lead article challenges of sustainable urbanization · ambitions likely to rewrite growth...
TRANSCRIPT
Challenges of Sustainable Urbanization
Photo: Sharif Rahman
Lead article
PPRC NewsletterIssue 4 - January 2017
Editor:HossainZillurRahman
Articlecontributionsfrom:HossainZillurRahman
Editorialteam:ShaerReaz
JoyantaKumarPaulAshikAdnanKanetaZillur
Website:www.pprcbd.org
Email:[email protected]
[email protected][email protected]
House77A,Road12A,DhanmondiR/A
Dhaka1209,Bangladesh
Tel:+880‐2‐8119207,9146618Fax:+880‐2‐8144379
Contributors
Contact us
www.facebook.com/pprcdhaka
Message from the Chairman
Howwill2016beremembered?Momentousonitsownorcurtain‐raiser on changes to come in the global order of things bothpolitical and economic? With President Trump about to beinaugurated, EU’s economic and ideological future in disarray,Middle East sinking into further chaos, China’s infrastructuralambitions likely to rewrite growth trajectories of the globaleconomy, Russia resurgent in the world of real politics, MDGstransitingtotheSDGsandBangladeshmid‐waythroughitscurrentparliamentaryterm,2016willsurelygodownasifnothingelseawatershedyear.
ForusatPPRC,thechallengewasoneofensuringrelevanceinchoiceofresearchissuesandadvocacyinitiativesinthemidstofsuchmulti‐dimensionalchanges.Wepursuedatwo‐prongedapproachtofulfillthisgoal‐one,tokeepourfocusgroundedingrass‐rootdynamics, and the other, to embrace key emerging agendas in national and globaldiscourses.TakingcuefromtheSDGthemeof‘leavingnoonebehind’,PPRCinpartnershipwithSEHDinitiatedamulti‐yearresearch‐advocacyprojectonmarginalizedandexcludedgroups. The big‐push has been on our urban and health agendas. Organizing theinternationalconferenceonurbanpovertyinSeptembercappedayearofresearchontheurbanspectrumandhaslaidthefoundationforthenextroundofPPRC’surbanresearchwhichwillbeontheeconomicsofurbanization.Onhealth,wehavebeenpreparingthenextroundofUHCadvocacywhichwilltakeofffromJanuary,2017.Adifferentmacrofocushasbeenapoliticaleconomylookatissuesofgovernance.Forourfocusonthegrass‐root,we are looking at coastal fishermen as well as on innovations in land and legalempowerment inthenortherndistricts.PPRCisalsoengagedonamulti‐yearprocessmonitoringofkeysafetynetprograms.Ontheadvocacyfront,PPRChasbeenakeypartnerinlaunchingacivicplatform‐SROTA‐onissuesofsaferoadsandtransport.TheseandotherspromisetomarkexcitingnewengagementforPPRCinthecomingyearandbeyond.
WhenPPRCwas founded20yearsago,ourmissionstatementread“ ...advancing thecausesofempowermentandresponsiblecitizenry,eliminationofpoverty,promotionofinnovationsandqualitypresenceinglobaldiscourses…”.Theseremainasrelevantaseverandwillcontinuetoguideourefforts.HappyNewYear!
HossainZillurRahman
Snapshots
Above: PPRC staff atwork.
Left: Newest memberofPPRCSecurityteam.
New faces at PPRC
Gazi Mizanur Rahman, retiredJ o i n t S e c r e t a r y t o t h e government, joins PPRC asProject Coordinator on SafetyNetSpotChecksProject.
Ashik Adnan joins PPRC as
ResearchAssociateintheurban
team.
Uchan Aoung joins PPRC asResearchOfficerontheExcludedand Marginalized GroupsProject, A EU‐funded projectimplemented in partnershipwithSEHD,CCDBandGBK.
StayupdatedwithPPRCbyfollowingHossainZillurRahmanonTwitter:@hossainzillur
NewUNDPCountryDirectorSudiptoMukerjeeandPPRCChairmandiscussing transformativeagenda forBangladeshon5November,2016.
People
Mike Robson, Country Representative, FAO impressed ussimultaneously being a ‘big picture’ thinker and a hands‐onprofessional.PPRCChairmanwithMikeathisfarewelleventatFAOcountryoffice.
Ambassador Liaquat Ali Choudhury, PPRCSeniorFellowwasacorememberoftheresearchteamonurbanspectrumstudy.Hesays“..rapidurbanization poses many challenges forBangladesh. PPRC is working on a verycomprehensive urban agenda for Bangladeshand hopefully in the future PPRC will makeimportantcontributioninthisarea.”
AMMNasiruddin,formerHealthSecretaryandPPRCSeniorFellow,isacorememberofthePPRCteamonhealthandinstitutionaltransformationissues.HeconductedthedistrictlevelworkshopsonlandandlegalempowermentprojectofBRACduring 8‐10 october at Rajshahi, Natore andNaogaonaspartoftheongoingPPRCstudyoftheBRAC'sPRIproject.
PPRC Chairman at Aga KhanNationalCouncilorganizedlaunchof M. Keshavjee’s book, Into thatHeavenofFreedomatJamatkhana,Bashundara R/A on 3 December,2016.
PPRC Events
SafetyNetSpotChecksprojectSigningCeremonyattheconferenceroomoftheDepartmentforDisasterManagementatMohakhalion10.02.2016.
LaunchoftheUHCConferenceProceedingsVolumeandPolicyDialogueon“HealthchallengesofSDGs:PathtoUHCinBangladesh”withtheHonourableMinisterofHealthandFamilyWelfare.MohammedNasim,MPandNationalProfessorBrig.(Rtd.)AbdulMalik.
Pre‐fieldworkorientationworkshoponsafetynetspotchecksRound2withSecretary,MoDMR,DGofDDMandDr.SalehuddinAhmedattheconferencehallofDDMon13thDecember,2016.
A.M.M.NasiruddinandPPRCteaminfielddialoguewithwomenstakeholdersinNatorefortheassessmentstudyonBRAC'sPropertyRightsInitiativeProject.
LaunchofthePolicyBriefoftheInternationalUrbanPovertyConferencesharedwiththeHonourableMinisterofPlanningAHMMustafaKamal,FCA,MP.
JointinitiativebyPPRC,SEHD,CCDBandJBKonmappingthe8milliondispersedandmarginalizedpopulationofBangladesh.
PPRC NewsInternational conference on urban poverty
CappingtheyearlongjointPPRC‐BBSurbandata‐baseempiricalwork,PPRCandBBSwithsupportfromTheWorldBankandUNDPorganizedaninternationalconferenceonurbanpovertyon24‐25September,2016inDhaka.Theconferencebroughttogetheranextraordinarilyrichcross‐sectionofexpertsandparticipantswithfromhomeandabroadtoreviewanalyticalperspectives,solutionprioritiesandwaysforward.Amongothers,AbdulMannan,MP,StateMinisterforFinanceandPlanning,ProfessorWahiduddinMahmud,WorldBankChiefEconomistforSouth
AsiaMartinRama,MingZhang,SectorManager,Urban,SouthAsia,WorldBank,ProfessorDavidHulme,GlobalDevelopmentInstitute,UniversityofManchester,ArchitectDr.AdnanMorshed,CatholicUniversityofUSA,WashingtonD.C.,NickBeresford,ActingCountryDirector,UNDP,ProfessorNazrulIslam,Chairman,CentreforUrbanStudies,NationalProfessorBrigadier(Retd.)AbdulMalek,Chairman,NationalHeartFoundation,Dr.ZafrullahChowdhury,Founder,GanoShasthayaKendra,ProfessorSekandarKhan,Vice‐Chancellor,EastDeltaUniversity,Dr.
SalehuddinAhmed,formerGovernor,BangladeshBank,EdouardBeigbeder,CountryRepresentative,UNICEF,MikeRobson,CountryRepresentative,FAO,Dr.KhairulIslam,CountryDirector,WaterAid,AbdulKarim,ManagingDirector,PKSFaswellassectoralexpertsandacademicsfromleadinggovernmentagencies,developmentpartnersandnationalresearchinstitutionsandNGO,CBOandlocalgovernmentleadersparticipated.APolicyBriefsummarizingkeyfindingsandmessageswassubsequentlysharedwithpolicy‐makers.
24-25 September, Dhaka
International conference on urban poverty
PPRC News
Capacity Building
PowerandParticipationResearchCentre(PPRC)andBangladeshBureauofStatistics(BBS)withsupportfromTheWorldBanklauncheda2‐daycapacity‐buildingworkshoponurbanresearchattheBBSauditoriuminAgargaon.PPRCandBBSarelong‐termpartnersindevelopingurbanstatisticsforBangladesh.TheworkshopfollowstherecentlyconcludedInternationalConferenceonUrbanPovertyhostedbyPPRCandBBS.Theworkshopwasaimedtotrainyoungresearchersfromuniversities,researchorganizations,NGOs,investigativejournalistsaswellmembersofPPRCandBBS.ProfessorWahiduddinMahmudwasthechiefguestattheinauguralsessionwhichincludedthepresenceofK.M.MozammelHoq,Secretary,StatisticsandMd.AbdulWazed,DG,BBS.PPRCchairmanHossainZillurRahmanprovidedthekeynoteaddress.The2‐dayworkshophadsixsessionsfocusedonnewadvancesinquantitativeandqualitativeresearchtechniques.
PPRC and BBS jointly organize capacity building workshop on research methodology for young professionals at BBS on 28-29 September, 2016
PPRC examines interface of governance, political development and economic
performance in UNDP supported study
Notwithstandingtherelativepoliticalcalmandstablemacroeconomicfundamentalsthatfollowedtheheightenedboutsofpoliticalviolenceandconflictsin2013and2015,Bangladeshcontinuestofinditchallengingtoovercomeanentrenchedsenseofpoliticaluncertaintythatisalsoimpactingonthequalityandpaceofitseconomicperformance.Atindependence,thedominantconcernwasabouttheeconomicfutureofthecountry.Overthecourseofforty‐fiveyears,thisconcernwassignificantlymitigatedasapoverty‐stricken,disaster‐pronevulnerableeconomyhasconfoundedobserversathomeandabroadalikeinscriptingaremarkablestoryofeconomictransformationandresilience.Progressineconomicdevelopment,however,wasnotmirroredinprogressinpoliticaldevelopment.Atindependence,politicshadseemedtomanyasthelesserchallenge.Inatwistofirony,itisdeficitsinpoliticaldevelopmenttodaythatappeartostandinthewayofanacceleratedrealizationofitstrueeconomicpotentialandthefoundationaldreamofaninclusive,humanesociety.Exploringtheseurgentthemes,PPRCwithsupportfromUNDPundertookanempiricalstudyduring2016.
PPRC and Municipal Association of Bangladesh sign MOU on joint initiative on healthy cities
AMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU)wassignedbetweenPowerandParticipationResearchCentre(PPRC)andMunicipalAssociationofBangladesh(MAB)forjointadvocacyatmunicipalissuesonissuesofmunicipalstrengthening,urbanresilience,urbanPoverty,urbanhealth,capacitybuildingetc.ActivitiesunderthisMOUarelikelytokick‐offinJanuary,2017underaprojecttitledPRERONA.
Human aspects of aquaculture/fishery sector
PPRCundertooktwosmallerstudiesfocusedonhumanaspectsofthegrowingaquaculture/fisherysector.Thefirstwason“EndEvaluationofComplianceofILOCoreLaborStandardsandtheBangladeshLaborAct,2006(theBLA)intheBangladeshShrimpandFishProcessingPlants(SFPPs)"fortheSolidarityCenter‐Bangladesh/AmericanCenterforInternationalLaborSolidaritySolidarityCenter.TheotherwasastudyonanIn‐depthReviewofthePowerStructureinHilsaValueChainLevelcommissionedbyWorldfishfortheECOFISH‐BDproject.ThisfollowsanearlierPPRCstudyonhilshafishermen.
At a glance
Above: PPRC Chairman Hossain ZillurRahman joins launch of BRAC’s UrbanInnovation Forum at the BangabandhuSheikh Mujibur Rahman Novo Theatreauditoriumon28October2016.
Left:ExecutiveChairman,PowerandParticipationResearchCentre(PPRC)delivering
lecturesatNDC,Dhaka.Dr.Rahmanisafrequentresource
personatNDC
Left:FoundationaltrainingworkshopforPPRCfieldteamsonspotchecksforprocessmonitoringof5majorsafetynetprogramsimplementedbyDDM
CertificateDistributiontoVolunteersofInternationalUrbanpovertyConferencefromUnitedInternationalUniversityatPPRC
DinnermeetingwithSecretary,SIDandDG,BBSonurbandata-baseandurbanpovertystatisticsproject,Dhamondi,17thAugust,2016.
Above:PPRCChairmanLaunchesNSU’s25YearsSouvenirVolume.
Upcoming
PPRC in discussion with UNDP for a research initiative on economics of urbanization
Aretheurbanpooronlyapublicpolicyconcernrelatedtothesocialprotectionagenda?Aretheyonlyamarginaleconomicsub‐sectorintheurbaneconomy?Oraretheyanintegralcomponentofanintegratedurbaneconomywheretheformalandinformalinterfaceinnecessaryandcomplexways?AretheurbanpoorsubsumedwithinalargerdiscourseofSMEthatcarriesthepotentialofbeingagrowthdriver?Toexplorethesecriticalquestions,PPRCisindiscussiontolaunchanewphaseofitsurbanworkthatwillincludeamongothersaground‐breakingconferenceontheInformalEconomy.
Dissemination event
on newly completed
research on Land
Conflicts, Property Rights
and Legal Empowerment
Adisseminationeventofthenewly
completedresearchonarapid
assessmentofBRAC'sPropertyRights
InitiativeProjectwillbeheldon17
January,2016attheBRACCentre.
PPRC to facilitate launch of
Healthy Bangladesh platform
FollowingtheinternationalconferenceonRealizingUHCGoalsinApril,2015,PPRC
andpartnershavebeenpursuingthepossibilityoflaunchingofamulti‐stakeholder
coalitiontocontributetothescalingupoftheUHCagendainBangladesh.This
platform,titledHEALTHYBANGLADESH,willbelaunchedinearly2017andwillfocus
onbothpolicyandgrass‐rootadvocacyonaholistichealthagendaincludingUHC.
PPRCisindialoguetopartnerUSAID‐supportedHFGprojectofAbtAssociatesona
districtdialogueseriesonUHCduring2017.
Challenges of Sustainable UrbanizationHossain Zillur Rahman
Urbanizationisacompellingandgrowingreality.ProjectionsindicatethaturbanpopulationinBangladeshwillrisetobetween91and102millionby2050whichwillbe44%oftotalpopulation.[1]Thescopeoftheurbanquestion,however,cannotbededucedsimplyfromtheprojectedsizeoftheurbanpopulation.Theerstwhilerural‐urbandivideisgivingwaytoarural‐urbancontinuum.[2]Farfrombeingadiscretecollectionofcitiesandtowns,urbanizationisalargertransformationalprocessimpactingonhownaturalresourcessuchaslandandwaterareutilized,howeconomicactivitiesareshaped,andevenhowlife‐stylesareimagined.Managedorignored,urbanizationthusrepresentsafar‐reachingparadigmshiftthatwillandindeedhascometodetermineoureconomicprospectsandthequalityofoursociallives.Whileurbanizationhascometobe
aninevitablefeatureofthedevelopmentprocess,boththepatternofandconsequencesof
urbanizationforindividualcountriesisnotagiven.UrbanizationinBangladeshismarkedbyitsowndistinctivefeatures.Fourstandout.Bangladeshisinmanywaysunique
inthatitprioritizedcityconnectingruralroadsi.e.theso‐calledfeederroads,wellbeforeitsurbanexpansion.[3]Basedontheserural‐to‐cityandcity‐to‐citylinkages,anurbanspectrumhasemergedwhereinurbancharacteristicsstretchrightfromthevillageallthewaythroughruralmarketcentres,ruraltowns,municipalities,districttownsuptothemetropolitanrealitiesofupscaleDhaka.Urbanaspirationsarenowdefiningevenrurallife‐styles.Aseconddistinctivefeatureisthe
contextofextremelandscarcity
withinwhichurbanizationistaking
place.Apopulationofover150
millionissqueezedwithinalandmass
ofonly144000sq.km.Notonlyis
averagedensityfortheentirecountry
high–1016persq.kmin2011and
expectedtodoubleby2050–
populationdensityinthecitiesis
considerablyhigherthoughitvaries
acrosstheurbanspectrum.Dhaka's
densitystandsatanastounding
49,182persq.km.(2011).
CorrespondingfigureforChittagong
CityCorporationis16,613persq.km.
(2011).Overall,urbanizationis
markedbyanintensecompetitionfor
landthat,intheabsenceofan
effectiveregimeoflandallocation,is
fuelingover‐crowding,urbanchaos
andslumgrowth.Thethirddistinctivefeatureishow
theurbanizationprocessinterfaceswiththeeconomicgrowthprocess.BothpopulationdensityandeconomicdensitymapsshowconcentrationofeconomicallysignificanturbangrowthalongsidekeytransportcorridorsmostnotablyDhaka‐ChittagongandlatterlyDhaka‐northwest,Dhaka‐north‐eastaswellasJessore‐Benapolebordercorridor.Under‐constructionPadmaBridgehasthepotentialofopeningafurtherDhaka‐southwestgrowthcorridor.
Urgency of the urban focus
ThefourthdistinctivefeatureoftheurbanizationprocessinBangladeshrelatestothedynamicsunderlyingDhaka'sgrowthasaprimatecity.Dhakahasalwaysbeenthe'first'cityofBangladeshbutitscontemporaryemergenceasaprimatecityisuniqueinthatthisprimacyhastoaconsiderableextentbeenpolicy‐induced,anoutcomeofextremecentralizationofauthorityanddecision‐making.Suchpolicy‐inducedprimacyisahistoricreversalofarelativelymoredecentralizedpast.Thepolicy‐inducedexaggeratedprimacyofDhakanotonlyimperilsDhaka'sownsustainableurbanfuturebutalsoservetoensurebelow‐
potentialgrowthofthemofussil.Cross‐countryexperiencesthus
showthatbeyondbeinganinevitablecorollaryofdevelopment,urbanizationcanholdbothpromiseandproblemsforacountry.Whichfeaturewillcometodominatewillverymuchdependonthenatureandefficacyofthecountry'spolicyengagementwiththeurbanagenda.AsBangladesh'sgoalshiftsupwardtowardsattainingahighmiddleincomestatus,theneedforbringingtheurbanagendaincludingtheurbanpovertyagendaintothepolicycentre‐stagethusbecomesmoreurgent.Atonelevel,urbanizationhas
generallybeenastronggrowthdriver
withpositiveimpactonpovertyreduction.Despitefallingpovertyrates,however,urbanpovertyremainshighat21%(2010).MorerecentestimatesfromthePPRC‐BBScity‐levelsurveysindicatesimilarpercentages.Ofequalconcernisthatrapidurbanizationhasmeantaspatialrelocationofpovertyfromruraltourbanareas:urbanshareoftotalpoorinBangladeshrosefrom10%in1991/92to18%in2010.[4]Notsurprisingly,therateofgrowthofslumpopulationhasbeenconsistentlyhigherthantherateofgrowthofurbanpopulationassuch.
Urban realities: The evidence from new data
Urbanincomerealitiesshowapronouncedvariationacrosstheurbanspectrum.Figure1summarizesdatafromanUNDP‐supportedGovernanceandEconomyStudyof2015[5]whichcollectedincomedataacrosstheurbanspectrumincludingrural.Thefindingshighlightadualreality:urbanincomesingeneralarehigherthanruralincomesbutwithintheurbanspectrum,thereisastrongmetropolitan‐mofussildivide.
AverageurbanincomesconcealsignificantdisparitiesandsuchdisparitiesaremostpronouncedinmetropolitanDhaka(Table1).ThelowestincomeclassenjoysaveragemonthlyincomebelowBDT8,000acrosstheentireurbanspectrum.Incontrast,thetop‐rankedincomeclassenjoysaveragemonthlyincomeofBDT284,088inDhaka(2012),BDT174,398inChittagong(2016)andBDT149,810insecondarycities
(2016).Therealityofincomedisparitiesis
furtherbroughtoutwhenonelooksattherespectiveincomesharesofeachincomeclass.SuchdisparitiesaremoststarkinDhaka.ThetopincomeclassinDhaka(2012)wascomprisedofonly5.4%ofhouseholdsbuttheyenjoyed39.9%ofallofDhaka'sincome.Incontrast,thebottom58.4%ofhouseholdsenjoyedanincomeshareofonly21%.
Therealityofincomedisparitiesisfurtherbroughtoutwhenonelooksattherespectiveincomesharesofeachincomeclass.SuchdisparitiesaremoststarkinDhaka.ThetopincomeclassinDhaka(2012)wascomprisedofonly5.4%ofhouseholdsbuttheyenjoyed39.9%ofallofDhaka'sincome.Incontrast,thebottom58.4%ofhouseholdsenjoyedanincomeshareofonly21%.
Income realities
Incomelevelsprovideoneglimpseintohouseholdrealitiesinurbancentres.Forafullerpictureofhouseholdwelfare,oneneedsalsotolookatqualityoflifeindicators(Table2).Incidenceofvulnerablehousing
whichincludesboththerelativelyinsignificantincidenceofjhupriandthemoresignificantkutchadwellingsrisesfrom5%inDhakacityto26%inChittagongcityand39.5%inthepourashavas.Thereis,however,astructuraldifferenceintermsof
housingtenure.Itappearsthatasonemovesfromthemofussiltometropolitancentre,thedominantmodeofhousingshiftsfromowner‐occupationtorentalhousing.Beyondtheissuesoftenureand
structure,qualityoflifeisalsodeterminedbyhousingadequacyandrentalsecurity.Table3describespercapitahousingspaceforvariouscategoriesofhousingacrosstheurbanspectrum.Twofindingsstandout.Percapitahousingspaceincreasesashousingstructure
improves–thisistrueacrosstheurbanspectrum.Secondly,percapitahousingspaceislowerinmetropolitancentrecomparedtothesecondarycities,afeaturethatistrueforallhousingtypes.Whatthisindicatesistheintensityofthecompetitionforlandinmetropolitancentresvis‐à‐vissecondarycitieswherebotheconomicgrowthandlandvaluesremainbelowthoseinthemetropolitancentre.
Quality of life
Withregardtosanitation,theimprovementisuniversalwithnon‐sanitarylatrine‐useaccountingforonly3%ofhouseholdsacrosstheurbanspectrum.Theemergingconcerniswithsharedlatrine‐use.Thisappearstoriseasonemovesfromthemofussiltothemoreland‐scarcerealitiesofmetropolitancentres.Ontheissueofgarbagedisposal,
indiscriminatethrowingofgarbagebyhouseholdsappearstobestronglyassociatedwithmofussillife.However,itisamootpointtowhatextentsuchbehaviorisreflectiveof
civicvaluesandtowhatextentoftheavailabilityofmunicipalservicesthatcanfacilitatemorehygienicbehavior.Withregardtoaccesstoutilities,
whileelectricityconnectionsarenearuniversal,keyconcernsarewithsupplyinterruptionsandtheaveragedailydurationofsuchinterruptions.Supplyinterruptionisnearuniversalacrosstheurbanspectrum.Thekeydifferenceemergingiswithregardtothedurationofinterruption.Dhaka'sdatarelatesto2012andotherevidenceindicatesnoteworthyimprovementinthecapitalcityinthisregard.However,bothinChittagong
andthepourashavas,thedurationofpoweroutagesremainapressingconcern.Onthequestionofaccesstopiped
watersupply,againitisDhakawhichappearstobeinthemostfavourablepositionwith96.5%havingaccess.Chittagong,despitebeingthesecond‐mostimportantcityinthecountrycansupplypipedwatertoonly59.2%ofhouseholds.Inthepourashavas,pipedwatersupplysystemremainsatanascentstagewithonlyafifthofhouseholdsbeingcovered.
Is urban poverty different?
A challenge of perspectives
Whiletherehavebeenaplethoraofstudiesandpoliciesonurbanization,someparadigmaticknowledgegapsremain.Thisisparticularlytrueforurbanpoverty.Bangladeshieconomistshavedoneacommendablejobofdeepeningunderstandingofruralpovertyandcontributingtothepolicyperspectivesthathaveovertheyearsproducedwell‐recognizedsuccessesinmitigatingsuchpoverty.However,whenitcomestourbanpoverty,thediscourseengagementhasbeensignificantlyweaker.Inpractice,therehasbeenatendencytoaddressurbanpovertythroughanuncriticalapplicationoftheruralpovertylens.Akeystrategicconcerniswhether
thetargetingparadigmthathasbeenbehindmanyofthesuccessesindealingwithruralpovertyhasthesamerelevancefordealingwithurbanpoverty.Thechallengehereinthefirststageoneofknowledgeanddiscoursegaps.Forexample,inDhakaandChittagong,astrikingnew
developmentistheprivatizationofslums.Theurbanpoorhavecometoconstitutealucrativehousingmarketforunscrupulousland‐grabbersandcorruptelementswithinthepolicyandadministrativeestablishmentswhoestablishinformalhousingsettlementsoftenondisputedpublicland.Thetypicaltargetingstrategiesthathaveworkedsowellindealingwithruralpovertyisreallyoffthemarkwhenitcomestodealingwiththesedifferentkindofvulnerabilities.Asecondcriticalgapisinthe
politicaleconomyunderstandingofurbandynamicsinparticulartheinterplayofinterestgroupsandjurisdictionalconflictsthatoftenunderpinpoorprogressonmanypolicyinitiativessuchaspublictransportation,low‐costhousing,urbanhealth,slumimprovementsaswellasmanynon‐structuralsolutionsrelatedtobehavioralnorms.Theknowledgegapsintheseareasservetoconferakindofdiscourseinvisibilitythatstandinthewayofa
morerobustcivicandpolicyengagementtoredresssuchgroundrealities.Urbanpooralsopresentseveral
policydilemmaswhoseresolutionrequirescarefulattentiontoarangeoffactors.Takethecaseofslumevictionsandoff‐cityresettlementplans.Therealproblemhereishowtopreservethefragileaccesspoorpeoplehavetotheadvantagesofferedbycities,principallyjobsandservicesessentialforsurvivalandupwardmobilitylikehealthandeducation.Livingincitiesisthebestself‐helpstrategypoorpeoplehavedevisedtoovercomepovertyandthereforegovernmentpolicieshavetobeginthinkingdifferentlyaboutthe“problem”ofinformalsettlements.Experiencehasshownthatnotonlydoresettledpopulationdriftbackinsearchofthejobopportunitiesincities,theinitialincentiveofferedtomoveoutactsasamagnetforattractingnewmigrants.
Urbanpooroftensufferfromarealityofbeing'illegalcitizens'withintheurbanscenariowithgreaterburdensofinsecurityandsocialdiscrimination.Forthesereasons,thereisaderivativeproblemofstatisticalinvisibilityfortheurbanpoorbecausepublicandprivatesectorstatisticalsystemstendtofavourthe'formal'andpreferresidentialidentityasthebasisforstatisticalinclusion.Thisispreciselythereasonwhytheinformaleconomy,despiteprovidingbyoneestimatebetween30and70%ofemployment,remainslargelyinvisibleinnationalstatistics.Overcomingthestatistical
invisibilityrepresentsbotharesearchandasocialchallenge.Socialandpolicymind‐setsoftenhavenegativeviewsontheoccupationalspacestheurbanpooroccupy.Itisthus
importantnotonlytomeasuretheurbanpoorbutalsotomakevisibleandgivelegitimacytothebroadsocialfacesoftheurbanpoor.Suchfacesmayincludestreetvendors,rickshaw‐pullers,low‐wageworkersinformalandinformalenterprises,pettyshop‐keepers,artisans,home‐basedworkers,domesticworkersetc.Theremaybeothercategoriesoftheurbanpoorwhodonotnecessarilysufferfromtheaboveproblemofstatisticalinvisibilitybutneverthelessmeritattention.Thesearelow‐salaryfixedincomeemployeesandlowermiddleclasseswhooftendonotqualifyforpolicyattentiononcurrentyardsticks.Asecondchallengewithregardto
thestatisticalinvisibilityoftheurbanpooristhecontinueduseofempiricalindicatorswhichmayhavebecome'outdated'vis‐à‐visrapidlytransformingurbanrealities.Takethe
caseofhousingstructure.InmetropolitanDhaka,thepoormaybelivinginfacilitieswhicharebetterinstructuraltermsi.e.brick‐and‐mortarinsteadofthatched,butintermsofpercapitaspace,rentalinsecurityandhousingcosts,theymaybeinnewvulnerabilitieswhichremainoutoffocusbecausetheindicator‐in‐usecontinuestobe'housingtype'.Otherexamplesofindicatorsthatmayhavebecome'outdated'areaccesstosanitationwheretheemergingconcerniswithregardtointensityoftheburdenofshared‐use.Similarly,withregardtoaccesstoutilitiessuchaselectricityandwater,'accesstoaconnection'isnolongeranadequateindicator.Itneedstobesupplementedwithnewindicators–incidenceofsupplyinterruptionsaswellasthedurationofsuchinterruptions.
Statistical invisibility and 'outdated' indicators
Aretheurbanpoorsaddledwithafaustianbargainofeconomicopportunitiesandsocialexclusion?Acredibleviewemergingoutofresearchisthatthemovefromruraltourbangenerallyprovidesanincomeboostforthepoorbutafterthisinitialupwardjump,incomerisewithintheurbanmilieumayoftenbeconsiderablymutedorslowerforthenewimmigrant.[6]Clearly,theeconomicopportunitymapfortheurbanpoorisconsiderablymoredynamicaswellasvulnerablecomparedtothatoftheruralpoorbutarguablysuchdynamicsareyettobeadequatelyfactoredintoresearchapproaches.Measuringtheurbanpoorishighlysensitivetothemethodologyused.Becausetheurbanpoorrelymoreheavilyoncashincometosecuretheirbasicneeds,income‐basedpovertymeasurestendtounderestimate
urbanpovertyincomparisonwiththosethatlookatmulti‐dimensionalindicesthatincludebesidesconsumptionotherdimensionssuchasaccesstobasicservicesandsocialvulnerabilities.Suchmulti‐dimensionalindicesincludei)greaterrelianceonthecasheconomy,ii)livelihoodsintheinformalsector,iii)overcrowdedlivingconditions,iv)frequentshiftofresidencev)environmentalhazards,vi)socialfragmentation,vii)exposuretocrimeandviolence,andviii)exposuretoaccidentsetc.Akeyresearchandpolicyconcernemanatingfromsuchmulti‐dimensionalindicesiswhethertheurbanpoorfacecontrastingrealitieswherebyaccesstoincomeopportunitiesdonoteasilytranslateintocommensurategainsinsocialpoverty.Availablestatisticsgivecredencetosuchconcerns:while
extremepovertyinurbanareaswasnearlyhalvedduring2000and2010,literacyratesremainedalmoststagnantoverthesameperiod.Aresuchcontrastingtrajectoriesinincomeandsocialpovertyaquestionoflaggedchangeoraretherestructuralbarriersandpolicybiasesthatengendersuchdifferentialoutcomes?Fromaninterventionistperspective,thisentailsalargerquestion,namely,whetherurbanpovertyismainlyaboutthepoorasatargetgrouporisitmoreaboutapolicyapproachtourbanizationthatprioritizesnarroweliteconcerns–whetheritisaboutspecificgrowthpoliciesortypesofserviceandinfrastructurepriorities‐attheexpenseofasustainableurbanizationprocessthatcanalsotranscendaconflictedrealityofeconomicopportunitiesandsocialexclusionfortheurbanpoor?[7]
Economic opportunities, social exclusion
Thenatureoftheriskprofilefacingtheurbanpoordiffersinmanyrespectsfromthatfacingtheruralpoor.Betterunderstandingofsuchdifferingriskprofilesisakeychallengeforurbanpovertyresearch.Risksmaystemfromuncertaintiesinthelabourmarket,tenureandresidentialinsecurities,disasters,institutionalinsecurities,uncertaintiesinaccesstobasicservicesaswellasexposuretocrime
andviolence.Whileuncertaintyisakeydimensionpartoftheurbanrealityforthepoor,theydonotacceptsuchuncertaintiespassively.[8]Theagencyofthepoorintheformofcopingstrategiestoaddressuncertaintiesandconstructstrategiesforupwardmobilityisakeystoryinurbanpoverty.Itisastorythathas,however,yettobebroughtfullyintoresearchfocus.[9]Understandingtheagencyofthe
urbanpoorisnotonlyaresearchandanalyticalprioritybutsuchagencycanbeakeyresourcewhenitcomestodesigningsolutionstospecificthematicconcernspertainingtourbanpoverty.[10]However,whenandhowsuchcopingstrategiescomeintoplayandwhatexpectationsandcalculationsunderlinethemisitselfacriticalareaofresearch.[11]
Uncertainty, coping and agency of the poor
Urbanizationisadistinctlydifferentiatedrealitywithametropolitan‐mofussildivideevidentonbothincomeandqualityoflifeindicators.Suchadivideisequally
realinthespecificitiesoftheurbancontextsandinthenatureoftheinterventionopportunitiesavailable.Whilefurtherunderstandingofwhattheurbanspectrumsignifiesfor
urbanpovertyisrequired,theneedforadifferentiatedagendavis‐à‐vismetropolitanDhakaandsecondarycitiesisalreadyindicatedbytheanalysiscurrentlyavailable.
The urban spectrum
Key learnings from the international conference on urban poverty, September, 2016
Incomelevelsmaybeanincompleteindicatorofthewell‐beingstatusoftheurbanpoor.Housingpoverty,burdenofsharedlatrine‐use,paucityofrequiredservicessuchaspublic
transportation,rentalinsecurity,poororuncertainaccesstoutilities,healthandeducationaswellasvariousformsofsocialvulnerabilitiesunderscorethenecessityof
embracingamulti‐dimensionalunderstandingofurbanpovertythatisspecifictourbancontexts.
Income gains versus well-being deficits
Akeymessagefromtheconferencewastheneedtoavoidexaminingurbanpovertythroughthelensofruralpoverty.Whiletherearesimilaritiesinthepovertyexperienceinurbanandruralcontexts,thedifferencesmayoftenbecritical.Inparticular,qualitativeanalysisofurbanpovertyalongsidethemore
familiarquantitativeanalysisisanunder‐addressedresearchfrontier.Themicro‐researchcommissionedbyPPRCfortheinternationalconferencerevealedanumberofinterestinginsightswhichunderscoredthepotentialofthisqualitativeresearchfocus.Asrepeatedlybroughtoutintheconference,urbanpovertyoften
suffersfromaproblemofbeingmis‐measuredi.e.conventionalmeasuresmissingoutoncriticaldimensions.Bringingurbanpovertyresearchintofocusisthusnotonlyameasurementchallengebutmoreimportantlyachallengeofbetterunderstanding.
Bringing urban poverty research into focus
Thestridentvisibilityofthepoorintheurbanlandscapecontrastssharplywiththestatisticalanddiscourseinvisibilityoftheurbanpoor.Policyreluctancestemmingfromafearofincentivizingmigration,elitistbiasoverurbanpolicyaswellasintellectualframeworksthatfailtocomeintogripswithkeyexperientialrealitiesofthepoorsuchasthe
informaleconomyoftencombinetopushtheissueurbanpovertytothemarginsofstatisticalandpolicyfocus.Breakingsuchvisibilitybarriersrequiresnotonlyresearchinitiativesbutalsoofbuildingunorthodoxnetworksthatbringstogetherresearchers,activists,sectoralexperts,urbanlocalgovernmentleaders,pro‐activepolicy‐makersand
representativesoftheurbanpoorthemselvesintocompellingadvocacyefforts.Theimportanceofsuchpolicyadvocacycanhardlybeover‐emphasizedbecausemoreoftenthannotpolicyreluctancetoengageonurbanpovertyismorethenormthantheexception.
Breaking the visibility barrier
Sincethe1980s,thetargetingapproachhasbeenfundamentaltoboththeunderstandingofpovertyandhowanti‐povertystrategieshavebeenfashioned.Itiseasytoadmitthatthisapproachhasyieldedrichdividendsintermsofreductionofpovertyparticularlyruralpoverty.Intheurbancontext,however,thisapproachpremisedon'household'and'community'asthe'targets'
presentfundamentalnewchallengesthatcallforstrategicre‐thinkingoftheapproach.Thisisparticularlytrueofmetropolitanrealitieswherethetraditionalconceptsofhouseholdandcommunityassocialunitsareincreasinglysubjecttonewerrealitiesoflocational,socialandlabourmarketfluiditythatnecessitatefundamentalre‐thinkingofsuchsocialconcepts.Thechallengehereisnotoneof
pushingsuchconceptsintodis‐usebutofdiscoveringthenewermeaningsthatcaninvestthemwithoperationalrelevance.Butoverandabovethis,thereisalsoachallengeofbringingintoinnovativeplaytheextra‐householdcontexts,themeso‐economyandthecityanintegratedreality.
Re-thinking the targeting approach
Bangladeshhasbeguntoaccumulateinnovativeexperiencesinhousingsolutionsinsecondarycitiesthatdrawoncommunityengagement,contextualizeddesignsolutionsandhousingfinancethatincorporatesrelevantfeaturesofthemicro‐financemodel.Suchexperienceshavelaidtheground‐workforapotentialbig‐
pushinthisarea.However,severalissuesmeritfurtherattention.TraditionalMFIsmaynotbeidealtobetheintermediaryorganizationsdrivingsuchaninitiative.Themicro‐financedisciplineonloandisbursementhastobeintegratedwithcommunitymobilizationapproachesrelevantforurban
settings.Therewillalsobeapremiuminintegratingdesignandland‐poolingideasthatcanelevateafinancingprojectintoalargerurbanupgradationinitiative.Finally,theimportanceofpromotingaconducivepolicysupportenvironmentamongbothnationalandmunicipalleaderscannotbeover‐emphasized.
Innovative housing solutions for secondary cities
Bangladesh'smarkedsuccessineliminatingopendefecationhasbroughtinitswakeanewchallengeoffaecalsludgemanagement.Rapidexpansionoflow‐costsanitarylatrineswithoutadequatelinkagetoanyfunctioningsewagenetworkiscreatinganewproblemoftoo‐quicklyfilleduplatrinesleadingstofecalspillontosurfacewaterandenvironmentalpollution.AsianWaterDevelopmentOutlookreport,2016hasdescribes
Bangladeshiriversasmostpolluted.EveninDhakawhichhaspipedsewagenetwork,only2%offecalloadistreated.Healthgainsofsanitationarethusgettingcompromisedbythisphenomenon.Aconcerteddriveonfecalsludgemanagementoffersapossiblesolutiontotheproblem.Thiswouldrequirei)lesson‐learningfrompilotexperiencesinsomemunicipalitiesii)adoptionofaprojectofscalebyDPHEwith
technicalsupportofKUET,BUETetc.iii)developmentofabusinessmodelonfecalsludgemanagementwithparticularattentiontopositiveexternalitiesandcreationofpublicgoodsiv)anindependentprojectfocusedonsecondarycitiesv)awarenessprogramonwastedisposalandrecyclingatcommunitylevelandvi)preparationandadoptionofaregulatoryframeworkonfecalsludgemanagement.
Urban sanitation: Faecal sludge management
Solution priorities
Therearethreeoutstandingsolutionprioritiespertainingtourbanhealthvis‐à‐vistheurbanpoor.Thefirsthastodowithinefficienciesinthedistributionofpublicsectorjurisdictionoverhealthcare.Thesecondrelatestotheburdenofhealthcareexpendituresontheurbanpoor.Thethirdrelatestobetterunderstandingoftheemergingepidemiologicalburdensontheurbanpoorandthesocio‐economicdeterminantsofsuchburdens.Theinstitutionalarchitectureofhealth‐servicedeliverydiffersstrikinglybetweenruralandurbanareas.Whilethereisacommonalityinthe
pluralisticpresenceofpublicandprivatesectorsinbothurbanandrural,distributionofpublicsectorhealthcarejurisdictiondifferssignificantlyincertainaspects.Intheruralareas,healthcareinfrastructureextendsfromtertiaryfacilitiesindistricttownsthroughsecondaryfacilitiesinupaziladowntoCommunityClinicsatthegrass‐rootlevel.Intheurbanareas,jurisdictionoverhealthservicedeliverywastraditionallybifurcatedwithmunicipalgovernmentsresponsibleforpublichealthandhealthministryresponsibleforsecondaryandtertiaryservices.Therewasan
overlaponthequestionofprimaryhealthcare:healthministryhadasmallnumberofdispensariesforthispurposewhilemunicipalgovernmentsalsohadsomejurisdictiononpaper.Overtime,rapidurbanizationwithitsattendantgrowthofurbanpoorrequiringprimaryhealthcareserviceshasposedamajorchallengetothistraditionaldistributionofhealthcarejurisdiction.Theinstitutionalresponsetothegrowingchallengehasbeentwofoldbothofwhichhavecontributedtoinefficientresource‐useandsub‐optimaloutcomes.Theministryoflocalgovernmentwhich
Urban health
hasjurisdictionovermunicipalgovernmentsadoptedadonor‐fundedurbanprimaryhealthcareprojectimplementedthroughNGOsthatmorphedintoanexclusivefocusonM&CHhealthservicestothedetrimentofotherprimaryhealth‐careneedsoftheurbanpoor.Thehealthministryontheotherhandhadalloweditsdispensariestofallintodis‐useleadingtotheurbanpoorover‐burdeningtertiaryfacilitiesfortheirprimaryhealthcareneeds.Theultimatevictimsofsuchajurisdictionallandscapearetheurbanpoorwhoarebothdeprivedoftheirprimaryhealthcareneedsandburdenedwithout‐of‐expensesinhavingtoaccesstoprivatesectorservices.Anurgentreviewaimedatovercomingtheabovejurisdictionalinefficienciesisapriority.[12]Keystepstoconsiderherearei)energizingthepublichealthmandates
ofmunicipalgovernmentsii)budgetaryboosttomodernizeandbringintousecurrentlynon‐functionalnetworkofurbandispensariesunderhealthministryiii)principleddialoguebetweenlocalgovernmentandhealthministriestophaseoutprojectapproachtourbanprimaryhealthcare(currentlylimitedtoM&CHservicesonly)iv)strengtheningthecurrentlyoccasionalsystemofGPsappointedundermunicipalbudgetsv)extendopeninghoursofgovernmentpharmaciestoeveninghourstoenableurbanpoortoavailofthesefacilitiesafterwork.Thesecondmajorareafor
correctiveactiononurbanhealthvis‐à‐vistheurbanpoorisinthereductionofout‐of‐pocketexpensesonhealthcare.Twoprioritiestoconsiderherearei)strengtheningthescopeandscaleoflowcostprogram
onessentialmedicines,inparticularmedicinesforchronicailmentsandii)awarenessprogramstodeterdelayedtreatmentwhichtypicallyresultsinmultipliedexpenditures.Viablehealthinsuranceprogramsareofcourseaperennialpriority.However,Bangladeshisyettomaketherequiredbreakthroughinthisarea.Besidesthesereformandprogram
priorities,thereisalsoaneedforhealthresearchthatprovidesbetterunderstandingoftheemergingepidemiologicalburdensontheurbanpoorandthesocio‐economicdeterminantsdrivingtheseburdens.Cost‐effectiveeffortsfromwithinthehealthsystemthatmakesinnovativeuseadministrativedata[13]canbeausefulsupplementtomoreformalresearchapproaches.[14]
Currentevidenceshowthatsocialprotectionprogramshasaproportionatelygreatercoverageoftheruralpoorcomparedtotheurbanpoor,afeaturemuchmorepronouncedforSouthAsia.[15]Giventhatabsolutenumberofurbanpooris
settorisedespitedeclineinoverallpovertyrates,thequestionofsocialprotectionforurbanareasisemergingasaconcern.Countrycontextsmatterhereasdoesunder‐currentsofpolicyskepticism.Itmaythusbeprematuretomovedirectly
intospecificprograminitiatives.However,theissuewillneedtobeaddressedsoonerorlater.Thepriorityatthisstageisawide‐rangingconsultativeprocessthatcanassessdemandandidentifythemostpromisingprogramentrypoints.
Urban social protection strategy
Asdistinctfromtargetedprogramsforsecondarycities,thepriorityforthemetropolitancentresofDhakaandChittagongareintegratedcitydevelopmentstrategiesthatcanpromoteaprocessofsustainableurbanizationandliveablecities.Inmanyways,institutionaldysfunctionisthedriveroftheburgeoningphenomenonofurbanpovertyparticularlyinmetropolitancentres.Overcomingsuchurbandysfunctionisarguablymoreimperativethan.targetedprogramsforparticular
slums.Therearethreeoutstanding
considerationsinthepreparationofsuchcitydevelopmentstrategies.Asdistinctfromthemasterplantradition,citydevelopmentstrategiesemphasizetheintegratednatureofthecityanditsmultiplerolesasalocationofeconomicgrowth,adynamichumansettlementandacomponentofanagglomerationeconomy.Asecondconsiderationistoanchorsuchstrategiesonawide‐rangingconsultativeprocessthat
includeskeystakeholdersincludingtheurbanpoor.Thethirdconsiderationistoidentifyamenuofinterventionsthattogetherconstituteastrategicpackageandthatiscommensuratewiththelikelyavailabilityofpoliticalcapital.Basedontheseconsiderations,fourthematicprioritiesneedtobeaddressed:institutionaldysfunction,transportnetworks,landmanagementandfinance.
Urban governance priorities: Institutional dysfunction, transport networks, land management and finance
[1]PopulationProjectionsofBangladesh:DynamicsandTrends2011‐2061,BangladeshBureauofStatistics(BBS),
2015.[2]HossainZillurRahman(ed),2016,TheUrbanSpectrum:MetropolitantoMofussil,PPRC,Dhaka[3]HossainZillurRahman,2010,30thby2030:Bangladesh:StrategyforAcceleratingInclusiveGrowth,PPRC&
DCCI,Dhaka[4]HouseholdIncomeandExpenditureSurveys,1991/92&2010,BangladeshBureauofStatistics(BBS)[5]HossainZillurRahman,Bangladesh2016:Politics,GovernanceandMiddleIncomeAspirations:Realitiesand
Challenges,PPRC/UNDP[6]YueLi&MartinRama,2015,HouseholdsorLocations:Cities,CatchmentAreasandProsperityinIndia,Policy
ResearchWorkingPaper7473,WorldBankGroup,EastAsia&ThePacificregion,OfficeoftheChiefEconomist[7]AdnanMorshed,2016,SpatialTrapsofUrbanPoverty,PresentationattheInternationalConferenceonUrban
Poverty,24‐25September,2016,CatholicUniversityofAmerica,WashingtonD.C.[8]KanetaZillur&FarhanaRazzaque,2016,Copingwithuncertainties:Trustdynamics,fluidnetworksandpoverty
traps,PresentationattheInternationalConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016,BIGD/PPRC[9]DavidHulme,2016,ClimateVariability,VulnerabilityandPoorPeopleinUrbanAreas,Presentationatthe
InternationalConferenceonUrbanPoverty,September,2016,GlobalDevelopmentInstitute,Universityof
Manchester[10]KhondakerHasibulKabir,2016,City‐widecommunityupgradinginJhenaidah,PresentationattheInternational
ConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016,JhenaidahPourashava&BRACUniversity;RukshanaParveen
Sweety,2016,CommunityHousingDevelopmentFund,PresentationattheInternationalConferenceonUrban
Poverty,24‐25September,2016,SirajganjMunicipality[11]MohammadSirajulIslam,2016,UrbanpoorandpoliticsinDhaka:Participation,autonomyanddividends,
PresentationattheInternationalConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016,BIGD/PPRC[12]A.M.M.Nasiruddin,UrbanHealth:Issues,ChallengesandWayForward,PresentationattheInternational
ConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016,PPRC[13]ProfessorTahminaBanu,DiseaseBurdenofTheUrbanPoor:Dimensions,SocialDeterminants&Economic
Consequences‐InsightsfromaSurveillanceInitiativeinChittagongMedicalCollegeHospital,Presentationatthe
InternationalConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016,CMCH[14]SohanaShafique,Redefiningprimaryhealthcaretoattainmaximumcoverageamongtheurbanpoor:
innovativesolutionsfromBangladesh,PresentationattheInternationalConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25
September,2016,ICDDR,B[15]UgoGentilini,Socialprotectioninurbanareas:Emergingevidenceandlessonsfromglobalexperience,
PresentationattheInternationalConferenceonUrbanPoverty,24‐25September,2016