leadership and employee work engagement · jd-r model + + bakker & demerouti (2008, 2014)...

Leadership and Employee

work engagement

Prof. dr. Arnold Bakker

Erasmus University Rotterdam

Lingnan University Hong Kong

Parnu, Estonia, Workshop 17 April 2015

Schaufeli & Bakker (2003, 2004, 2010)

Work Engagement

“A positive, affective-motivational state

of fulfillment that is characterized by

vigor, dedication, and absorption.”

HIGH

ACTIVATION

LOW

ACTIVATION

Pleasant low

activation

Unpleasant low

activation

Unpleasant

high activation

Enthusiastic

Excited

Happy

Energised

Agitated

Hostile

Irritated

Angry

PLEASANT UNPLEASANT

Content

Relaxed

Calm

Tranquil

Tense

Dejected

Lethargic

Fatigued

Gloomy

Sad

Pleased

ENGAGEMENT

Russell & Carroll (1999)

JD-R model

+ +

Bakker & Demerouti (2008, 2014)

Personal

Resources

Performance Work

Engagement

Job

Resources

Job

Demands

+

+

Traits • Adaptable to situations

• Alert to social environment

• Ambitious and achievement orientated

• Assertive

• Cooperative

• Decisive

• Dependable

• Dominant (desire to influence others)

• Energetic (high activity level)

• Persistent

• Self-confident

• Tolerant of stress

• Willing to assume responsibility

Skills • Clever (intelligent) • Conceptually skilled • Creative • Diplomatic and tactful • Fluent in speaking • Knowledgeable about group task • Organised (administrative ability) • Persuasive • Socially skilled

Stogdill, 1974

Leadership Traits and Skills

Leaders will also use: Integrity, Honesty, Compassion, Humility

Individual consideration: leaders are

mentors and acknowledge that every

employee has his/her own needs and

abilities.

Intellectual stimulation: challenging

followers to rethink some of their

ideas and to take a different

perspective on work problems.

Hur, Van den Berg & Wilderom (2011)

+

Personal

Resources

Work

engagement

Job

Resources Creativity

+

Bakker & Xanthopoulou (2013)

Charisma

+

+ +

84 female school principals,

190 teachers

Leadership

Arnold Bakker

Leader-member exchange

LMX1

LMX2

LMX4

LMX5

LMXWork

Engagement

Job

Performance

V1-V3 A1-A3 D1-D3

J1

J2

J3

.07

Social

Support

S1 S3 S4S2

Developmental

Opportunities

.15**

*

.40***

.34***

D1 D3D2

Autonomy

A1 A3 A4A2

LMX3

.51***

.38***

.37**

*

.25***

Figure 2. The process model of leader-member exchange showing standardized estimates.

Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, Van den Heuvel (in press)

Arnold Bakker

How will You help Leaders to increase

Employee Work engagement?

5 minutes

Stand up and discuss with your neighbour

EXERCISE

Who is a Leader?

“A person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal”

Leaders carry out this process by

applying their leadership

knowledge and skills. This is

called Process Leadership

We know that we have traits that

can influence our actions. This is

called Trait Leadership

Arnold Bakker

Discuss examples you have come

across of strong & weak leadership

EXERCISE

Stand up and Discuss

with your neighbour

Who is a Leader?

“A person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal”

Great Man Theories

• Leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead

• Term 'man' was intentional - concept was primarily male, military and Western

Trait Theories

• Research on traits or qualities associated with leadership are numerous

• Traits are hard to measure. For example, how do we measure honesty or integrity?

Leadership Theory

Functional Leadership Theories (Adair, 1970; Action Centred Leadership)

Leader is concerned with 3 areas:

• Task – goal setting, methods and process

• Team – effective interaction/communication, clarify roles, team morale

• Individual – attention to behavior, feelings, coaching

Leadership Theory

Behaviorist Theories (Blake & Mouton, 1964, Managerial grid)

• Leaders’ behaviors / actions, rather than their traits and skills e.g. production-oriented or people-oriented

• Different leadership behaviors categorised as ‘leadership styles’ e.g. autocratic, persuasive, consultative, democratic

• Does not provide guide to effective leadership in different situations

Leadership Theory

Leadership Theory

Situational/contingency Leadership (Hersey-Blanchard, 1970/80) Leadership style changes according to the ‘situation’ and in response to the individuals being managed – their competency and motivation

Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1970/80)

Competency

Low competence

Some competence

High competence

High competence

Motivation

Low commitment/ Unable and unmotivated

Variable commitment/

Unable but motivated

Variable commitment/ Able but unmotivated

High commitment/ Able and motivated

Leadership style

DIRECTIVE Telling

COACHING Selling

SUPPORTIVE Participating

DELEGATORY Observing

Leadership Theory

Arnold Bakker

What are the key responsibilities

of the team leader?

EXERCISE

Discuss

in subgroups

1. Guide/coordinate team members – encourage teamwork and motivate individuals

2. Provide structure for team – set mission and purpose, clarify roles and responsibilities, allocate tasks and set objectives

Key Team Leader Responsibilities

3. Clarify working methods, practises and protocol

4. Focus on performance – anticipate challenges, monitor performance, delegate and provide CPD support

Key Team Leader Responsibilities

Transformational Leadership

PART 3

Transformational Theory (Bass & Avolio, 1994)

• Leaders inspire individuals, develop trust, and

encourage creativity and personal growth

• Individuals develop a sense of purpose to benefit the group, organisation or society. This goes beyond their own self-interests and an exchange of rewards or recognition for effort or loyalty.

New Leadership Theory

Bass (1999)

Transactional leaders motivate their

followers to fulfil their leaders’

expectations.

Transformational leaders motivate

their followers to perform beyond

what is expected of them.

4 i’s

Transformational Leadership

Bass (1999)

Idealized influence: followers identify

with their leaders and respect and

trust them.

Inspirational motivation: creating and

communicating an appealing vision of

the future and leaders’ own optimism

about this future.

JD-R model

+ +

Bakker & Demerouti (2008, 2014)

Personal

Resources

Performance Work

Engagement

Job

Resources

Job

Demands

+

+

Leadership Job

resources

Work

engagement Performance

Autonomy

Feedback

Opportunities for development

.69*** .50*** .22***

Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, Sleebos & Maduro (in press)

Dutch leaders and followers,

N=162

Leadership Job

resources

Work


Autonomy

Feedback

Opportunities for development

.69*** .50*** .22***

Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, Sleebos & Maduro (in press)

Need

satisfaction

.36* .41***

Arnold Bakker

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Daily scores

Leadership

Naval cadets, diary study

Breevaart, Bakker, Hetland, Demerouti et al. (2014)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Daily scores

Leadership Job Resources Engagement

Naval cadets, diary study

Breevaart, Bakker, Hetland, Demerouti et al. (2014)

Job Crafting

Job crafting is defined as the

changes individuals make in their

job demands and job resources

“Self-initiated change behaviors employees

engage in with the aim to align their jobs with their

own preferences, motives, and passions.”

Tims, M., & Bakker, A.B. (2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual

job redesign. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36, 1-9.

Leader-member

exchange Job

crafting

Work


Increasing job resources

Increasing job challenges

.51*** .40** .51***

Bakker (2015)

Chilean leaders and followers,

N=202

.24*

Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Derks (2015)

Dutch leaders and followers, weekly diary study

Transform

Leadership

Need for

Leadership

Work

engagement

Leader-rated

Performance

Self-

Leadership



Work

en

gagem

ent

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5

Low Transformational Leadership

High Transformational Leadership

Low NFL

High NFL



Work

en

gagem

ent

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

Low Self-Leadership High Self-Leadership

Low NFL

High NFL

Conclusions

• Transformational Leadership

attention for individual needs

• Provision of resources

• Contagion / Crossover

• Indirect effect on performance

• General and daily effects

Leadership and

Emotional Intelligence

PART 4

Goleman (1999)


“Noncognitive skills, capabilities, and

competencies that influence a person's

ability to succeed in coping with

environmental demands and pressures.”

EI dimensions

• Self-awareness

• Self-management

• Self-motivation

• Empathy

• Social skills

Goleman (1999)


“The ability to perceive and express

emotion, assimilate emotion in thought,

understand and reason with emotion,

and regulate emotion in self and others.”

Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso (2001)

Emotional

Intelligence

Managing emotions

Understanding

emotions

Assimilating emotion

in thought

Perceiving and

expressing emotions

4 classes of Abilities

Mayer & Salovey

Lowest level skill

Highest level skill

Ability vs. Beliefs

• Beliefs (Bar-on; Goleman; Schutte; Wong & Law)

self-reports, e.g. “I am a sensitive person”,

and “I am in touch with my feelings”

Ability vs. Beliefs

• Ability (Mayer & Salovey)

can be assessed most directly by asking

a person to solve emotional problems,

such as identifying the emotion in a story

or painting, and then evaluating the

person’s answer against criteria of

accuracy

Perceiving Emotions

perception and appraisal of emotion,

e.g., in a facial expression or artwork

Management of Emotions

e.g. knowing how to calm down after

feeling angry or being able to alleviate the

anxiety of another person.

Meta-analysis

Emotional intelligence, operational validity

for predicting performance

Employment .24

Academic .10

Other .24

Van Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004)

EI and Leadership

• Leadership success

– Leadership emergence

– Leadership effectiveness

(Lord, De Vader, & Alliger, 1986)

• Focus: How is EI related to leadership

emergence?

Côté (2006)

EI and Leadership emergence

• Mechanism 1: Emergent leaders are

socially perceptive (Chowdry &

Newcomb, 1952). EI helps individuals

perceive others’ goals, attitudes, and

interests.

EI and Leadership emergence

• Mechanism 2: Emotionally intelligent

individuals have the ability to generate

excitement about their goals and,

hence, influence others to pursue them.

Côté (2006)

EI and Leadership emergence:

Cross-Level Effect

• Emotional intelligence may exhibit a

stronger association with leadership

emergence in some contexts

• The context may be defined by peers’

personality traits – their neuroticism

• A group of neurotic peers constitutes a

more challenging social context than a

group of emotionally stable peers

Results

5

5,5

6

6,5

7

Low High

Peers Low in Emot Stability

Peers High in Emot Stability


Le

ad

ers

hip

em

erg

en

ce

Arnold Bakker

How do successful leaders

use their EQ?

EXERCISE

5 minutes

The Jekyll and Hyde of


Does emotional intelligence promote

behavior that strictly benefits the greater

good, or can it also advance interpersonal

deviance?

Study: Can emotion regulation knowledge

promote both prosocial and interpersonally

deviant behavior?

Côté, DeCelles, McCarthy, Van Kleef & Hideg (2011)



Prediction: emotion-regulation knowledge

strengthens the effects of other-oriented and

self-oriented personality traits on prosocial

behavior and interpersonal deviance,

respectively



Moral identity: how central being a moral

person is to a person’s self-concept (Aquino

& Reed, 2002).

Individuals with high moral identity should be

motivated to act prosocially to ensure that

their actions match how they view

themselves.

The Jekyll effect of


Hypothesis 1: there is a positive association

between moral identity and prosocial

behavior in a social dilemma.

This association is stronger among

individuals with high (vs. low) emotion-

regulation knowledge

Pro

socia

l B

eh

avio

r


Moral Identity



Machiavellianism: reflects mistrust in

human nature and a desire to manipulate

other people for personal gain, often at their

expense (Christie & Geis, 1970).

Machiavellians are motivated to assert their power

over other people and feel superior to them; they

are intransigent during bargaining, give orders, and

adopt leadership roles in groups (Wilson, Near, &

Miller, 1996).

The Hide effect of


Hypothesis 2: there is a positive association

between Machiavellianism and interpersonal

deviance.

This association is stronger among

individuals with high (vs. low) emotion-

regulation knowledge

Inte

rpe

rson

al D

evia

nce


Machiavellianism

Concluding Remarks

• Emotional Intelligence may be

crucial for leadership – people work

• Better measures needed

• Can we train EI?

• Cross-level designs needed

– General EI

– Daily social and emotional demands

Followership

PART 5

Job Crafting


physical and cognitive changes

individuals make in their task or

relational boundaries

Wrzesniewski & Dutton (2001)

Job Crafting


changes individuals make in their

job demands and job resources

“Self-initiated change behaviors employees

engage in with the aim to align their jobs with their

own preferences, motives, and passions.”

Tims, M., & Bakker, A.B. (2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual

job redesign. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36, 1-9.

Employees Chemical Plant,

N = 288

Job crafting

Δ Work

engagement

Δ Job

Resources

Tims, M., Bakker, A.B., & Derks, D. (2013). The impact of job crafting on job demands, job resources, and

well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18, 230-240.

Δ Job

satisfaction

.47

.46

.22

TIME 2 TIME 1-3 TIME 1-3

Hetland et al.’s overall model

+ Job crafting

Promotion

focus

Transform

leadership

+

Norwegian Knowledge workers N=109, N=545

Conclusions

PART 6

Leadership

www.arnoldbakker.com

PDFs, News, Contact

Arnold Bakker

Make a Leadership

Development Plan

EXERCISE

Emotion Management model

- + Performance

Coping,

Well-being

Emotional

Intelligence

Emotional

Demand

+

EI and Discrete Emotions

• ERM and Diary among Police officers

• 5 days out of 4 weeks

• Discrete emotions during (extreme)

event: Anger, Guilt, Joy, Proud

• Ability-based Emotional Intelligence

Gooty, Gavin, Ashkanasy, & Thomas (2014)

EI and Discrete Emotions

• Emotion-focused coping (EFC) as a

means to deal with the immediate

aftermath of the emotion.

• EFC requires the least amount of

cognitive resources and facilitates

performance by helping individuals to

meet their task demands.

Gooty, Gavin, Ashkanasy, & Thomas (2014)

Gooty et al.’s overall model

- +

Task

Performance

Emotion-

focused

coping

Emotional

Intelligence

Discrete

Emotion

+

Results

0,9

1,2

1,5

Low High

Low EI

High EI

Anger

Em

otio

n-f

ocused

Cop

ing

Results

0,9

1,2

1,5

Low High

Low EI

High EI

Guilt

Em

otio

n-f

ocused

Cop

ing

Results

0,9

1,2

1,5

Low High

Low EI

High EI

Joy

Em

otio

n-f

ocused

Cop

ing

leadership and employee work engagement · jd-r model + + bakker & demerouti (2008, 2014)...

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