leadership in perspectives

Rijal’s Teaching Notes on Leadership in PerspectivesRijal’s Teaching Notes on Leadership in Perspectives

Developed byDeveloped byRijal, C. P., PhD in LeadershipRijal, C. P., PhD in Leadership

Developed forDeveloped forGraduate Development Program (GDP) Graduate Development Program (GDP)

participants of newly admitted Bachelors in Hospitality and participants of newly admitted Bachelors in Hospitality and Tourism Management (BHTM) aspiring graduates Tourism Management (BHTM) aspiring graduates

of of Nepal College of ManagementNepal College of Management

Affiliated toAffiliated toKathmandu University, School of ManagementKathmandu University, School of Management

NepalNepal

[Probably the best university of Nepal][Probably the best university of Nepal]

For reference in APA, please write as –For reference in APA, please write as –Rijal, C. P. (2014). Rijal’s teaching notes on leadership in perspectives. Kathmandu: Author.

Leadership in PerspectiveLeadership in Perspective

1. Introducing Leadership1. Introducing Leadershipa. Meaningb. Scopec. Functions

2. Selected Perspectives of Leadership2. Selected Perspectives of Leadershipa. Structural functionalist perspectiveb. Political-conflict perspectivec. Constructivist perspectived. Critical humanist perspective

3. Issues Governing Leadership3. Issues Governing Leadership

© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 2

� Are leaders born?

� Can leadership be learnt?

� What are the determinants of effective leaders and leadership in education?

� Are educational leaders different from educational managers?

� What is the role of leadership in transformation of schools?

Leadership: Learning AgendaLeadership: Learning Agenda


Your mission…is to win our wars…you are

the ones who are trained to fight. Yours is the

profession of arms, the will to win, the sure

knowledge that in war there is no substitute

for victory; That if you lose, the nation will be

destroyed.…General of the US Army

Douglas Macarthur


The most precious commodity with

which the army deals is the individual

soldier who is the heart and soul of our

combat forces.

General J. Lawton Collins,VII Corps Commander, World War II


� The act of leading.

� One of the key management process functions.

� Process of influencing people to do something that they might otherwise not do.

� Refers to ‘Getting It Done’.

� An art which defies precise definitions.

� The action through which one or more persons are influenced or guided to behave the way they are expected to.

� Cannot occur without the consent of followers.

Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership


� Leadership ranges from the smallest decision, such as where to eat lunch, to the decisions that affect the directions of nations.

� Attainment of agreement upon goals or purposes is important, but the group or organization is an important part of the leadership process.

� Once individuals turn as successful leaders, they are more likely to accept or seek more challenging opportunities.

Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership


Leadership

Influencing people by providing the purpose,

direction, and motivation while operating to

accomplish the mission and improving the

organization.


Influencing� Getting people to do what you want them to

do.

� The example you set is just as important as the words you speak.

� Through your words and example, you must communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.


� Persuades people with a reason to something.

� You must earn their trust: they must know from experience that you care about them and would not ask them to do something particularly dangerous or affective unless there is a good reason, and unless the task is essential to mission accomplishment.

Purpose


� Communicate the way you want the mission be accomplished.

� Prioritize tasks.

� Assign responsibility and communicate; delegate authority when necessary.

� Make sure your people understand the standard.

� Listen, and correct the limitations that oppose your direction.

Direction


� People want direction. They want to be given challenging tasks, training in how to accomplish them, and the resources necessary to do them well. Then they want to be left alone to do the job.


� Motivation gives subordinate teacher-staff the will

to do everything they can to accomplish a mission.

� To motivate your people, give them goals that

challenge them.

� Get to know your people and their capabilities.

� Give them as much responsibility as they can.

Motivation


� When they succeed, praise them.

� When they fall short, give them credit for what they

have done and coach or counsel how to do better

next time.

� Make sure that the example you set is as important

as what you say and how well you manage the

work.

Motivation


� Actions taken to influence others serve to accomplish operating actions.

� Take those actions that help accomplish the stated goals of your teacher-staff and children.

� The educational leaders execute operating actions, which become more complex as they assume positions of increasing responsibility.

Operating


� Educational leaders should strive for improving everything that is entrusted to them, their people, facilities, equipment, training, and all resources.

Improving


Means Ends

School Efficiency School Effectiveness

Goals

Low High

wastage attainment

Leadership Vs. Efficiency and Effectiveness


1. Planning1. Define goals2. Establish strategy3. Develop tactics/subplans

3. Leading1. Direct the people2. Motivate the people3. Resolve the conflicts

2. OrganizingDetermine:1. What to be done2. How to be done3. Who is to do

4. ControllingMotivate activitiesto ensure that theyare accomplishedas planned.

Achieving theschool’s

stated purpose

Leadership as One of the Management Functions


Manager CharacteristicsAdministersA copyMaintainsFocuses on systems and structuresRelies on controlsShort-range viewAsks how and whenEye on the bottom lineImitatesAccepts the status quoClassic good soldierDoes things right

Manager Vs. LeaderManager Vs. Leader

Leader CharacteristicsInnovatesAn originalDevelopsFocuses on peopleInspires trustLong-range perspectiveAsks what and whyEye on the horizonOriginatesChallenges the status quoOwn personDoes the right things

Warren G. Bennis, Managing the dream: leadership in 21st century, journal of

Organizational Change Management, vol. 2, No. 1, 1989, p. 7 © Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 20

PersonalGoal Setting

Elements of Self-Leadership

ConstructiveThought Patterns

DesigningNatural Rewards

Self-Monitoring

Self-Reinforcement


� Weber has defined THREE types of leadership legitimacies:

• Traditional Legitimacy,

• Charismatic Legitimacy, and

• Bureaucratic Legitimacy

Legitimacy - what makes you a leader!


� Legitimacy to control is handed down from the past

� Based on most traditional forms of customs

� Obedience based on loyalty to traditions

� Leadership decisions can be arbitrary

� Leadership authority is limited by the displeasure of

the subjects, and failure to follow traditions

Examples: Kingdoms of China, Egypt, family schools

Pros: Leadership is clearly defined

Cons: Possible irrationalism, easily corrupted

Traditional Legitimacy


� Based on Inspiration: Vision and projection

� Legitimacy occurs after leader proves him/herself

Examples: Jesus Christ, Hitler, Ghandi

Pros: The leader is not restricted by tradition and

technical knowledge

Cons: Power can be abused, and people can be

mislead into following

Charismatic Legitimacy


� Power is given based on skills, knowledge, and experience.

� Obedience is based on rank which is completed for and earned.

� Structured hierarchy prevails.Examples: Headteacher, Army General, Catholic

ChurchPros: Rational, technically efficient, and favours

levelling of social classesCons: Breeds impersonality and contempt, and stunts

enthusiasm.

Bureaucratic Legitimacy


� Accountability and responsiveness to be the

central aspects.

� External environmental forces likely to create

unexpected pressure on institutional leadership.

� Management rigidity to be the strongest enemy

of leadership in organizations.

� Nations are more likely to go for globalization in

every sector.

Future of LeadershipFuture of Leadership


1. Set standards and accountabilities for operational outcomes expected.

2. Measure the outcomes to confirm that they have positive relationship with the improvements made.

3. Initiate changes for systems improvement to facilitate long term system’s transformation. Serve as a change agent. Leverage institutional innovation.

4. Communicate the problems, prospects, and necessary changes with the external forces, and seek their continued support.

5. Enhance overall team effectiveness in organizations operational as well as strategic policy centers.

6. Create and sustain international partnerships.

Roles of Institutional LeadershipRoles of Institutional Leadership

27

© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014)

� Systems thinking

� Organizational designing

� Stewardship: shared vision and purpose

� Creating creative tensions

� Teaching for development

Other Important Roles of LeadersOther Important Roles of Leaders


1. Do all people want to lead?

2. Is it the part of universality of leadership to pay high for the managers from the developed countries?

3. Is leadership not dominated by situation?

4. Does legacy of leadership have its final definition?

A Few Big Questions on Leadership DilemmaA Few Big Questions on Leadership Dilemma


1. The change or legacy of a good leader will last longer after the leader has left the role.

2. Role model unconsciously important role in writing leadership schools.

3. An institution, once it is created, provides a platform to play for all and forever.

4. Once a person turns into a leader, his/her negative aspects are dominated by positive aspects and thus they are likely to be ignored.

Leadership EffectsLeadership Effects


2. Leadership in Perspectives2. Leadership in Perspectives

Slater (1995) has defined leadership from four major perspectives:

1.1. Structural-Functionalist PerspectiveStructural-Functionalist Perspective

2.2. Political-Conflict PerspectivePolitical-Conflict Perspective

3.3. Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective

4.4. Critical Humanist Perspective Critical Humanist Perspective


1. Structural Functionalist Perspective1. Structural Functionalist Perspective This is a dominant perspective.This is a dominant perspective.

It sees leadership as a set of measurable behavior It sees leadership as a set of measurable behavior or skills.or skills.

Includes all functional activities covering Includes all functional activities covering planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of the resources for their best utilization to make the resources for their best utilization to make the institutional operations more cost-effective, the institutional operations more cost-effective, always.always.


2. Political-Conflict Perspective2. Political-Conflict PerspectiveThis perspective contrasts with the structural-

functionalist perspective because it does not see leadership as a set of behavior and skills, rather it sees it as power relationship with the subordinates.

'Structure of domination' is the essence of this perspective.

In organizations, this perspective can be seen as the relationship between the top management and rest of people or agencies.


3. Constructivist Perspective3. Constructivist Perspective� This perspective also tends to see leadership as the

leader behaviors and skills.

� It emphasizes that the majority of the behavior and skills become dominated by one or two major behaviors that lead the functioning of other behaviors and skills.

� As its symbolic aspect, this perspective tends to convey the meaning that the underlying dynamic social laws construct the structure of the society.


3. Constructivist Perspective…3. Constructivist Perspective…This perspective disagrees that the social structure

or the social science, and organizational administration are value free.

Creating and imparting values for life is the essence of this perspective of leadership.

Since the institutions are for providing service for life, this perspective is instrumental in better understanding the institutional philosophy and essence of leadership therein.


This perspective deals with the human relations at the workplace.

Creating motivating jobs, providing guidance, love and care, and offering a vision for the team, one may be able to establish personally as a leader.

Quite often, the success indicators of the humanist perspective of leadership may be taken as the personality traits, and leader member relations.

4. Critical Humanist Perspective4. Critical Humanist Perspective


Summary of Perspectives of LeadershipSummary of Perspectives of Leadership

To summarize from the various leadership perspectives, it may be concluded that the leader behavior has to be measured in terms of -

1. leader's relationship of power positionpower position,

2. leader’s behavior and skills behavior and skills to add values to the society, and

3. leader’s personality traits personality traits to figurehead the work teams.


Universal Issues Governing LeadershipUniversal Issues Governing Leadership

1.1. Political-legal issuesPolitical-legal issues

2.2. Economic issuesEconomic issues

3.3. Socio-cultural issuesSocio-cultural issues

4.4. Behavioral issuesBehavioral issues

5.5. Technological issuesTechnological issues

6.6. International issuesInternational issues


Selected Leadership TheoriesSelected Leadership Theories

1.1. Traits TheoriesTraits Theories

2.2. Behavioral ApproachesBehavioral Approaches

3.3. Contingency ApproachesContingency Approaches

4.4. Neo-charismatic Approaches in Neo-charismatic Approaches in LeadershipLeadership


1. Traits Theory1. Traits Theory The theories that sought personality, social, The theories that sought personality, social,

physical, or intellectual traits that differentiated physical, or intellectual traits that differentiated leaders from non-leaders.leaders from non-leaders.

The traits are the inherent attributes of the The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to keep them distinct from others.leaders to keep them distinct from others.

For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the Prime For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the Prime Minister of UK, was recognized for her Minister of UK, was recognized for her leadership in terms of her confidence, iron-leadership in terms of her confidence, iron-willed, determined, and decisive. willed, determined, and decisive.


A research study was conducted in the 1930s to A research study was conducted in the 1930s to study the attributes that differentiate the leaders study the attributes that differentiate the leaders from non-leaders.from non-leaders.

A review of 20 different studies identified nearly A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, though the study was not 80 leadership traits, though the study was not aimed to identify the leadership traits. aimed to identify the leadership traits.

Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them were common to all cases -- personality, social, were common to all cases -- personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.physical, and intellectual traits.

In fact, there are only THREE of them exist in In fact, there are only THREE of them exist in the real world of leadership.the real world of leadership.

Traits Theory…Traits Theory…

41

� Earliest approach to study leadership

� Used to identify great persons from masses

� Based on the assumption of -

certain traits = success/effectiveness

� The logic of leadership traits is as basic as height, as complex as intelligence

Traits Theory…Traits Theory…


How do the Leaders Differ from Non-leaders?How do the Leaders Differ from Non-leaders?

� Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) have identified that the leaders can be distinguished from non-leaders on the bases of SIX attributes or traits they exhibit:

1. Drive

2. Desire to lead

3. Honesty and integrity

4. Self-confidence

5. Intelligence

6. Job-relevant knowledge


Important Traits of Effective LeadersImportant Traits of Effective Leaders

� Personality

� Persuasive

� Persistence

� Patience

� Probity

� Praise giving

� Positive orientation

People BasedPeople Based PossiblePossible PracticalPractical ProgressiveProgressive PreparedPrepared Power-buildingPower-building

13 Ps


Personality Factors for Effective LeadershipPersonality Factors for Effective LeadershipCapacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status

Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic position

Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity

Verbal facility Athletic accomplishment

Initiative Cooperation

Originality Personality adjustment

Persistence Adaptability

Judgment Aggressiveness Humor

Self-confidence

Desire to excel


Criticisms on Trait Theories of LeadershipCriticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership� The belief that personality traits determine the rate of

success of a leader could easily be challenged because practically it is very hard to distinguish leaders from non-leaders based on personality traits

� There exists a very thin relationship between traits and leader’s success

� Some traits are achieved by birth� Personality traits without motivation are worthless for

success� The entire proposition does not look like a theory� “Traits Plus Motivation May Equal to Leadership”


2. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership2. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership

� Advocacy is on pattern of actions used by different individuals as the determinants of success of the leadership.

� Examples

1.1. Iowa StudiesIowa Studies: Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire.

2.2. Michigan StudiesMichigan Studies: Employee centered versus task centered.

3.3. Ohio StudiesOhio Studies: Initiating structure versus consideration.


Three Approaches to Behavioral StudiesThree Approaches to Behavioral Studies

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions

3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid


1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest

contributors of leadership study in a scientific manner.

The authors specialized in leadership styles while conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s at the University of Iowa.

The suggested leadership styles include:

1. Autocratic

2. Democratic

3. Laissez-Faire© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 49

� When Quantity of work is important:

� When Quality of work is important:

� When Satisfaction with work is important:

Which is the Best Style?Which is the Best Style?

Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire

Most Least

Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire

Best Worst

Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic

Most Least


Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Continuum of Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Continuum of Leadership BehaviorLeadership BehaviorAutocratic Democratic Laissez-faire

Use of Authority by the Manager

Area of Freedom for Subordinates

Boss- CenteredLeadership

Subordinate- Centered Leadership© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 51

Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:

1.Forces in the LeaderLeader

2.Forces in the Subordinate GroupSubordinate Group

3.Forces in the SituationSituation

Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership ContinuumTannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum


2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions

Key Contributions

a. Ohio State University Studies

b. Michigan State University Studies


Ohio State University Studies

Two Dimensions

� Initiating structureInitiating structure: The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his/her role and roles of subordinates in the search for goal attainment.

� ConsiderationConsideration: The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’ ideas, and regard of their feelings.


Initiating Structure� Is task oriented� Directs subordinate work activities toward goal

attainment� Typically gives instructions, spends time

planning, and emphasize deadlines� Provides explicit schedules of work activities

Consideration� Is mindful of focus on building relationship with

the subordinates� Establishes mutual trust� Provides with open communication� Develops and promotes teamworks


Two Dimensions � Employee OrientedEmployee Oriented: The leadership dimension in

which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations; relationship-oriented.

� Production OrientedProduction Oriented: The leadership dimension in which the leader emphasizes on technical or task aspect of the job; results-oriented.

Michigan State University Studies

Similar to Ohio StudiesSimilar to Ohio Studies


3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid

� Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of leadership.of leadership.

� The authors proposed a managerial grid showing The authors proposed a managerial grid showing the key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’ the key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’ and ‘concern for production’. and ‘concern for production’.

� The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles. matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles.


The Managerial Grid

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for Task

Con

cern

for

Peo

ple

(1,9)(1,9)

(9,1)(9,1)

(9,9)(9,9)

(5,5)(5,5)

(1,1)(1,1)


The Managerial Grid

High

High

Low

Low

Concern for Task

Co

nce

rn f

or

Peo

ple

1,9Country Club ManagementThoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a com-fortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.

1,1 Impoverished ManagementExertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustainorganization membership.

9,9Team ManagementWork accomplishment is from committed people; interdependencethrough a “common stake” inorganization purpose leads torelationships of trust and respect.

5,5Middle-of-the-Road Management

Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.

Authority-Compliance 9, 1Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. 59

Leadership Styles

Likert’s System Four Approach to LeadershipLikert’s System Four Approach to Leadership

System I:System I: Exploitive AutocraticExploitive Autocratic

System II:System II: Benevolent AutocraticBenevolent Autocratic

System III:System III: ConsultativeConsultative

System IV:System IV: Participative GroupParticipative Group


3. Contingency Theories of Leadership3. Contingency Theories of Leadership

� Leader traits and/or leader behavior are important aspects but must be taken in consideration the context -- that is, situation situation mattersmatters.


Selected Studies in Contingency ApproachesSelected Studies in Contingency Approaches

Among many theories advocating on ‘contingency’ factor, the following three are the most influential ones:

1.1.Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory

2.2.Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle) Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle) TheoryTheory

3.3.House’s Path-Goal TheoryHouse’s Path-Goal Theory


Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency TheoryLPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKERLPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER

� Low LPC ScoreLow LPC Score: task-oriented leader

� High LPC ScoreHigh LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader

� According to Fiedler, a person is one or the other - it is a fixed personality trait.


FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP

A person’s LPC score correlates with at least threee things --

1.1. Task Task StructureStructure,,

2.2. Leader/Member Leader/Member RelationsRelations, and, and

3.3. Leader’s Leader’s Power and Position Power and Position in organizationin organization


Three Elements of Leadership SituationsThree Elements of Leadership Situations

Task structure Task structure refers to the extent to which tasks performed by the group are defined, involve specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals.

Leader-member relations Leader-member relations refers to group atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and acceptance of the leader.

Leader’s Leader’s Power and Position Power and Position is the extent to which the leader has formal authority over subordinates.


Task-Oriented Leader (Low LPC)

Leader is best when situation either favorable or unfavorable.

Employee-Oriented Leader (High LPC)

Leader is best when situation is moderately favorable.


POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY

1. Train leaders in needed styleTrain leaders in needed style

Fiedler says ‘no’Fiedler says ‘no’

2. Match the leader with the jobMatch the leader with the job

Fiedler says this is a ‘good start’Fiedler says this is a ‘good start’

3. Engineer the job to fit the mangerEngineer the job to fit the manger

Fiedler says this is the ‘best approach’Fiedler says this is the ‘best approach’


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational TheoryHersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

A contingency approach to leadership that links the leader’s behavioral style with the task readiness (maturity) of subordinates.

Also known as ‘life cycle’ theory.


Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership

� No single best way to lead.� Focus on maturity or readiness of followers

� Ability and willingness.

� Adjust emphasis on task and relationship behaviors according to the readiness of followers to perform their tasks.


Hersey’s Situational Leadership ModelHersey’s Situational Leadership Model

� Based on� Style of leadership

• Giving direction (task behaviour)• Giving motivational support (relationship behaviour)

� “Readiness” of followers to perform a task• Ability

• Willingness


Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership

� Telling: low readiness, untrained and inexperienced employees

� Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but inexperienced employees

� Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but unwilling, employees skeptical

� Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and willing to take responsibility


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model Defines Relationship Between Maturity and Four Leadership Styles

HighHigh

relationshiprelationship

Low taskLow task

High taskHigh task

HighHigh


LowLow


Low taskLow task

High taskHigh task

LowLow


M1M1

M2M2M3M3

M4M4

Parti

cipat

ing

Del

egat

ing Telling

Selling

HighHigh

LowLow HighHighTask BehaviorTask Behavior

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

ior

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

ior

Style of Style of LeaderLeader

ImmatureImmatureMaturityMaturity

AbilityAbility

WillingnessWillingness

M1M1M2M2M3M3M4M4HighHigh ModerateModerate LowLow

This person is able(has the necessaryknowledge and skill)

This person is willing(has the necessary confidence and commitment)

Maturity of Followers

Psychological maturity

Job maturity

A great dealA great deal44

Quite a bitQuite a bit33

SomeSome22

LittleLittle11

UsuallyUsually44

OftenOften33

On occasionOn occasion22

SeldomSeldom11

72© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014)

HOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORYHOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY

Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation

A leader should emphasize either path clarification or adjust rewards depending on the factors affecting a person’s motivation

Theory assumes people can change their leadership styles to fit the situation


Situational ContingenciesSituational Contingencies

Three Important Situational Contingenciesin Path-Goal Theory

1. Personal characteristics of the group members

2. Work environment

3. The situation


Path-goal TheoryPath-goal Theory

� Deeply rooted with Expectancy Theory

� Leader behaviors involved --� Directive� Supportive� Achievement-oriented� Participative


Path-Goal Model of LeadershipPath-Goal Model of Leadership

Follower CharacteristicsFollower Characteristics1.1. Locus of controlLocus of control2.2. AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism3.3. AbilityAbility

OutcomesOutcomes1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction2.2. PerformancePerformance3.3. Acceptance of the leaderAcceptance of the leader

FollowersFollowers1.1. PerceptionsPerceptions2.2. MotivationMotivation

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors1.1. TasksTasks2.2. Formal authority systemFormal authority system3.3. Work groupWork group

Leader Behavior StylesLeader Behavior Styles1.1. DirectiveDirective2.2. SupportiveSupportive3.3. ParticipativeParticipative4.4. Achievement-orientedAchievement-oriented


4. Neo-charismatic Approaches in Leadership4. Neo-charismatic Approaches in Leadership


1. Change Leadership

Transactional Leader: Provides direction for subordinates to achieve stated objectives through performance. Typical “good manager” using position power and some personal power.

Transformational Leader: Special ability to create institutional innovation and change. Charismatic leader within an organization; high on position and personal power.


Effects of Change LeadershipEffects of Change Leadership

Transactional Leadership

Current state ofexpectedsubordinateeffort

Normalexpectedsubordinateperformance

TransformationalLeadership

Heightenedmotivationto attaindesignedoutcome(extra effort)

Subordinatesperformbeyondnormalexpectations


Transformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership

Transformational Leadership

• Idealized Influence• Inspiration• Intellectual stimulation• Individualized

consideration

Transformational Leadership

• Idealized Influence• Inspiration• Intellectual stimulation• Individualized

consideration


• Contingent reward• Management by

exception (active or passive)

• Laissez faire


• Contingent reward• Management by

exception (active or passive)

• Laissez faire

Performance beyond expectation

Performance beyond expectation

Agreed uponperformance

Agreed uponperformance

Broadening and elevating followergoals

Leader/follower exchange


Characteristics of Transactional LeadershipCharacteristics of Transactional Leadership

1. Establishes goals and objectives.2. Designs work flow and delegates task

assignments.3. Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort.4. Rewards performance and recognizes

accomplishments.5. Searches for deviations from standards and takes

corrective actions.


Characteristics of Transformational LeadershipCharacteristics of Transformational Leadership

1.1. Charismatic:Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of mission, gains respect and trust, instills pride.

2.2. Individualized consideration:Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, and treats each person individually, coaches.

3.3. Intellectually stimulating:Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning, encourages rationality, uses careful problem solving.

4.4. Inspirational:Inspirational: Communicates high performance expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills essential purposes.


2. Participative Management2. Participative Management Democratic approach of management. Employees have autonomy in making and

implementing decisions. Leader invites wider participation of the

subordinates in making and selling decisions. Exists high degree of delegation of authority. Managers listen and value the subordinate

suggestions. High degree of customer focus exists. A move into TQM process climate.


3. Management by Objectives (MBO)3. Management by Objectives (MBO) A management system in which specific

performance goals are jointly determined by employees and their managers, progress toward accomplishing those goals is periodically reviewed, rewards are allocated on the basis of the progress in accomplishing the goals.

Goal achievement is the key of MBO. Management approach is driven by the nature of

performance objectives and goals. MBO consists of four elements; goal specificity,

participative. © Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 84

Management by Objectives (MBO)…Management by Objectives (MBO)…

FOUR Characteristics of MBO1. Goal specificity,

2. Participative decision making,

3. An explicit time period, and

4. Performance feedback.

MBO increases organizationalMBO increases organizationalperformance and productivityperformance and productivity


4. Management by Walking Around (MBWA)4. Management by Walking Around (MBWA) A term used to describe when a manager is out in

the work area, interacting directly with employees, and exchanging information about what’s going on.

MBWA is a management control process which follows THREE steps:

Step 1: Measure the actual performance,

Step 2: Compare actual performance with the standard performance, and

Step 3: Take managerial action for further improvement.


5. Management by Exception5. Management by Exception An alternative approach of management when the

other conventional laws management do not work Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,

transformational, and transactional leadership approaches

Examples: Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement

does not work Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things


6. Creating Learning Organization6. Creating Learning Organization An organization with exceptional work culture. The most open type of organization. An organizational system in which fear of

ignorance and inability is eliminated through relevant training and development.

People learn through open interactions. Managers value subordinate problems and their

suggestions. Creativity creeps eternally in all members. A move towards TQM process climate.


CONCLUSIONS FROM LEADERSHIP THEORIESCONCLUSIONS FROM LEADERSHIP THEORIES1.1. Transformational leaders inspire higher Transformational leaders inspire higher

performance than do transactional leaders.performance than do transactional leaders.2.2. Effective leaders must be concerned about Effective leaders must be concerned about

accomplishing the task and relationships.accomplishing the task and relationships.3.3. Effective leaders better know when to tell, sell, Effective leaders better know when to tell, sell,

participate, or delegate.participate, or delegate.4.4. Effective leaders understand mission and Effective leaders understand mission and

strategy, know how to implement change, strategy, know how to implement change, motivate employees to high performance, and motivate employees to high performance, and teach effectively.teach effectively.

5.5. Effective leaders lead by example and they are Effective leaders lead by example and they are the honest and fair people and they inspire the honest and fair people and they inspire confidence.confidence. © Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 89

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READINGREFERENCES FOR FURTHER READINGDessler, G. (2009). A framework of human resource management. (4th ed.). New Delhi:

Pearson Education.Dessler, G. & Varkkey, B. (2013). Human resource management. (12th ed.). New

Delhi: Pearson Education.Luthans, F. (2002). Organizational behavior. (9th ed.). New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Irwin

Publication.Rijal, C. P. (2012). Graduate study manual on organizational behavior. Kathmandu:

Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hotel Management [NATHM].Rijal, C. P. (2014). Rijal on principles of management – a graduate study manual.

Kathmandu: Author.Robbins, S. P., Coulter, M. (2002). Fundamentals of management. (3rd ed.). New Delhi:

Pearson Education.Robbins, S. P., Coulter, M., & Vohra, N. (2010). Management. (10th ed.). New Delhi:

Pearson Education.Robbins, S. P., DeCenzo, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of management – essential

concepts and applications. (5th ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Sanghi, S. (2010). Essentials of organizational

behavior. (10th ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2013). Essentials of organizational

behavior. (14th ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.Snell, S., & Bohlander, G. (2007). Human resource management. (Indian Ed.). New

Delhi: CWNGAGE Learning.

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leadership in perspectives

Education

leadership process

role of leadership

leadership ranges

successful leaders

leadershipinfluencing

influencinggetting people

educational leaders

rijals teaching notes