vo lum inous number o f s tud i es on m ot iva t ion f rom a cogn i t i ve perspec ti ve .
Research i s more
concerned
w i th h o w s t ud e n t s th i n k h o w t h e y
t h in k
a b o u t t hemselves , l ea rn ing t a sk and lea rn ing ou tcomes . Th i s resea rch ha s
focused on a w ide va r ie ty o f cogn i t ive
processes
i n c l u d i n g c o n c ep ts s u c h
as self -esteem, self -ef f icacy, causal a t t r ibut ions , sel f - regu la ted s t ra tegies ,
and ach i evement
goals.
Recent ly , there
h as
been
a
g row ing in t e res t
in t he
s t u d y
o fachievement mot iva t ion from th eperspectiveo f learnedhopeless-
ness in the hope of unders tanding ofschool f a i lu res i n pub l i c educa t i on .
Research
on learned
hopelessness
has
addressed
a range of issues includ-
in ghow motivational
processes
can be conceptualized in terms of causal
a t t r ibut ions a ndlearned
hopelessness,
h ow theseprocessesd i f f e ren t across
i n d i v i d u a l s a n d change over t ime, a n d h o w t h e y c a n b e r e g u l a te d w h e n
t h e y
a rem a l a d a p t i v e .Ina d d i t i o n , c ro s s - c u l tu r a ls t u d i e sh a v e r e v e a le d
t h a t
cu l tu r a l f ac to rs media t e causa l a t t r i bu t ions fo r a c h i e v e m e n t . C h i n e s e s t u -
d e n t s ,
soc i a l i zed to v a l u e h a r d w o r k a n d e n d u ra n c e , t a ke m o re pe r s o n a l
responsibi l i ty for thei rsuccess and f a i lu re t han t he i r w es t e rn coun terpa r t s .
Hence, Ci i inese s tudents
a re
more l ikely
to
a t t r i bu te t he i r ach i evement
outcomes to internal andcontrollable causessuch a s e f fo r t and s tudy sk i l l s
t h a n tc
ab i l i t y
(Hau , 1989) .
A b i l i t y
iscons idered r e la t i v e ly l es s i m p o r t a n t
an d
an attribute that is
more controllable
and can beincreased by e f fo r t
( H a u , 1992; H a u & Sa l i l i , 1991) . Ef fo r t a t t r i bu t ionis m o r e a d a p t i v et h a n
abi l i ty as i t i s ego-defens ive and gu i l t-rela ted. Fi rs t , i tprotects self-esteem
an d
s l o w s d o w n w i t h d r a w a l
an d
mot iva t i on i nh ib i t i on . Second ,
i t
e l i c i t s
gui l t -rela ted a f fects (regret , remorse, g u i l t ) w h i c h w o u l d p ro m o t e ef for t
expend i ture and mot iva t i ona l ac t i va t i on (Wicker , Payne , & Morgan ,
1983). As a resu l t , learned ho pelessness can be m ini m ized in the face of
a c a d e m i c f a i lu r e . H o w e v e r , in un iversa l f ree educa t i on , s choo l f a i lu r e s
becomemoreandmoreserious.To preventschoolfa i lures ,thereis a need
to e x a m i n e h o w t h e p ro longed academic f a i lu re s a n d c a u s a l
a t t r ibu t ions
con t r ibu te t o t he onse t o f lea rned ho peles snes s i n s tude n t s .
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Achievement
M otivation
85
The Learned Hopelessness Theory of epression
Th e hopeles sness theory o f depression provides a theoretical fram ew ork
for
s tud ie s
on
hope le ssness
and i ts
cogni t ive correlates such
as
ne g a t i ve
l ife events , hopelessness def ic i ts and inferences people make about causes ,
consequences
and
self-character is t ics (Abramson,
et
al., 1989)
as
s h o w n
in
th e casual Model 1be low :
Model
1
Causal ChainImplied
inAbramsonet
al. s
Theory of
Learned
Hopelessness
Negative
lifeevents
nferen es
Learned
hopelessness
Hopelessness
deficits
Th e basic premiseof the learned
hopelessness
theory ofdepression ist h a t
people,in faceofnegat ive l i fe events ,becomepassivea nddepressed w h e n
they at t r ibute negat ive life events to stable an d
global
causes. W h e t h e r
self-esteemcollapses dependso n whether they attribute the badoutcomes
to internal characteristics. The construction of the theory is greatly in-
debted
to the
ideas
o f
Seligman
(1975)on the
conception
oflearned
help-
le ssness . Se l igma n conce ived
t h a t
experiences w i th uncont ro l lab le event s
can lead to lea rned he lp le s sness ( t he expec ta t ion of non-cont ingency be -
t w e e n
o n e ' s
response
and
des i red ou tcomes) wh ich ,
in
turn , r e su l t s
in
m o t i v a t i o n a l
de f i c i t s (pa s s iv i ty
an dlow ered pe r s is t ence ) , cogn i t ivede f ic i t s
( inabi l i ty
to
pe rce ive exi s t ing oppo r tuni ty
to
control
outcomes) ,
and
emo-
t iona l de f i c i t s ( sadness
and
self-esteem).
These
defic i ts
a re
co l lec t ive ly
k n o w n as learned helplessness defic i ts which are the componen t s of a
genera l sy nd rom e labe led "depress ion" . H ow ever ,
th e
or ig ina l lea rned
he lp le s sness t heoryfai ls
to
e x p l a i n :
1. Th e s tabil i tyo f
h e lp le s sness de f i c i t s
in
t i m e ,
2 . The generalityo fhelplessness defic i ts across s i tuat ions,
3 . W hy
people w ou ld lose self-esteem w hen they perceive they
are
help 'ess ,
4. I n d i v i d u a ld i f fe ren ces in people 's suscep t ibi l i ty to helplessness .
A b r a m s o n ,
S e l i g m a n ,
& Teasda le (1978) proposed a r e formula ted
theory of he lp le s sness t ha t gave causa l a t t r ibu t ions a cent ra l p lace to
resolve
th e
inadequac ie s
in th e
or iginal theory.
Accord ing to t h i s r e formu la t ion , t he a t t r ibu t ion for
good
and bad ou t -
comes
can be
c lass i f ied
on
t h ree d imens ions
o f
causa l i ty .These three
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causa l
d imens ions , namely s t ab i l i ty , g loba l i ty and in te rna l i ty , de te rmine
respectively
th e
generali ty
o f
helplessness ,
th e
chronic i ty
of
helplessness
and
th e
lowered self-esteem, par t icular ly
i f the
causal a t t r ibut ion
is
stable
an d g loba l .
In
s u m , A b r a m s o n , M e t a ls k y ,
&
A l l o y 'sm a i ncont r ibu t ion l ie s
in t he spec i f i ca t ion of w hy and how a pe rson becomes hope le ss and , in
t u rn ,
deve lops
th e
ho pe le ssness de f i c i t s
as
postulated
in
their latest version
ofthe theory (A bramson e t a l ., 1989).
Depression
Helplessness andHopelessness
Ab ramso n e t a . (1989) specif ied tha t learned h elplessness invo lves a hig h
expectancy o f non-cont ingency be tweenone's response anddesired ou t -
comes, w hereas learned ho pelessness
(a low
expectancy
of
goal a t ta in-
ment) involves negat ive expectat ions about
th e
occurrence
o f
h igh ly
valued outcomes
in
add i t ion
to a
helplessness expectancy.Thus ,hopeless-
ness is asubset o fhelplessness . W hereas h elplessness is a necessary com-
ponent of hopelessness, i t is not suff ic ient to
producehopelessness
as a
subtype ofdepression (Garber, Miller, &A bramson,
1980).
Helplessness
w ou ld then be a necessary, ra ther tha n a suff ic ient , antecedent of general
depres s ion (W eine r , 1980).
F o l l o w i n g
t h i s
l ead , one may be he lp le s s w i thout be ing hope le ss as
pos i t i ve an tic ipat ion may be
su s ta ine d
by t hepercept ion
t h a t
som eone e lse
is g o i ngt oh elp (e .g., social s u p p or t )or bya t t r ibu t ing th e c u r r en t non - c on -
t ingency
to
uns tab le exte rna l causes ( e.g. , t a skd i f f i c u l ty ).Th i s concept ion
of hopelessness has recen t ly been recognized and ahopelessnesst heory of
depression
h as
been fo rmula ted (Abram son
et
al.,1989).
Learned H opelessness in Ach ievem ent Dom ains
Th e
concept
of
learned hopelessness ini t ia l ly developed
and
used
as a
cl inica l
tool to
identify
hopelessness depression, i s now being invest igated
in
a c a d em i c d om a i n s b v
e d u c a t i o n a l
researchers who argue that learned
hope le ssness pred ic t s
de f i c i t s
in ach ievement -or ien ted behavior s an d
ach ievement p e r f o r m a nc e ( D w e c k
&
Wor tman, 1982)
as
s h o w n
in the
causa l
M o d e l
2 .
In th e m c d e l . s ix in te r re la ted paramete r s are pos tu la ted : academic
fai lures, a t t r ibu t iona l s tyle ,c a u s a l at t r ibut ion s, learned hopelessness , hope-
lessness
defic i ts and
a c h i e ve m e n t p e r fo r m a nc e .
Th e
hypothes ized causa l
cha in begins
w i t h
th e occurrence o f academic fa i lu re s and e nd s
w i t h
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Achievement Motivation
8
Model2 Causal
Chain between
Learned
Hopelessness
and
Other Five
Cognitive Correlates
Casual
attributions
Learned
hopelessness
Hopelessnes?
deficits
Academic
performance
a c h i e v e m e n t pe r formance . The hope le ssness mode l o f ach ievement
motivat ion proposes a comprehens ive causa l pa thway tha t cu lmina te s in
th e deve lopment
o f
hopelessness.
It is a
d iathesis-s t ress mo del
in
w h i ch
a
particular attributional style interacting w ith academ ic failures isexpected
to be a r isk
factor
for the
development
o f
hopelessnessand ,
in
turn, hope-
lessness deficits. That is, the combined contr ibut ions of maladapt ive at-
tributionalstyleandacademicfailures leadto theincreasedlikelihoodof
making aglobal, stableattributionfor aparticular academic failure. Such
global
and
s table at t r ibut ion
for a
par t i cu la r academic
fai lure ,
results
in an
increased pro babi l i ty
o f t he
d e ve lop m e n t
of
hope le ssness . H ope le ssness ,
in
tu rn , is a proximal suff ic ient cause o f hope le ssness de f i c i t s . Th e m o d e l
sugges t s the h ope le ssness ( a nega t ive ou tcome expec tancy and a he lp les s
expectancy) to be thec ruc ia l de te rminant o f t he def ic i ts o f learned hope-
lessness . This hopelessness
can be
m o d u l a t ed
by t he
in fe rences s tudent s
make about causes , consequences and self character is t ics in the face of
a c a d e m i c
fa i lu re s . Wi th in each paramete r ,
a n u m b e r o f
c ons t r u c t s
a nd
hopeles snes s - re la t ed b e h a v i o r sarespec i f i edande labora tedasb e lo w :
Learned
Hopelessness
According
to the
hopelessness
theory, hopelessness , nam ely,
a
nega t ive
expectat ion about th e occurrence o fh i g h ly va lu e d ou t c om e sCoupled w i t h
an expectat ion of helplessness abo ut chang ing the l ikelihood of occurrence
of t he se ou tcomes
is the
proximal
su f f i c i e n t
cause
of
s y m p i om s
o f
h op e -
lessness .
As can be
seen
in the
m o d e l ,
a
sequence
c f
academic fai lures
is
specif ied as contr ibutory causes in a causal chain hypothesized to cul-
mina te in t h i s p roximal suff ic ient cause . Those contr ibutory causes are
ant icipa ted to vary i n how proximal t hey are to the occurrence o f t he
hopelessness defic i ts .
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Chung-park
Causal A t t r i b u t i o n s
When con f ron ted w i t h academic fai lures, there
a re
in f e rences about
c a u s e s ,consequences and sel f -character is t ics .Thesethree k in ds of in feren-
c es
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r
or not a
s tuden t becomes h ope le ss and ,
in
t u r n ,
develops
def ic i t s o f
hopelessness.
In
add i t ion ,
it
should
be
particularly
l ike ly to lead to hope le ssness w hen academic f a i lu re s are attributed to
stable
and
global causes
and are
v i ew e d
as
impor tan t Fo l low ing
the
same
l og ic ,
inferred nega t ive consequences an d sel f -character is t ics should be
par t icular ly
l ikely to lead to hopelessness when these negative consequen-
c e s and
sel f -character is t ics
a re
v i e w e d
as
impor tan t ,
n o t
remediable ,
un -
l ikely t oc h a n g eand a saf fec t ing m any academic a reas .
Attributional Styles
A t t r ibu t iona l
style referstoone's general tendency to at tr ibute academic
fai lures to
causes tha t
are
s table
in
t ime, global
in
e f f ec t
an d
in ternal
to
oneself .It is ad is tal con tr ibutory causeof the deficits ofhopelessness tha t
operates
in the
presence
of
academic fai lures.
It is
suggested tha t this
at t ibut ional
s tyle in teract ing w ith academic fai lures
predicts hopelessness
a n d , in t u rn , th e def ic i t s o f hope le ssness . Tha t is , the l e ss nega t ive a
s t u d e n t ' s
at t r ibut ional s tyle ,t h e
m ore academic f a i lu re s need
to be in
o rde r
to
inte rac t
w i t h t h a t
s ty le
a n d c o n t r i b u t et o t h e deve lopmen t o f hope le ss -
n e s s
an d de f i c i t s .
Hopelessness Def ic i ts
It isan t ic ipa ted ha t hope lessness l eadst o adef ined cluster o fhopelessness
def ic i t s . T h e
c lus te r cons i s t s
of (1)
m o t i v a t i o n a l d e f i c it s
( pas s iv i t y an d
l owe re d
pe r s i s tence )(2 ) co gn i t ive de f ic i t s ( in ab i l i tyto pe rce ive ex is t ing
oppor t un i t y
to
con t ro l ou tcom es) ,
(3)
em o t iona l de f ic it s ( sadness )
and (4 )
lowered self-esteem.
It is
expected tha t
the motivational andcognitive
defic i ts derive
from
the helplessness expectancy component o f
hopeless-
ness (expec ta t ion tha t no th ingcan be changed ) , whereas sadness de r ives
f rom the negative outcome expectancy component o fhopelessness (expec-
ta t ion t h a tt h efu tu re isbleak) . Low ered sel f -esteem is adef ic i to f hopeless-
n e s s
w h e n
a na c a d e m i cfa i lu re is a t t r ibu tedto an in te rna l , s tab lea n dg loba l
c ause (Crocker , A l loy, & Kay ne, 1988; Dw eck & Licht , 1980). In add it ion ,
hope l e s sne s s
is character ized by some o ther def ic i ts such as suic ide , de-
pendency an d d i f f icu l ty in concen tra t ion (A bramson e t al . , 1988; Abram-
son e t
al., 1989; Alloy
&
Keo n ing , 1988) .
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Achievement
Motivation 89
Research Problems
In th e pas t decade , inves t iga tor s hav e used both c ross -sec tiona l and
prospect ive research s t rategies
to
tes t
th e
hope le ssness t heory . Overa l l ,
s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n th a t th e t e nd e nc ytom ake in te rna l , s t ab le ,and global
a t t r ibu t ion sf o racademic fai luresiscorrelated tosever i tyo fconcur renta n d
fu ture depressive deficits incollege s tudents ,
patients
and
o ther
samples
(B re w i n ,
1985; Peterson
&
Saligman, 1984; Sweeney, Anderson,
&
Bai l e y , 1986). However , inconsis tencyw asf o u n d inresearch
f ind ings wi th
some data apparent ly support ive of the model and some apparent ly not
suppor t i ve at a l l (Forle t te , Jacobson, 1987; Ha mm en, 1981) . Alth oug h the
prospect ive
s tudies used to tes t the hopelessness theory prov ide important
in fo rmat ion no t yie lded by t he cross-sect ional s tudies , th e e ffec t o f t he
interact ionbe tw een academic fa i lu re s
a nd
causal a t t r ibut ions
onhopeless-
ness
has not been
adequately examined
(Cutrona , 1983).T h u s ,adequate
testsof the d iatheses-s t ress and causal med iat ion compon ents o f the th eory
s h o u l d
deserve more attention in future research o f learnedhopelessness,
particularly in academic domains. In addition to requiring
appropriate
research designs, an adequate test o f the ho pelessness theory requires
appropria te
s t rategies
fo r
c onc e p t u a l i z i ng
an d
as se ss ing
th e
var ious
t heo re t ica l
cons t ruc t sfeatured in the th eory (e .g. , a t t r ib ut io na l s tyle , nega-
t i v e li fe events , learned hopelessness) .
Fo r the
a s s e s s m e n t
o f
a t t r ibu t iona l
s ty l e s , t he re a re t h ree impor tan t conceptua l improvement s t ha t de se rve
a t t e n t ion
( Ab r a m s onet al. , 1988a, 1988b):
1. A ttr ibut iona l s tyles should
be
assessed
in
content domains wi th
h i g h
personal meaning to subjects.
2 . A t t r ibu t iona l s ty le s shou ld in te rac t s ign i f ican t ly wi th academic
fai lures to pred ic t hope le ssness and , in tu rn , de f i c i t s o f hopeless-
ness .
3.
At t r ibu t iona l s ty le s
assessed
w i th
a
hypo thet ical-e vent procedure
shou ld
be good predictors o f depress ive reac t ions f o l low ing rea l
academic fai lures.
Conclusion
A spredic tedb yAb r a m s onet al. (1989) , individualsw h och aracter is t ically
a t t r ibu te nega t ive life event s to in te rna l , g loba l an d s table causes tend to
perce ive t hemse lves
a s
hopeless
in the
presence
o f a
ne g a t i ve l ife event
and ,
in
turn ,d e ve lop
th e
de f i c i t s
o f
hope le ssness .
In
ach ieveme nt se t t ings ,
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th e l earned hopelessness theory o f depression can be used to explain
deficits in m otiva t ion and achievement-oriented behaviors (Dw eek, 1975;
Peterson
& .
B arret t , 1937; W einer, 1985). A ccordin gly, w he n studen ts face
f rus t rat ion and academic fai lures and
h a v e
a
n e g a t i v e
at tr ibutional
s ty le ,
t hey tend to develop hopelessness and, in tu rn ,t h e mo t iva t ional de f ic it s ,
cogni t ive defici ts ,
affective
defici ts
a nd
lowered sel f-esteem that
a re
char -
acterist ics of h opelessness (Abram son et al ., 1989). As th ere is s t i ll consid-
erable debate a ndl i t tl e sys tem at ic da ta ex is tingon t herole ofthese causa l
media t i onc o mp o n e n t s
in th e
et iology
o f
learned hopelessness (Coyne
a nd
Gotlib, 1983; Peterson
et
al.,
1985),
testing these predictions w i l l
be the
primary directiono f fu ture mo tivat ion research in learned hopelessness. In
add i t ion , ma n y s t u d e n t s in f l u e n c edb y cu l tu ra l va lues which s t ress hard
w o r k
and persistence coupled w i t h ha r sh l e a r n in g e n v i r o n me n tin H o n g
Kon g ma y eventual ly d evelop learned
hopelessness
after repeated failures.
So now , i t is time to study and understand ho w students ' academic fa i lures
an d
their cha racterist ic at tr ibution al pat tern
ar e
related
to
learned hopeless-
ness
in the
Hong Kong con tex t.
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