Leadership andExcellence in

Schooling

Excellent schools needfreedom within boundaries.

THOMAS J. SERGIOVANNI

It is in and through symbols that man,consciously or unconsciously, lives, works

and has his meaning.-Thomas Carlvle

s your school a good school? WhenJoan Lipsitz posed this question to

.principals of the excellent middleschools she studied, she found that thevhad difficulty defining what made theirschools special or what the dimensionsof excellence in schooling were. "Youwill have to come and see my school,"was the typical response. I

Thomas 1. Sergiovanni is Professor andChairperson, Department of Adminis-tration, Higher and Continuing Educa-tion, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. This article is based on TheLillian Radford Lecture, "The Forces ofLeadership," given at Trinity University,San Antonio, Texas, November 14,1983.

Excellence is readily recognized inour ordinary experiences. It is difficultto put our finger on what makes aparticular athletic or artistic perform-ance excellent. But we know excellencewhen we see it. The earmarks of anexcellent piano performance may befound not in the notes played but in thepauses between them. Clearly, excel-lence is multidimensional, holistic.

Competence, by contrast, is markedby mastery of certain predetermined,essential fundamentals. The piano stu-dent achieves mastery and thus is able toplay the notes flawlessly and deliver aperformance recognized as technicallycompetent.

Similarly, we know excellent schoolswhen we experience them, despite diffi-culties in definition. In excellentschools things "hang together"; a senseof purpose rallies people to a commoncause; work has meaning and life issignificant; teachers and students work

together and with spirit; and accom-plishments are readily recognized. Tosay excellent schools have high moraleor have students who achieve high testscores or are schools that send morestudents to college misses the point.Excellence is all of these and more.

Excellence, Not CompetenceShould we expect more from ourschools than the satisfaction of knowingthey're performing "up to standard" andthat students are competent performers?Most surveys indicate that basic skilllearning and developing fundamentalacademic competence-the indicatorsof effectiveness common to the schooleffectiveness literature-are paramountgoals in the minds of most parents andteachers. But, pushed a bit further,parents and teachers provide a moreexpansive view of excellence, whichincludes developing a love of learning,critical thinking and problem-solving

4 EDUcATIONAL LEADERSHIP

4 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

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skills, aesthetic appreciation, curiosityand creati ith, interpersonal compe-tence. and so )n. Parents want a com-plete education for their children. In-deed our societ% requires it. Our youngneed to become cultured, educated citi-zens able to participate filly in society,not just trained workers with limitedpotential for such participation.

important differences exist among in-competent, competent, and excellentschools arid their leaders. Schools man-aged by incompetent leaders simplydon't get the job done. Typically, suchschools are characterized by confusionand inefficiency in operation and mal-aise in human climate. Studentachievement is lower in such schools.Teachers may not be giving a fair day'swork for a fair day's pay. Student absen-teeism, discipline, and violence mav bea problem Conflict may characterizeinterpersonal relationships among facul-ty or between faculty and supervisors.Parents mav feel isolated from theschool. Competent schools, by contrast,measure up to these and other standardsof effectiveness. They get the job donein a satisfactors manner. Excellentschools, however, exceed the expecta-tions necessary to be considered satisfac-tory. Students in such schools accom-plish far more and teachers work muchharder than can ordinarily be expected.

Leadership Forces and ExcellenceLeadership has several aspects, each ofwhich contributes uniquely to schoolcompetence and to school excellence.The current focus in leadership theoryand practice provides a limited view,dwelling excessively on some aspects ofleadership to the virtual exclusion ofothers. Unfortunately, these neglectedaspects of leadership are linked to excel-lence-a revelation now unfolding fromrecent research on school effectivenessand school excellence.

Aspects of leadership can be describedmetaphorically as forces available to ad-ministrators, supervisors, and teachersas they influence the events of school-ing. Force is the strength or energybrought to bear on a situation to start orstop motion or change. Leadershipforces can be thought of as the meansavailable to administrators, supervisors,

and teachers to bring about or preservechanges needed to improve schooling

At least fixe leadership forces can heidentified:

* Technical--derived from soundmanagement techniques

* tluman--derived from harnessingavailable social and interpersonal re-sources

* Educational-derived from expertknowledge about matters of educationand schooling

* Symbolic-derived from focusingthe attention of others on matters ofimportance to the school

* Cultural-dcrivcd from building aunique school culture

The first two forces have dominatedthe leadership literature in recent yearsand loom large in training programsoffered through ASCI)'s National Cur-riculum Study Institutes.

I The technical leader assumes therole of "management engineer." By em-phasizing such concepts as planningand time managemient technologies,contingency leadership theories, and or-ganizational structures, the leader pro-vides planning, organizing, coordinat-ing, arid scheduling to thie life of theschool An accomplished managementengineer is skilled at manipulating strat-egies and situations to ensure optimumeffectiveness.

2. The human leader assumes the roleof "human engineer." By emphasizingsuch concepts as human relations, in-terpersonal competence, and instru-mental motivational technologies, sheor he provides support, encouragement,and growth opportunities to the school'shuman organization. The skilled engi-neer is adept at building and maintain-ing morale and using such processes asparticipatory decision making.

3. The educational leader assumes therole of "clinical practitioner," bringingexpert professional knowledge and bear-ing as they relate to teaching effective-ness, educational program development,and clinical supervision. The clinicalpractitioner is adept at diagnosing edu-cational problems; counseling teachers;providing for supervision, evaluation,and staff development; and developingcurriculum. One wonders how suchessential concerns of school leadership

6 EDUCATIONAi. I ,I�ADFRSHIP

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6 EDUCATIOtNAL I.FADERSHIP

could, for so long. have been neglectedin the literature of educational adminis-tration.

In an earlier era the educational as-pects of leadership were center stage inthe literature of educational administra-tion and supervision Principals wereconsidered to bhe instructional leaders,and an emphasis on schooling charac-terized unisersith training programs.However. advances of management andsocial science theory in educational ad-ministration and supervsision soonbrought to center stage technical andhuman aspects. John Goodlad has beena persistent critic of the displacement ofeducational aspects of leadership in fa-vor of technical and human. He argues,"But to put these matters at the center,often for understandable reasons of sur-vival and expediencs . is to commit afundamental error which ultirnatelv,will hasc a negative impact on botheducation and one's own career Ourwork, for which we will be held acccoun-table, is to maintain, justif', and artic-ulate sound. comprehensive programs ofinstruction for children and youth."2

He states further, "It is now time toput the right things at the center again.And the right things have to do withassuring comprchensive. qualih' cduca-tional programs in each and ever'school under our jurisdiction. "

The technical, human. and educa-tional forces of leadership, brought to-gether in an effort to maintain or im-prove schooling, provide the criticalmass needed for competent schooling. Adeficit in anv one of the three upsets thiscritical mass, and less effective school-ing is likely to occur. Recent studies ofexcellence in organizations suggest thatdespite the link between these threeaspects of leadership and competence inschooling, their presence does not guar-antee excellence. Excellent organiza-tions, schools among them, are charac-terized by other leadership qualities;forces described here as symbolic andcultural.

4. The symbolic leader assumes therole of "chief" and by emphasizing selec-tive attention (the modeling of impor-tant goals and behaviors) signals to oth-ers what is of importance and value.Touring the school; visiting classrooms;

FEBRUARY 1984

seeking out and visibly spending timewith students; downplaving manage-ment concerns in favor of educationalones; presiding over ceremonies, rituals,and other important occasions; and pro-viding a unified vision of the schoolthrough proper use of words and actionsare examples of leader activ ities associat-ed with this fourth forcec

Purposing is of major concern to thesymbolic force. Peter \'aill defines pur-posing as "that continuous stream ofactions by an organization's formal lead-ership \vhich has the effect of inducingclarits. consensus, and commitment re-garding the organization's basic pur-poses."' Students and teachers alikewant to know what is of value to theschool and its leadership; desire a senseof order and direction; and enjoy shar-ing this sense with others. They respondto these conditions with increased workmotivation and commitment.

Of less concern to the svmbolic forceis the leader's behavioral style. Instead,what the leader stands for and commu-nicates to others is emphasized. Theobject of symbolic leadership is the stir-ring of human consciousness, the inte-gration and enhancing of meaning, thearticulation of key cultural strands that

"Importantdifferences existamongincompetent,competent, andexcellent schools.... Students inexcellent schoolsaccomplish farmore andteachers workmuch harderthan canordinarily beexpected."

. W.

identify the substance of a school, andthe linking of persons involved in theschool's activities to them. As LouPondy suggests "What kind of insightscan we get if we say that the effectivenessof a leader lies in his ability to makeactivity meaningful for those in his roleset-not to change behavior but to giveothers a sense of understanding whatthey are doing, and especially to articu-late it so they can communicate aboutthe meaning of their behavior?"" Pro-viding meaning and rallying people to acommon cause constitute effectivenessin symbolic leadership.

Leaders typically express symbolic as-pects of leadership by working beneaththe surface of events and activities andsearching for deeper meaning and val-ue. As Robert J. Starratt suggests, lead-ers seek to identify the roots of meaningand the flow and ebb of daily life inschools so that they might provide stu-dents, teachers, and members of thecommunity with a sense of importance,vision, and purpose about the seeminglyordinary and mundane. Indeed, theseleaders bring to the school a sense ofdrama in human life that permits per-sons to rise above the daily routine.They are able to see the significance ofwhat a group is doing, and indeed couldbe doing. They have a feel for thedramatic possibilities inherent in mostsituations and are able to urge people togo beyond the routine, to break out ofthe mold into something more livelyand vibrant. And finally, symbolic lead-ers are able to communicate their senseof vision by words and examples. Theyuse easily understood language symbols,which communicate a sense of excite-ment, originality, and freshness. Theseefforts provide opportunities for othersin the school to experience this visionand to obtain a sense of purpose so thatthey might come to share in the owner-ship of the school enterprise morefully. 6

Warren Bennis argues that a compel-ling vision is the key ingredient of lead-ership in the excellent organizations hestudied. Vision refers to the capacity tocreate and communicate a view of adesired state of affairs that induces com-mitment among those working in theorganization.- Vision, then, becomes

EDUCATIONAL. L.EADERSHIP8

the substance of what is communicatedas sysmbolic aspects of leadership areemphasized.

5. The cultural leader assumes the roleof "high priest." seeking to define.strengthen, and articulate those endur-ing values, beliefs, and cultural strandsthat give the school its unique identity.As high priest the leader is engaged inlegacy building, and in creating, nurtur-ing. and teaching an organizationalsaga,'" which defines the school as adistinct cntihtv within an identifiable cul-ture. The v ords clan or tribe come tomind. Leader activities associated withthe cultural force include articulatingschool purposes and mission, socializingnew members to the culture; tellingstories and maintaining or reinforcingmyths, traditions, and beliefs; explain-ing "the was things operate aroundhere"; developing and displaying a sys-tem of ss mbols ox cr time; and rewardingthose who reflect this culture.

The net effect of the cultural force ofleadership is to bond together students,teachers, and others as believers in thework of the school. Indeed, the schooland its purposes are somewhat reveredas if they resembled an ideological sys-tem dedicated to a sacred mission. Aspersons become members of this strongand binding culture, they are providedwith opportunities for enjoying a specialsense of personal importance and signif-icance. Their work and their lives takeon a ne'C importance. one characterizedbv richer meanings, an expanded senseof identit., and a feeling of belonging tosomething special-all highly' motivat-ing conditions."

Before further pursuing the powerfulforces of symbolic and cultural leader-ship. let's viesw the five forces in theform of a leadership hierarchy as depict-ed in Figure 1. The following assertionscan be made about the relationships ofthese forces:

I. Technical and human leadershipforces are generic and thus share identi-cal qualities swith competent manage-ment and leadership wherever they areexpressed. 'The! are not, therefore.unique to the school and its enterpriseregardless of how important they maybe.

2 Educational. sy-mibolic. and cul-tural leadership forces are situationaland contextual. deriving their uniquequalities from specific matters of educa-tion and schooling. These qualities dif-ferentiate educational leadership, super-vision, and administration frommanagement and leadership in general.

3 Technical. human. and educa-tional aspects of educational leadershipforces are essential to competent school-ing, and their absence contributes toineffccti-encss. The strength of theirpresence alone, hos-eecr. is rot suffi-cient to bring about excellence inschooling.

4. Cultural and symibolic aspects ofsubstantive leadership forces are esscn-tial to excellence in schooling. Theirabsence. how ever. does not appear tonegativel affect routine competence.

,. The greater the presence of aleadership force higher in the hierarchy.the less important (beyond some un-knossn minimuniu presence) are othersbelow.

Culture and Purpose: Essenia ofExcellenceCulture building and practicing the artof purposing arec the essentials of ssm-bolic and cultural leadership forces.Culture can be described as the collec-tive programming of the mind that dis-tinguishes the members of one schoolfrom another. " ' Cultural life in schoolsis constructed realih-. and leaders pli' ake- role in building this realits. Schoolculture includes values. s-mbols. be-liefs. and shared meanings of parents.students. teachers. and others conceisedas a group or communitt- Culture go'-erms what is of %worth for this group andhows members should think. feel. andbehave 1The "stuff" of culture includesa school's customs and traditions: his-torical accounts. stated and unstated un-derstandings; habits. norms. and expec-tations; common meanings and sharedassumphions. The more understood. ac-cepted. and cohcsice the culture of aschool. the better able it is to mole inconcert toward ideals it holds and obpec-tives it wishes to pursue.

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Figure 1. The Leadership Forces Hierarchy

FEBRUARY 1984

4

All schools have cultures: strong orweak, functional or dysfunctional. Suc-cessful schools seem to have strong andfunctional cultures aligned with a visionof excellence in schooling. This cultureserves as a compass setting to steer peo-ple in a common direction; provides aset of norms that defines what peopleshould accomplish and how; and pro-vides a source of meaning and signifi-cance for teachers, students, administra-tors, and others as they work. Strong,functional cultures are domesticated inthe sense that they emerge deliberate-ly-they are nurtured and built by theschool leadership and membership.

Weak cultures, by contrast, result in amalaise in schools characterized by alack of understanding of what is to beaccomplished and a lack of excitementfor accomplishment itself. Sometimescultures are strong and dysfunctional.In this case, students mav have bandedtogether to build a strong culture direct-ed at disrupting the school or coercingother students to misbehave or performpoorly. Teachers, too, can be sources ofproblems in strong, dysfunctional cul-tures if they place their own interestsfirst. In some schools, for example, aninformal culture may exist with strongnorms that dictate to faculty how theyshould behave. It might be unaccept-able, for example, for teachers to takework home with them or to visit withstudents after school. Teachers who areworking very hard might be consideredas "eager beavers" or "rate busters," andas a result find themselves distancedfrom this culture. Cultures of this sortmight be referred to as wild. Wild cul-tures are not in control of administra-tors, supervisors, parents, teachers, andstudents as a cohesive group. They de-velop more informally or willy-nillyWhen a dysfunctional wild culture ex-ists in a school, excellence requires thebuilding of a new, strong culture.

Culture building requires schoolleaders to give more attention to theinformal, subtle, and symbolic aspectsof school life. Teachers, parents, andstudents need answers to some basicquestions: What is the school about?What is important here? What do webelieve in? Why do we function the way

we do fHlow are we unique? Flow do I fitinto the scheme of things? Answeringsuch questions pro-sides an orderlinessto one's school life derived from a senseof purpose and enriched meanings.

"The task of leadership is to create themoral order that binds them . . . andthe people around them," notes Thom-as B. Greenfield.''

James Quinn states, "'Ihe role of theleader, then, is one of orchestrator andlabeler: taking what can be gotten in theway of action and shaping it-generallyafter the fact-into lasting commitmentto a new strategic direction. In short, hemakes meanings.

" 'Leadership as culture building is not

a new idea, but one solidly imbedded inour history and well known to successfulschool and other leaders. In 1957, Phil-lip Selznick wrote:The art of the creatisc leader is the art ofinstitution building, the reworking of humanand technological materials to fashion anorganism that embodies new and enduringvalues. To institutionalize is to infusewith value bevond the technical require-ments of the task at hand. The prizing ofsocial machinery beyond its technical role islargely a reflection of the unique way itfulfills personal or group needs Wheneverindividuals become attached to an organiza-tion or a was of doing things as personsrather than as technicians, the result is aprizing of the dev ice for its own sake. Fromthe standpoint of the committed person, theorganization is changed from an expendabletool into a valued source of personal satisfac-tion. .The institutional leader, then, isprimarily an expert in the promotion andprotection of values. 3

And in 1938, the noted theorist,Chester Barnard, stated the followingabout executive functions:

The essential functions are, first to providethe system of communications; second, topromote the securing of essential efforts; andthird, to formulate and define purpose ..It has already been made clear that, strictlyspeaking, purpose is defined more nearly bythe aggregate of action taken than by anyformulation in words. 1

Freedom with RestrictionsExcellent schools have central zonescomposed of values and beliefs that takeon sacred or cultural characteristics.Indeed, it might be useful to think ofthem as having an official "religion,"which gives meaning and guides appro-priate actions. As repositories of values,

these central zones become sources ofidentity for teachers and students, givingmeaning to their school lives. The focusof leadership, then, is on developingand nurturing these central zone pat-terns so that they provide a normativebasis for action within the school.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP10

Manam Flam, Pnncipal, Oakland Terrace ElementarySchool, Montgomery County Schools, Maryland

In some respects, the concept of cen- to recent developments in organization-tral zone suggests that effective schools al theory which describe schools as be-are tightly structured. That is, they are ing loosely structured entities. James G.organized in a highly disciplined fash- March, a noted organizational theorist,ion around a set of core ideas, which speaks of educational organizations asspell out the way of life in the school being organized anarchies. II Similarly,and govern behaviors. This is in contrast Karl Weick uses the phrase loose cou-

pling to describe the wavs in whichschools are organized. ' Indeed Weickbelieves that one of the reasons forineffectiveness in schooling is thatschools are managed with the wrongtheory in mind.

FEBRUARY 1984 I I

Figure 2. The Forces of Leadership and Excelence in Schooling

Leadership Role TheoreticalForce Metaphor Constructs Examples Reactions Link to Excellence

1. Technical "Management * Planning and time * Plan, organize, co- People are managedengineer" management tech- ordinate, and as objects of a me-

nologies schedule chanical system. They* Contingency lead- * Manipulate strate- react to efficient man-

ership theories gies and situations agement with indif-* Organizational to ensure optimum ference but have a

structure effectiveness -low tolerance for in- Presence is importantefficient manage- to achieve and main-ment. tain routine school

competence but not2. Human "Human 0 Human relation su- 0 Provide needed People achieve high sufficient to achieve

engineer" pervision support satisfaction of their excellence. Absence* "Linking" motiva- · Encourage growth interpersonal needs. results in school inef-

tion theories and creativity They like the leader fectiveness and poor* Interpersonal cornm- Build and maintain and the school and morale.

petence morale respond with positive* Conflict manage- 0 Use participatory interpersonal behav-

ment decision making ior. A pleasant atmo-* Group cohesive- sphere exists that fa-

ness clitates the work ofthe school.

3. Educational "Clinical a Professional knowl- 0 Diagnose educa- People respond posi- Presence is essentialpractitioner" edge and bearing tional problems tively to the strong to routine compe-

* Teaching effective- 0 Counsel teachers expert power of the tence. Strongly linkedness * Provide supervision leader and are moti- to, but still not suffl-

* Educational pro- and evaluation vated to work. They cient for, excellencegram design 0 Provide inservice appreciate the assist- in schooling. Ab-

* Clinical supervision * Develop curriculum ance and concern sence results in Inef-provided. fectiveness.

4. Symbolic "Chief" 0 Selective attention 0 Tour the school People learn what is* Purposing a Visit classrooms of value to the leader* Modeling 0 Know students and school, have a

* Preside over cere- sense of order andmonies and rituals direction and enjoy

* Provide a unified vi- sharing that sensesion with others. They re-

spond with ncreasedmotivaton and com-mitment.

Presence is essential5. Cultural "High priest" * Climate, clan, cul- 0 Articulate school People become be- to excellence In

ture purpose and mis- lievers in the school schooling though ab-* Tightly structured sion as an Ideological sys- sence does not ap-

values-loosely * Socialize new mem- teen. They are memn- pear to negatively im-structured system bers ber of a strong cul- pact routine compe-

* Ideology 0 Tell stories and ture that provides tence.* "Bonding" motiva- maintain reinforc- them with a sense of

tion theory ing myths personal ImportanceExplain SOn and slificance and

* defne unqsess work meaningfulness.e* Deelop and dJI. which is highly moti-

ply renforcing vatlng.

* efld thoe whoreflect the culture

Contemporary thought. Weick ar-gues, assumes that schools are charac-terized by four properties: the existenceof a self-correcting rational systemamong people who work in a highlyinterdependent way; consensus on goalsand the means to obtain these goals;coordination by the dissemination ofinformation; and predictability of prob-

lems and responses to these problems.In fact, he notes, none of these proper-ties are true characteristics of schoolsand how they function. Effective schooladministrators in loosely coupledschools, he observes, need to make fulluse of symbol management to tie to-gether the system. In his words:

People need to be part of sensible projects.Their action becomes richer, more confi-dent, and more satisfying when it is linkedwith important underlying themes, valuesand movements . administrators mustbe attentive to the 'glue' that holds looselycoupled systems together because such formsare just barely systems '-

12 EDUCATiONAL LFADFRSHIP

12 EI)DUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Wcick continues:

The administrator who manages symbolsdoes not ijust sit in his or her office mouthingclever slogans. Eloquence must he dissemi-nated. And since channels are unpredict-able, administrators must get out of the officeand spend lots of time one on one--both toremind people of central visions and to assistthem in applving these visions to their ownactivities. The administrator teaches peopleto interpret what thev are doing in a com-mon language. '"

Recent obscnrations about the schooleffectiveness literature point out thateffective schools arc not loosely coupledor structured at all but instead are tightlycoupled. 19 My interpretation of theschool effectiveness excellence literatureleads mc to believe that these schoolsare both tightly coupled and looselycoupled, an observation noted as %vell byPeters and Waterman in their studies ofAmerica's best-run cooperations. Thereexists in excellent schools a strong cul-ture and clear sense of purpose, wvhichdefines the general thrust and nature oflife for their inhabitants. At the sametime, a great deal of freedom is given toteachers and others as to hou theseessential core values arc to be honoredand realized This combination of tightstructure around clear and explicitthemes, which represent the core of theschool's culture, and of autonomv forpeople to pursue these themes in waysthat make sense to them, ma! well be akev reason for their success.

The combination of tight structureand loose structure corresponds ver'well to three important human charac-teristics associated with motivation:commitment, enthusiasmn, and loyaltyto school. Teachers, students. and otherschool staff need to:

I Find their work and personal livesmeaningful, purposeful. sensible, andsignificant

2. Have some reasonable control overtheir work activities and affairs and to beable to exert reasonable influence overwork scrnits and circumstances

3. Experience success, think of them-selves as winners, and receive recogni-tion for their success.

People are willing to make a signifi-cant investment of time, talent, andcnergy in exchange for enhancementand fulfillment of these three needs. 2"

Leadership DensityFigure 2 provides a summarv of therelationship between the five forces of

FEBRUARY 1984

leadership and excellence in schooling.Included for each force are the domi-nant metaphor for leadership role andbehavior; important theoretical con-structs from which such behavior isderived; examples of the behaviors inschool leadership; reactions of'teachersand others to the articulation of leader-ship forces; and links of each force toschool competence and excellence.

As leaders are able to better under-stand and incorporate each of the fiveforces. they must be prepared to acceptsome additional burdens. Svmbolic andcultural forces are vecs powerful influ-ences of human thought and behavior.People respond to these forces bv bond-ing together into a highly normative-cohesive group, and this group in turnbonds itself to the school culture in analmost irrational was. The "cult" meta-phor communicates well the nature andeffect of extremely strong bonding. Howstrong is the bonding of excellentschools' Is it possible that there arelimits beslond which bonding worksagainst excellence' As bonding grows.one is apt to "think" less and "feel"more about wsork and commitments toschool.

No eass ansvwer exists to this problem.But the burdens of leadership will beless if leadership functions and roles areshared and if the concept of leadershipdensity were to emerge as a viable re-placement for principal leadership. Themoral and ethical foundation for leader-ship will be strengthened if leaders placeouter world concerns (such as the wel-fare of schooling) before inner concernsfor self-expression and personal success.Leaders might select as their sloganKant's admonition, "Act so that youtreat humanity, whether in sour ownperson or in that of another. always asan end and never as a means only ."

'loan Lipsitz. Successful Schools forYoung Adolescents tNev Brnlns-ick. NJ.:Transaction Books. 1983). Aailable fromthe Center for Earls Adolescence at theUniversith of North Carolina-Chapel Hill inCarrboro, N.C. )

:John Goodlad. "Educational Leadership:Tos-ard the Third ra,'" Educational Lead-ership. 3, (Januarn 1978): 326.

'Ibid. p 3314Peter B \Vaill. "The Purposing of High

Performing Systems," in Leadership and Or-ganizational Culture, eds.. Thomas I Scr-giovanni and John E. Corball! (Urbana-

Champaign: Universih of Illinois Pess.1984).

'Louis Ponds. "Leadership Is a LanguaGame." in Leadership Where Elbe Can WeGo? eds. Morgan W' McCall. Ir. andMichael M. Lombardo (Durham. N C.:Duke Univxersih Press. 198'1. p 94.'Sce. for example. his "-.Aostoli- Leader-

ship," Jesuit Commission on Recarch andDevelopment. San lose, Ca.. June. 1977(available from the Commission of FordhaniUnisersih. Lincoln Center. NeS Yorl.N.Y. ; and "Contemporary Talk on Leader-ship: Too Man- Kings in the Parade?' NotrDame loural of Education 4. 1 (193T .

AVarren Bennis. "Transformation Powerand Leadership" in T. . Sergiovanni and IE. Corbally. op cit

"Burton R. Clark. "The OrganizatulSaga in Higher Education." AdminstatiwScience Quarterhl 17. 2 719.72.

'See. for example. Thomas I Peters andRobert H Waterman. IJr. In Smn"h ofE'-eellence (N.Y.: Harper & Row. 198'21pa::icularl! Chapter 4; and T. I._ Sergio-vanni. "Motivahonl to Wortk Satisfactionand Qualitb of Life in Schools." Issues inEducation: A Forum of Research ard Opn-ion I. 2t19Sh4

"I,. Hofstedc. Cultures Conseluens(Beverles Hills: Sage Publicatons. 1980W p.13

"Thomas B. Greenfield. "Leaders andSchools: VWilfulness and Non-Natural Orderin Organization." in T. 1- Scrgiovanni and IE. Corballh. ol. cit.

'lames B. .Qwinn. "Formulating StraergOne Step at a Time." loumal ot BusineaStrategy (Winter 1981 : .9

"Phillip Selznick. Leadership and Ad-ministration: A Sociologcal Interpretati(N.Y.: Harper & Ro'. 1971.

I'Chester I. Bamard. The FunctiomsofthExecutive. Cambridge. Mass.: Hanard Uni-sersih Press. 1968. p sii

"Michael D. Cohen. James G. Mairh.and Johan Olson. "A Garbage Can Model ofOrganizational Choicc'." .Administrat Sci-ence Quarterl , I-. 11972: 1-25.

'6Karl E Weicr. "Administering Educa-tihon in Looselh Coupled Schools.- Phi DwtaKappan 27. 2 (June 1982): 6"3-676.

'-Ibid , p. 6;."Ibid., p. 6-6."See,. for example. hichael Cohen. -In-

structional Management and Social Condi-tions in Effective Schools." in Schol Fi-nance and School Improvement; Linages inthe 1980's. eds. Allan Odden and L. DeanWebb 1983 Yearbook of the AmerinEducational Finance Association.

'"See. for example. Peters and 'aterman.op. cit.; Scrgioanni. op. cit.; and l- RichardHackman and Greg R. Oldham. Wort Redr-sign (Reading. Mass: Addison-Wesle-.19801.

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Copyright © 1984 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.