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The 21 February 2005, catastrophic wasteavalanche at Leuwigajah dumpsite, Bandung,IndonesiaF r a n ck L a v ig n e1*, P a t r ic k W a s sm e r2,3, C h r i st o p h e r G o m e z3, T h i m o t y A D a v i e s4, D a na n g S r i H a dm o ko5,

T Yan W M Iskandarsyah2, J C G a i l l a r d6, M o n i q u e F o r t7, P a ul i ne T e xi e r8, M a t h i a s B o u n H e n g1

a n d I n d y o P r a t om o9

Abstract

Background: O n 2 1 F e br u ar y 2 0 05 t h e L e u w ig a ja h d u mp s it e , B a nd u ng ( J av a , I n do ne s ia ) w a s a f f e ct e d b y a l a rg es l id e a f te r h e av y r a in f al l s. S e co n d d e ad l ie s t w a st e s l id e i n h i st o ry , i t b u ri e d 7 1 h o us e s a n d k i ll e d 1 43 p e op l e.

A m on g st t h e c o nt e mp o ra r y d i sa s tr o us e v en t s o f t h is t y pe , o nl y a f e w h a ve b e en d o cu m en t ed . W e e x pl o re d f a il u re

p r e c on d i t io n s , t r i g g e r in g m e c ha n i s ms a n d l o c a l c o n te x t t h a t c o n du c t e d t o t h i s d i s a s t e r. W e c a r r i ed o n f o u r f i e l d

i n v e st i g a t io n s o n t h e s i t e . A s e r i es o f a e r i al p h o t og r a p h s w e r e a c q u i r e d a n d c o m p le t e d b y t o p o gr a p h ic a l m e a s ur e s

o n t h e g r ou n d. T h e m o rp h ol o gy o f t h e s l id e a n d i t s t r aj e ct o ry w er e r e co ns t ru c te d . T o c o ns t ra i n t h e m o ve m en t

c o nd i ti o n, w e s t ud i ed t h e i n te r na l s t ru c tu r e o f t h e s o ur c e a r ea a n d r e al i ze d s u rv e ys a m on g s t ak e ho l de r s o f t h e

d u m p si t e a n d c i t i z en .

Results: 2 . 7 1 0 6 m3 o f w a s t e m a t e ri a ls s p re a d 1 0 0 0 m f r om t h e s o u rc e i n a r i ce f i el d w i th a n a v er a ge t h ic k ne s s o f

1 0 m . T h e m a t e r i a l d i s p l a y s a p r e f er e n t ia l f a b r ic p a r a l le l t o t h e p r e v i o u s t o p o g r ap h y . N u m e r o us i n t e rn a l s l i p s u r fa c e s ,

u n de r li n ed b y p l as t ic b a gs e x pl a in t h e l o w f r ic t io n c o ef f ic i en t . T h e p r es e nc e o f m e th a ne w i th i n t h e w a st e d u mp

w a s r e sp o ns i bl e f o r e x pl o si o ns p r io r t o s l id i ng a n d f o r t h e f i r e t h at a f fe c ts w ho l e s l id i ng m a ss .

Conclusions: R e s ul t in g o f a c o mb i na t io n o f h e av y r a in f al l a n d c o ns e cu t iv e e x pl o si o ns d u e t o b i og a s s u dd e nr e l e as e , t h i s d i s a st e r w a s p r e d ic t a b l e i n r e a s on o f

i ) a f ro nt s lo pe o f t h e d u m p o f a bo ut 1 00 % b e f or e t h e f ai lu re ;

i i ) a p o or d u mp s it e m a na g em en t ;

i i i) t h e e x t r em e v u ln e ra b il i ty o f t h e m a r g in a li z ed s c av e ng e rs l i vi n g a t r i sk a t t h e f o o t o f t h e i n s t ab l e d u mp .

Keywords: Dump-slide; Waste instabilitytriggering factors; Waste management; Precondition factors; Bandung; Indonesia

BackgroundA landfill site or dumpsite is a site for the disposal of waste

materials by burial. Although progressively replaced byalternative methods like incineration, this technique

remains very common around the world, especially in

developing countries. Stability of landfills is one of the

major geotechnical issues in landfill management. Despite

a wide range of industrial hazardous accidents that have

occurred worldwide in and around the vicinity of dump-

sites, only a handful of contemporary disastrous solid

wasteslides or

waste avalanches have been docu-

mented. Such events have occurred in western post-

industrial countries (e.g. in Kettleman, California, in 1988,

Cincinnati, Ohio and Coru?a, Spain in 1996, or Athens

in 2003), but it is only in developing countries that they

have led to major disasters: the deadliest event of this

type killed 278 people in Payatas in the vicinity of

Manila, Philippines in 2000 (Bernardo 2004; Merry et al.

* Correspondence: fra nck. la v igne@ univ -pa ris1. fr1U M R 8 5 9 1 L a b o r a t o ir e d e Go g r ap h i e P h y s iq u e , P a r i s 1 P a nthon

S o r b o nn e U n i v er s i t y, M e u d on , F r a n ce

F u ll l i st o f a u th o r i n f o rm a ti o n i s a v ai l ab l e a t t h e e n d o f t h e a r t i cl e

2 0 1 4 L a v i g ne e t a l . ; l i c e n s e e S p r i n g e r. T h i s i s a n O p e n A c c e s s a r t i c l e d i s t r i b ut e d u n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e C r e a t iv e C o m m o n sA t t r i b ut i o n L i c e n s e (http://cr ea tiv ecommons.or g/licenses/by/4.0 ) , w h i c h p e r m i t s u n r e s t r i c t e d u s e , d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d r e p r o du c t i o ni n a n y m e d i u m, p r o v i de d t h e o r i g i n al w o r k i s p r o p e rl y c r e d i t e d .

Lavigne et al. Geoenvironmental Disasters 2014,1:10

http://www.geoenvironmental-disasters.com/content/1/1/10
mailto:[email protected]://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0mailto:[email protected]


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2005; Palaypayon and Ohta, 2007; Gaillard and Cadag

2009). Among these disasters, the second deadliest

event in history took place on 21 February 2005 at

02.00 am at the Leuwigajah dumpsite, in the vicinity

of Bandung city, Java, Indonesia (Figure 1). The waste

slide buried 71 houses and killed 143 people.

For landslide analysis, precondition factors are gen-

erally related to slope, lithology, geological structure,

and soil. In a municipal dumpsite, the conditions that

govern the landfill stability are more difficult to assess.

Shear strength of the municipal solid waste is a func-

tion of many factors such as waste type, composition,

compaction, daily cover, moisture conditions, age, de-

composition, overburden pressure, etc. (Huvaj-Sarihan,

and Stark 2008; Stark et al. 2000; Bray et al. 2009). In

addition, the triggering factors of waste slides are

more complex than for landslide initiation, due to fre-

quent explosions in the dumpsites. The motion pro-cesses of the waste avalanches are also complex and

poorly known.

Focusing on the 2005 Leuwigajah disaster, the present

contribution aims to present: (1) the factors of the fail-

ure; (2) the reconstruction of the motion mechanism of

the waste slide; (3) the identification of the underlying

causes of the disaster.

Waste management operation activities in theLeuwigajah dumpsiteThe total amount of waste generation in Indonesia is es-

timated at about 39 million t/year (Yachiyo Engineering

Co. 2009). To better understand the context of waste

management of large cities in Java Island, the Figure 1

illustrates the waste management operation activities in

Jakarta (Texier2009; Pasang et al.2007). Before reaching

the final disposal site (TPA), the garbage is the object of

a series of transitional processes (Figure 2). Solid waste

management strongly depends on the availability of land

to be used as TPA.

For decades, several dumpsites have operated in

Bandung Metropolitan area, which has approximately 6

million inhabitants. In 2005, solid waste generation in

this region exceeded 14,000 m3 per day (Sundana2005),

of which more than half was generated within Bandung

city. Household activities produced the highest volumeof waste (7700 m3 per day), followed by industrial waste

(3200 m3 per day) and public facilities (1400 m3 per

day). Out of the whole volume of waste produced in the

metropolitan area, only 46% was collected (Sundana

2005). Most of the uncollected waste was dumped in the

rivers (mainly the Citarum River), burned by the popula-

tion or buried in the backyard.

Figure 1Location of the 21 February 2005 waste avalanche at Leuwigajah, Bandung, in Java Island. H i g h - re s o l ut i o n s a t e l l i te i m a g e a s o f

3 A u g us t 2 0 0 6 ( s o ur c e : G o og l e E ar t h ).

Lavigne et al. Geoenvironmental Disasters 2014,1:10 Page 2 of 12



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In 1982, the local administration of the city of Bandung

chose the small valley-head of Leuwigajah, a neighborhood

of Cimahi, to locate the largest waste disposal for the

urban centre. The geological setting consists of volcanic

rock (mainly andesite) covered by a thin layer (1 m) of silt

or clay material. Before the dumpsite was set up in 1987,

small water streams ran through the small valley, mainly

during the wet season from October to April. The dump-

site was operated by three different authorities: the City ofBandung, the District of Bandung, and the City of Cimahi.

More than 4500 t (or 750 m3) municipal solid waste per

day were delivered daily to this dumpsite before the disas-

ter occurred. About 50% of the inhabitants of the two vil-

lages located downslope (Leuwigajah and Batujajar) were

working on the dump. With a metal hook in one hand

and a plastic bag in the other, they methodically rum-

maged for reusable waste on the deposit from morning to

evening. It is within this context of ill-management that

the 21 February 2005 part of the mount created by the

garbage slid down.

MethodsA few months after the disaster, our international team

carried out a first field survey, which was followed by

three field surveys between 2005 and 2007. The field

surveys have combined a variety of geological and geo-

graphical techniques. At the deposit scale, a series of

aerial photographs acquired by Ultra-Light Motorized

(ULM) three days after the disaster by the Department

of Engineering Geology of the Institute of Technologyof Bandung (ITB) provided data of the length, width,

and surface of the waste slide deposit. At a meter to

sub-meter scale, we completed the 2D planar data with

vertical measures - like the height of the scarp - that we

measured using a handheld laser range finder (LaserAce

300). Using a compass, we defined the orientations of

the sliding surfaces of the plastic waste and the orienta-

tions of the deposits. The compilation of the orientation

data, revealed the direction of the waste during motion.

Based on this dataset, we used traditional methods of

landslide deposits, in order to understand the complex

Figure 2Waste management operation activities in Jakarta (source: Texier,2009, modified).




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transport mechanisms. Field investigation was carried out

in the medial part of the deposit where the material had

not been disturbed after the event, i.e. upstream from the

location of the buried villages. However, heterogeneous

waste composition (Figure 3), obstacles in determining

waste strength parameters, and a lack of knowledge about

the principles of waste mechanics result in considerable

uncertainties in stability calculations. Therefore such

calculations were not considered in this study.

Interviews were aimed at obtaining a better under-

standing of the dumpsite management and the disaster s

phenomenology. Key respondents included the chief of

the Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazards

Mitigation, the dumpsite security guard, the staff of the

administration in charge of the landfill management,

and others. Other interviews were conducted with eye-

witnesses of the event, including scavengers and inhabi-

tants of the buried villages. Collected data includedinformation about the number of explosions, the direc-

tion of the surges, and the timing of the waste avalanche.

In addition to the field investigations, additional second-

ary data were compiled from different sources on waste

cohesion and internal friction angle of the deposit

(Koelsch et al. 2005), and gas content within the landfill

(P.T. Perusahaan Gas Negara and Perusahaan Daerah

Kebersihan Kota Bandung2000).

ResultsAnalysis of waste deposits: a key to reconstruct the waste

avalanche dynamicsMorphometry of the waste deposits

Five months after the February 2005 disaster, the up-

stream part of the dumpsite displays a 10 m-high scarp

cutting the waste accumulation (Figure 4). At the base

of the scarp, the waste deposits are very thin or absent

because they have been washed away during the 2005

event. The Figure 4 clearly shows that the gradient of

the natural slope was very high, in the order of 45?.

The whole mass of waste spread 1000 m from the

source and covered a 180 340 m wide strip in the rice

fields (Figure5), with an average thickness of about 10 m,

although the thickness varied greatly. The overall volume

of the displaced waste was initially estimated at 1 ? 10 6 m3

(Sub-Direktorat Mitigasi Bencana Geologi 2005), before

being reviewed from 2.7 ? 10 6 m3 (Koelsch et al.2005) to

3.5 ? 10 6 m3 (Yachiyo Engineering Co.2009). The morph-

ology of the deposit is similar to an alluvial fan, but with

margins characterized by steep slopes with lateral ridges.

Structure and composition of the waste deposits

The deposit s structure displays different waste layers,

which correspond to independent units. Washed by the

rain, plastic bags constitute the main part of the material

within the upper layers of the dump mass. Most of thismaterial was found burnt due to the gas release, as were

the bodies of the victims.

Below the surface, the layers comprise plastic bags

remnants mixed with soil and a fine-grained matrix of

decomposed organic garbage. Other materials found

within the deposits were plastic pieces, stones, pieces of

wood, metallic material etc. The main part of the deposit

displays a finely foliated structure generally underlain by

remainders of plastic bags. All the material shows a pref-

erential fabric rather parallel to the previous topography.

Outcrops conform to the displacement direction are

showing undulating discontinuities that delimit 5 to30 cm thick stratified layers (Figure6).

Reconstruction of the waste avalanche dynamics

The independent layers of the waste deposit suggest that

during the motion, basal layers stopped while upper

layers were still moving, so the stationary base rose in-

crementally, increasing the deposit volume. The undulat-

ing discontinuities seem to correspond to friction

surfaces between the layers. The morphology of the de-

posit, similar to an alluvial fan with steep slopes margins,

also suggests that the movement could have been a flow.

Therefore it is assumed that the movement can be lik-

ened to a debris avalanche, beginning by sliding thenevolving to a flow. It seems that the movement was

rapid; people had no time to escape although shelter was

only 100 m away. Most of the victims were found in

groups inside their houses.

In order to compare motion characteristics of the

waste avalanche to the one of the debris avalanches, the

effective friction angle of the material can be estimated.

As the distance from the source to the rice fields is

1000 m and the difference of elevation between the scar

and the distal part of the deposit is ~100 m, the H/L

ratio is 0.1. This low coefficient indicates an efficient

Figure 3Sampling of the waste deposits (photo: F. Lavigne,

February 2007).




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internal friction reduction at the base or within the mov-

ing mass. In the case of the Leuwigajah waste avalanche,

it is assumed that the high content of plastic bags was

responsible for the internal friction reduction as men-

tioned above.

Origins of the waste slide

Precondition factors of the failureThe procedure for waste disposal was initially regulated

(control landfill), however it progressively evolved to an

uncontrolled open dump without any regulation (P.T.

Perusahaan Gas Negara and Perusahaan Daerah Kebersihan

Kota Bandung2000).

The great heterogeneity of the waste material, mainly

comprising a mixture of plastic bags, pieces of clothes,

metallic debris, wood, fine-grained material of organic

origin etc. make it difficult to sample the undisturbed

material (Figure 3). Therefore, we did not calculate the

key parameters for slope stability analysis such as cohe-

sion or internal friction angle.

In the months preceding the 2005 disaster, fires havebeen reported at the Leuwigajah dump site. Eyewitnesses

reported that the waste mass was on fire while moving.

Fires may have spread quickly because the landfill con-

tained highly flammable combustible material. All the

bodies of the victims were burnt, and the studied mater-

ial was rather deeply charred. Where fires burn quan-

tities of flammable organic materials, such as plastics,

temperatures may be very high in the burning zone. This

can then ignite methane in the presence of the oxygen

(Woodward 1997). Deep-seated fires are found at depth

in material deposited weeks, months, or years earlier.

The common cause of deep-seated fires is an increase in

the oxygen level within the landfill, which increases aer-

obic bacterial activity causing a temperature rise. Deep-

seated fires have the potential to: (i) create large voids,

invisible from the surface, which can cause cracking

and subsidence of the landfill surface; and (ii) produce

flammable and toxic gasses, e.g. carbon monoxide, a

toxic gas extremely flammable. It is flammable whenmixed with air at concentrations between 12% and 75%

(Woodward1997).

An additional factor contributing to the waste slide

was the natural instability of the hillslope at the dump-

site. Geologically, the bedrock of the dumpsite is welded

volcanic materials (i.e. andesitic volcanic breccia and

grain-supported breccia) covered by a thin layer of silt

or clay soil. These parent slope materials have a rela-

tively low permeability. Therefore they prevented drain-

age and acted as a slip surface for the overlying waste

materials that were saturated by infiltrating rainwater.

After the 21 February 2005 event, small shallow land-

slides were identified in the weathered pyroclastic materialalong the scarp. These landslides were probably triggered

by the release of the pressure applied by the dump mater-

ial on the valley walls in the immediate aftermath of the

event.

Triggering factors of the failure

The analysis of the deposit and the interviews have lead

to the identification of two direct triggering factors for

the waste slide initiation:

(1) Explosion due to sudden biogas release has been

identified as the main factor that has triggered the waste

Figure 4Scarp of the dumpsite after the February 2005 disaster. I n t h e f o r e g r o un d , a s c a v e ng e r c a r r y i n g r e u s a b l e m a t e r i al f r o m t h e

d u m ps i t e. I n t h e b a c kg r o un d , t h e s t e e p n a t u r al s l o p e i n b r o w n c o l or ( p h ot o : F . L a v i g ne , J u l y 2 0 0 5 ) .




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slide. People living in Leuwigajah and Batujajar heard

three almost simultaneous explosion-like sounds a few

minutes before the slide. They all insisted that the sound

was muffled and seemed to come from deep in the

ground. A survey in February 2000 in the Leuwigajah

dumpsite indicated a CH4content of 2.3% per volume of

gas at a 2 m depth, and almost 5% at a 4 m depth (P.T.

Perusahaan Gas Negara and Perusahaan Daerah Kebersihan

Kota Bandung2000). It can be assumed that the CH4con-

centration would have been higher than these values at

higher depths. Yet explosion in a dump site may occur if

the proportion of CH4 in the air ranges from 5% to 15%

(Esmaili 1975). Above 15%, the biogas ignites but doesn t

explode. The explosion hazard was therefore implicit a

few years before the 2005 disaster.

The explosions may have resulted from three factors re-

lated to the deep-seated fires described above (see 4.2.1).:

(i) build-up of landfill gas in enclosed spaces, (ii) ignition

of flammable (e.g. plastic bags) or explosive material de-

posited in the landfill, and (iii) bursting of sealed drums,

cans, aerosol containers or gas bottles deposited in the

landfill.

Figure 5Deposits of the 21 May 2005 waste avalanche at Leuwigajah. (a) A e r i al v i e w o n 3 A u g us t 2 0 0 6 ( s o ur c e : G o o g l eE a r t h) .

(b) L o n g i tu d i na l p r o fi l e . D o t te d a r e a : r e g ol i t h a n d s o i l; (c) P i c tu r e o f s o l id w a s t e d e p o s i ts o v e r la p p i ng r i c e f i e l d s . N o t i c e t h e s m o ke e m i s si o n s

a t t es t i ng p e r m an e n t d e e p c o mb u s ti o n ( p h o t o : F . L a v i gn e , 2 2 J u l y 2 0 0 5 ) .




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The explosion would have caused a substantial dis-

turbance (quick increase in shear stress or decrease in

shear strength) of the saturated waste material. This sce-

nario is also supported by pieces of plastic bags still in

place along the post-disaster scarp of the dump (Figure 7)

displaying some horizontal orientations (mostly from

N196? to N238?), i.e. parallel to the contour line.

(2) The second triggering factor is meteorological.

Three days of heavy rainfall (over 80 mm per day) prior

to the failure increased the weight of the waste and the

pore-water pressure in the soft subsoil. Water was re-ported seeping from under the dump three hours before

the slide, seeming to indicate that at that time the de-

posit was saturated. Hence a sudden rise of pressure

could be at the origin of both the muffled noise and

destabilization of the dump mass. However, it remains

unclear whether the explosion led to the slope failure or

if the failure, allowing oxygen to reach the combustion

zone, triggered the explosion.

DiscussionAn unusual combination of triggering processes

The triggering mechanisms of the waste collapse com-

bined water saturation of the waste deposit, water

vaporization, and explosion although these triggers are

usually distinct. Thus most of the failures in dump sites

relates to heavy rainfall, e.g. the 10 July 2000 disaster at

Payatas, the largest dumpsite of Manila city, which oc-

curred following the occurrence of two typhoons. How-

ever, waste slides may be also generated without rain, by,

either increasing of pore water pressure due to leachate

circulation, e.g. during the 8 September 2006 waste slide

at the Bantar Gebang dumpsite (Bekasi, Jakarta), or by

explosion, e.g. in 1993 at Gembloux, Belgium, or in 1995

at Skellingsted, Denmark (Kjeldsen and Fisher1995).

Difficulties and attempts to assess dump instability

Whatever the triggering processes, disasters related to

waste avalanche always occur in critical or unstable

dumpsites. However, geotechnical data are usually poorly

documented due to the difficulty of sampling undis-

turbed waste deposits (Figure3), which are typically het-

erogeneous and very fibrous (Stark et al. 2000). Besides,

the properties of the waste fill layer are difficult to meas-

ure by laboratory or field tests due to their heterogen-

eity. In addition, the physical and chemical properties of

the deposits rapidly evolve over time due to the changeof waste thickness and to the progressive waste decom-

position (Blight and Fourie2005). Lastly, the pore water

pressure also varies over time within the waste deposits,

as shown at the Do?a Juana dumpsite in Bogota by

Caicedo et al. (2002). Nevertheless, stability calculations

have been carried out. The main parameters influencing

the factor of safety were calculated using conventional

methods used in soil mechanics: at Payatas and Do?a

Juana dumpsites (Table 1), cohesion values (C) of about

2 tons/m2 were obtained, and the internal friction angle

() ranged from 23 to 28? (Merry et al. 2005, GeoSyntec

Consultants 1998). However, the geotechnical character-

istics of waste deposits led other researchers to use morespecific methods, more adapted to stability calculation

on landfills. For example, the calculation method used

by Koelsch (1996) considers the reinforcement effect,

which is generated by tensile forces in fibres and foils.

The mobilization of tensile forces depends on the nor-

mal stress on the fibres. Tensile stress and normal stress

are related by a linear function, which is mathematically

described by the internal angle of tensile stress . The

component of shear strength which is created by tensile

forces is called fibrous cohesion (Bray et al. 2009). The

fibrous cohesion is calculated from the internal angle of

Figure 6Internal structure of the deposit showing undulating

discontinuities and foliated layers (photo: P. Wassmer, February

2007).

Figure 7Pieces of plastic bags displaying horizontal orientations

along the post-disaster scarp of the dump (Photo: F. Lavigne,

July 2005).




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tensile stress , the normal stress , a transmission factorand a function considering the anisotropy (direction be-

tween the fibres and the shear plane). This method was

used at Leuwigajah for a stability calculation conducted

by Koelsch et al. (2005). A situation has been modeled

without landfill fire. The overall stability amounted to

= 1.13. A second modeling showed that the rein-

forcement particles in the upper part of the landfill

were destroyed due to a smouldering landfill fire which

burned over one month combusting waste particles like

plastic fibres and foils. It was assumed that all tensile

strength has been lost. Overall stability reduced from

1.13 to 1.00. Therefore the dumpsite became unstable.

Provided a proper construction and an appropriate op-eration, the landfill would not have faced any stability

problems. According to Koelsch and Ziehmann (2004),

landfill operators should follow two basic rules: to pro-

tect holding forces, and to reduce driving forces. Sug-

gested operating measures are: (1) good compaction to

reduce water percolation; (2) homogeneous permeabil-

ity and efficient drainage system to prevent improper

water balance; (3) forecast of the changes in waste

composition and condition; and (4) measures to im-

prove waste strength properties (e.g. use of combined

liner system of mineral-synthetics). Unfortunately, solid

waste landfills are still poorly managed in developingcountry, e.g. little landfill gas management, or often in-

adequate leachate management measures (Johannessen

and Boyer G 1999).

A difficulty to assess motion processes of waste

avalanches

The study focused on the motion processes of the waste,

which are poorly known. It can be argued that the upper

part of the waste mass moved downward through a

sliding process, whereas the distal part displayed a flow

motion, similar as a debris avalanche. Surprisingly, this

statement is not consistent with the interpretations of

formers studies (Table1). Half of the events described inthe literature were clearly defined as slides (e.g. at

Kettleman in California, Istanbul, Coro?a, Jakarta). Other

events were described as waste flows similar to debris

flows (e.g. at Bogota, Durban, Manila and maybe Belo

Horizonte). However, the interpretations of the former

studies were only based on visual observations by eyewit-

nesses, whereas the methods we used combined both

eyewitness accounts and a field analysis of the internal

structure of the waste deposits. This original approach for

this kind of study allows us to state that both sliding and

flow processes were involved during the 2005 waste

Table 1 Documented wasteslide events in municipal solid waste dumpsites

Location Year Fatalities Reference

Payat as, Manila, Philipp ines 2000 278 Bernardo (2004) ; M e r r y e t a l . ( 2005) ; P a l a y p a yo n a n d O h t a ( 2 0 0 6 ) ; G a i l la r d a n d C a d ag (2009)

L eu wi ga ja h, Ba ndu ng, I nd one si a 2 005 1 47 Th is wo rk ; K oe ls ch e t al . (2005)

Belo Horizont e, Brazil 1992 > 100 ht t p ://www.humanit e.p resse.fr/journal/1992-03-20/1992-03-20-650098Istanbul, Turkey 1993 39 Kocasoy and Curi (1995) ; K o e r n e r a n d S o o n g ( 2000 ) ; H u v a j - S a ri h a n a n d S t a r k ( 2008)

Bant arg eb ang , Bekasi,W e s t J a v a , I n d on e s i a

2 00 6 2 8 S ua ra M er de ka , 9 S ep te mb er 2 00 6; p er so na l f ie ld d at a

Bogor, West Java, Indonesia 2 01 0 4 ht t p ://www.jakart aup d at es.c om/74-munic ip al-wast e-land fill-c olap sed -killing -4

Cianju r, W es t Ja va, I ndones ia 2 01 3 1 ht t p ://nasional.news.viva.c o.id /news/read /383558-b ukit -samp ah-long sor lima-orang -t ert imb un

Tub an, East Java, Ind onesia 2012 1 ht t p ://news.d et ik.c om/read /2012/06/22/190405/1948742/475/p enc arian-korb an-long sor-samp ah-p t -sg -d i-t ub an-d ihent ikan

Bant arg eb ang , Bekasi,W e s t J a v a , I n d on e s i a

2012 1 ht t p ://www.b erit asat u.c om/meg ap olit an/48700-samp ah-b ant arg eb ang -long sor-seorang p emulung -t ewas-t ert imb un.ht ml

Athens, Greec e 2003 - Cit ed by Koelsc h et al. (2005)

Bulbul, Durban, South Africa 1997 Blight (2004, 2008)

Iriya, Tel-Aviv, Israel 1997 - Isenb erg (2003) ; I s e n b e r g e t a l . ( 2004) ; H u v a j - S a ri h a n a n d S t a rk (2008)Doa Juana, Bog ota, Colomb ia 1997 - GeoSyntec Consultants ( 1998) ; H e n d r o n e t a l . ( 1999) ; C a i c e d o e t a l . (2002) ; G o nz a le s G a r c ia a n d

E s p i no s a S i l v a (2001)

Bens, Corua, Sp ain 1996 - Land va and Dicki nson ( 2000)

Rumpke, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA 1996 - Eid et al. (2000); C h u g h e t a l . (2007) ; E v a n s & S t a r k (1997) ; S c h m u c k er a n d H e n d r o n ( 1998)

Leuwigajah, Bandung, Ind onesia 1992 - Personal field d at a

Kett leman, California, USA 1988 - Mit chell et al. (1990) ; S e e d e t a l . (1990) ; B y r n e e t a l . ( 1992) ; C h a n g (2005)

Sarajev o, Bosnia 1977 - Gandolla et al. (1979)

Band eirant es, Sa Paulo, Brazil 1991 - Bauer et al. ( 2008)


http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/1992-03-20/1992-03-20-650098http://www.jakartaupdates.com/74-municipal-waste-landfill-colapsed-killing-4http://nasional.news.viva.co.id/news/read/383558-bukit-sampah-longsor--lima-orang-tertimbunhttp://nasional.news.viva.co.id/news/read/383558-bukit-sampah-longsor--lima-orang-tertimbunhttp://nasional.news.viva.co.id/news/read/383558-bukit-sampah-longsor--lima-orang-tertimbunhttp://news.detik.com/read/2012/06/22/190405/1948742/475/pencarian-korban-longsor-sampah-pt-sg-di-tuban-dihentikanhttp://news.detik.com/read/2012/06/22/190405/1948742/475/pencarian-korban-longsor-sampah-pt-sg-di-tuban-dihentikanhttp://www.beritasatu.com/megapolitan/48700-sampah-bantargebang-longsor-seorangpemulung-tewas-tertimbun.htmlhttp://www.beritasatu.com/megapolitan/48700-sampah-bantargebang-longsor-seorangpemulung-tewas-tertimbun.htmlhttp://www.beritasatu.com/megapolitan/48700-sampah-bantargebang-longsor-seorangpemulung-tewas-tertimbun.htmlhttp://www.beritasatu.com/megapolitan/48700-sampah-bantargebang-longsor-seorangpemulung-tewas-tertimbun.htmlhttp://news.detik.com/read/2012/06/22/190405/1948742/475/pencarian-korban-longsor-sampah-pt-sg-di-tuban-dihentikanhttp://news.detik.com/read/2012/06/22/190405/1948742/475/pencarian-korban-longsor-sampah-pt-sg-di-tuban-dihentikanhttp://nasional.news.viva.co.id/news/read/383558-bukit-sampah-longsor--lima-orang-tertimbunhttp://www.jakartaupdates.com/74-municipal-waste-landfill-colapsed-killing-4http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/1992-03-20/1992-03-20-650098


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avalanche at Leuwigajah. The type of movement, however,

may be of different type depending on the internal struc-

ture of the material deposited in the dump and the origin

of motion. Like natural slides, avalanches and debris flows

the intrinsic scale and prior characteristics of the material

involved may very well be the conditioning factor leading

to a certain mechanisms of movement.

The volume of the 2005 collapsed waste (2.7 ? 10 6 m3)

is higher than any of the previous similar events (Table 1):

their volumes did not exceed a few hundreds of thousands

cubic meters at Bogota (1997) or Manila (2000), and

reached 1.3 ? 10 6 m3 at Istanbul (Kocasoy and Curi1995),

half the volume of the waste deposits at Leuwigajah. The

large volume of water saturated waste at Leuwigajah, in

addition to the explosion may explain the excessive runout

up to 1000 m. The high content of plastic bags (apparently

more than 10%, which is the highest proportion found in

most of the municipal dumpsites

see Table 1 in Blightand Mbande 1998) could have also contributed to this

excessive runup by reducing internal friction.

As mentioned above (see 4.2.1.), all the bodies of the

victims were burnt. This fact, inconsistent with the

heavy rains (see below 4.2.2), must be explained. It is

probable that the high content of plastic bags, that con-

stituted numerous quite impervious surfaces, formed a

high number of parallel slippery surfaces parallel to the

valley slope as attested by outcrops along the scar. This

could have reduced the friction during the transport by

both trapping rising methane emissions, and trapping

the water percolating during heavy rains. Consideringthese assumptions together with all the characteristics of

the movement and the data collected on site, the authors

propose two potential scenarios (Table2).

Uncommon hazard, but predictable disaster

Compared to the previous similar events documented in

the scientific literature, the 2005 event displays some

distinguishing features concerning both the hazard and

the factors of vulnerability on site, which finally led to a

major disaster.

The Leuwigajah disaster was predictable as it repeated

similar events that have happened in other parts of the

world. The waste slide indeed affected marginalized and

vulnerable people who struggled to make a living out of

the dumpsite. Poor people scavenging, sorting and sell-

ing rubbish to more powerful and affluent middlemen is

a common pattern in Bogota, Belo Horizonte, Manila

and Jakarta, and all these areas were affected by waste

slide disasters in the recent decades. Children are themost vulnerable people facing waste slide hazard. On 16

March 2010, a 6-meter-high and 20-meter-long massive

barrier fell down, killing four scavengers and badly hurting

eight more people at the Galuga Municipal Waste storage

in Cibungbulang, a suburb of Bogor city in Indonesia.

Eleven of twelve victims were only 13 to 20 years old

(Indonesia Today, posted online on 16 March 2010).

The abundant and constant flow of waste constitutes a

significant resource for the poorest suburban communi-

ties. In Leuwigajah the amount of solid waste dumped

was 14.7 ? 10 6 m3 in 1999 (P.T. Perusahaan Gas Negara

and Perusahaan Daerah Kebersihan Kota Bandung2000). For those who migrate to the vicinities of large

Table 2 Two scenarios for waste avalanche initiation

Scenario 1: failure due to dump mass saturation by rainwater Scenario 2: failure triggered by explosion

( 1 ) T h e i n f il t r at i o n o f r a i n fa l l d e c r e a s ed t h e s h e a r s t r e ng t h o f t h ed u m p, l e a d in g t o i t s s l i d e ;

( 1 ) H e a v y r a i n fa l l o n t h e d u m p s i t e l e d t o i n c r e a s e d w a t e r p e r c o l at i o n t h r ou g ht h e w a s t e m a t e r i a l .

( 2 ) O n c e i n m o t i o n, t h e d i s t u r ba n c e o f t h e m a s s s t r uc t u re a l l ow e dl a r g e v o l u m e s o f m e t ha n e t o c o n ta c t s m o ul d e r in g w a s t e, l e a d in gt o t h e e x p l os i o ns .

( 2 ) T h e p e r c ol a t in g w a t e r r e a c he d t h e t o p o f t h e c o m bu s t i on z o n e d e e p l yi n s id e t h e w a s t e m a s s .

( 3 ) T h e v a p o ri z a ti o n o f t h e w a t e r p r o d u ce d a n i n c re a s e o f g a s p r e s s u r e a tt h e b a s e o f t h e d u m p t h a t p r o b a b l y l i f t e d u p a p a r t o f i t , r e s u l t i n g i na s o u nd - l i ke e x p l os i o n d u r i n g t h e l i b e ra t i on o f t h e a c c u mu l a te dp r e s s u r e d g a s .

( 3 ) T h e m a t er i a l e x p e r i e nc e d a l o n g r u n o ut , b e c a u s e o f t h ei n t ri n s i ca l l y l o w i n t er n a l f r i ct i o n o f t h e s a t u ra t e d w a s t e m a t e r i a l ,a i d e d b y s t e a m p r o d u ct i o n. T h e s t i l l- h o t m a t e ri a l w o u ld h a v e

t h e n a l s o b u r n t t h e v i c t i m s o f t h e s l i d e. ( 1 ) T h e v a p o ri z a ti o n a n d t h e l i f t u p p r o c e s s e s c o m b i ne d t h e i r e f f e ct s t ob r i ng a i r t o t h e c o m b u s ti o n z o n e . T h e s e c on d a n d p r o ba b l y t h e t h i rdexplosion t hen occurred.

( 2 ) A s t h e d e s t a b i l i z e d m a s s b e g a n t o s l i d e , t h e f i r e p r o p a g a t e d t o t h e w h o l em o v in g m a s s , h e l p ed b y t h e s i g n if i c a nt a m o un t o f C H4 t r a p pe d i n t o t h ew a s t e m a t e r i a l ( n u m e r o us s w i r li n g f l a me s w e r e r e p or t e d b y e y e w it n e ss e sa n d w e r e p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e g a s t r a p p e d i n t h e p l a s t i c b a g s ) .

( 3 ) T h e c o m bu s t io n o f e a c h p l a s t i c b a g w i t hi n t h e m o v in g m a s s p r o du c e dg a s t h a t a l l o w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e w h o l e m a s s t o o c c u r . O n c e s t a r t e d ,t h i s m e c h a ni s m , a s w e l l a s w a t e r v a p o r i za t i on , t r i gg e r e d a s e l f m a i n t a i ni n ge x p a ns i o n d u r in g t h e t r a ns p o rt . T h i s s e l f m a i nt a i n in g e x p a ns i o n, r e s p on s i b leo f a f r i c ti o n r e d u c t i on w i t hi n t h e w a s t e m a t e r i a l, d e t e rm i n ed t h e u n u su a l l yh i g h m o b il i t y o f t h e m o v i ng m a s s a n d c a n a l s o e x p l a i n w h y t h e w h o l em a t e ri a l w a s d e e p ly b u r n ed .




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cities, dumpsites are an easily accessible resource to

draw a living from as scavenging rubbish does not require

specific skills. In the two villages next to Leuwigajah, it

was estimated from interviews with key respondents that

about 50% of the people were largely dependent on

scavenging rubbish for their subsistence.

To these people the dumpsite is both a hazard and a

resource but people brave the potential threat of waste

slides on a seasonal basis to secure their daily needs.

This was very evident in 1992 when a smaller waste slide

occurred in Leuwigajah. Although seven houses were

buried fortunately no one died people continued to

scavenge rubbish as they did before. Similarly, in Payatas,

Philippines, a waste slide buried several houses in 1999, or

a year before the 2000 tragedy, but none of the affected

families accepted the relocation scheme offered by the

local government (Gaillard and Cadag2009).

The immediate environment of dumpsites is usuallyconsidered as unsuitable for settlement by those who

can choose where they live. On the other hand, for the

most marginalized and poorest people, the cheap and

often illegal nature of settlements near dumpsite is

another resource as these people cannot afford more

expensive rents in safe places (Blight and Mbande 1998).

Settling far away from their primary mean of livelihood,

i.e. the dumpsite, would also imply time and financial

costs they cannot support. Interviews conducted after

the Leuwigajah disaster showed that hundreds of fam-

ilies used to live within 500 m from the foot slopes of

the Leuwigajah dumpsite. Most of these people further

lived in houses made of scrap materials scavenged from

the dumpsite. Such housing proved to be very vulnerable

to urban fire and waste slide.

Since to the 2005 disaster, the Leuwigajah dump site

has been abandonned, and progressively recovered by

the natural vegetation (Figure 8), thanks to the high

content of organic material in the waste deposits that

allowed the formation of a soil. Since the 2005 disaster,

the Bandung municipality lacks a suitable site and

finances to construct a new sanitary landfill. ThereforeWest Java Province has planned to construct two new

sanitary landfills outside Bandung Municipality at Legok

Nangka (30 ha) and Leuwigajah (40 ha) to be used by

Bandung Municipality. The contract has been signed in

Figure 8Post-disaster regreening of the Leuwigajah dump site in 2010. a. A e ri a l v i e w o f t he w a st e a v al a nc he d e po s it s o n 1 3 J u ne 2 0 10

(source: GoogleEart h).b. O b l ic p h o to g r a ph t a k e n f r o m t h e s c a r p t o t h e S o u t h we s t o n 2 0 M a r c h 2 0 1 0 ( C o u r t e sy : a d m b a n g s e t d a p r ov j a b ar

on ht t p://www.panoramio.com/phot o/33538781).


http://www.panoramio.com/photo/33538781http://www.panoramio.com/photo/33538781


11/12

2012, and both sites were planned to be operational in

2014. Another project that encompasses the construction

of an incinerator is highly criticized for ecological reasons

(see http://www.sorgemagz.com/?p=3870in Indonesian).

However, most of the other open dump sites in

Indonesia are still uncontrolled, and therefore constitute

a significant hazard for many communities. For example,

the TPA Putri Cempo was built in 1985 in the vicinity of

Surakarta (Central Java) for a scheduled life time of

15 years. However, this open dump site is still used

today, although it remains unstable due to its overload

and to the steep slope of its 9.5 m high front. Due to a

rapid urban growth, all the large cities of Indonesia are

concerned by the waste slide hazard, as exemplified by

recent disasters or accidents (Table 1), e.g. at Bekasi in

the vicinity of Jakarta in 2006 (28 deaths) and again in

2012, Bogor in 2010 (4 deaths), and Cianjur in 2013

(1 death). The transformation from uncontrolled opendump to controlled sanitary landfills is therefore highly

recommended.

ConclusionOn the 21 February 2005 at 2.00 am, 143 people and 71

houses were buried under several meters of waste in mo-

tion initiated from the Leuwigajah dump site (Bandung,

Indonesia). This disaster ranges second among the deadli-

est events of this type worldwide., The failure in the dump

resulted from two triggering processes, i.e. heavy rainfall

and consecutive explosions due to biogas sudden release.

The flow initially moved as a slide, and then evolved into aflow. The waste avalanche extended as far as 1000 m from

the scarp towards the paddy fields, due to the limited

shear stress at the base of and within the waste in motion.

Several factors may have played a key role in the shear

stress reduction, e.g. the high quantity of biogas and water

into the flowing mass, the very low weight of the material

transported by the avalanche (plastic bags), the wet surface

of the paddy field etc.

Whatever the natural triggers for the waste slide, the

disaster cannot be dissociated from the extreme vulner-

ability of those marginalized people who died and suf-

fered. Although previous waste slides occurred in the

past the local government failed to both implementstructural measures to stabilized the dumpsite and pro-

vide scavengers with alternative sustainable livelihoods.

The amount of waste dumped in Leuwigajah actually

sharply increased over the years before the disaster.

Only after the 2005 disaster did the activity of the

dumpsite come to an end, and the local official in charge

of the site was charged for not respecting the official

recommendations regarding waste disposal and was sen-

tenced to jail. In parallel, local communities complained

about the closure of the dumpsite without appropriate

alternative sustainable livelihoods. Although the disaster

obviously brought some significant changes in Leuwiga-

jah in the short term, the long-term prospects are bleak.

A project by Environmental Protection Agency of West

Java Province (BPLHD) has been planned for redevelop-

ing a controlled landfill on the same site.

Competing interests

The a uthors decla re tha t they ha v e no com peting interests.

Authors contributions

F L , P W , C G , D S H , I P , T Y W MI , M B H a n d M F c o nd u ct e d f i e l d w o r k i n I n do n es i a.

J C G . a n d P T p r o v i d e d u n p u b l is h e d d a t a o n s i m il a r w a s t e s l i d e d i s a st e r s i n

I n d o n es i a a n d t h e P h i l i p p i n es . A l l t h e a u t h o r s h a v e c o n t r ib u t e d t o d a t a

a n al y si s , t o d i sc u ss t h e r e su l ts a n d t o w r it e t h e m a nu s cr i pt . J C G a n d T A D

a d d e d u s e f ul c o m m e n t s t o i m p ro v e t h e p a p e r. A l l a u t h o r s r e a d a n d

a p p r ov e d t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r ip t .

Acknowledgment

M a ny t h an k s t o t h e i n h a b it a nt s o f t h e v i l l ag e s t h a t h a ve b e en d e st r oy e d b y

t h e w a st e s li d e f o r t h e i r c o o pe r at i o n. W e a r e g r a t e fu l t o C e n t er o f V o l ca n o lo g y

a n d G e o l o g i c a l H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n B a n d u n g w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e s p a t i a l

d a t a o f r e s e a r c h a r e a a n d s o m e f i e l d w o r k s c o n d u c t e d i n 2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 0 6 .

W e a l s o a c k n o w l e d g e D r . S u r o n o f o r h i s a d v i s e s , a n d B a c h t i a r W a h y u

M u t a q i n f o r h i s t e c h n i c a l h e l p . W e t h a n k t h e a n o n y m o u s r e v i e w e r s w h o

h e l p e d t o i m p r o v e t h e i n i t i a l v e r s i o n o f t h e p a p e r .

Author details1U M R 8 5 9 1 L a b or a t o ir e d e Go g r a ph i e P h y s iq u e , P a r i s 1 P a nthon

S o r b o nn e U n i v er s i t y, M e u d on , F r a n ce . 2 U M R 8 5 9 1 L a b o r a t o ir e d e Gogra phie

P h y s iq u e , U n i v e rs i t y o f S t r a sb o u r g, M e u d o n, F r a n ce . 3C o l l e ge o f S c i e n ce s ,

D e p a rt m e n t o f G e o g r ap h y , U n i v er s i t y o f C a n t e rb u r y , C h r i s t c h u rc h , N e wZea la nd. 4C o l l e ge o f S c i e n ce s , D e p a rt m e n t o f G e o l o gi c a l S c i e n c e s , U n i v e r s i ty

o f C a n t e rb u r y , C h r i s t c h ur c h , N e w Z e a l an d . 5D e p a rt m e n t o f G e o g r ap h y ,

C e n t e r f o r D i s a st e r S t u d ie s , G a d j ah M a d a U n i v e r s i ty , Y o g y ak a r t a, I n d o n e si a .6S c h o o l o f E n v i ro n m e n t, T h e U n i v er s i t y o f A u c k l an d , A u c k l a n d , N e w Z e a l an d .7D e n i s D i d e r o t - P a r is 7 U n i v er s i t y , U M R 8 5 8 6 P r o d ig , P a r i s , F r a n c e . 8J ea n

M o u l in U n i v er s i t y L y o n I I I , L y o n , F r a n ce . 9

G e o l o gi c a l M u s e um , G e o l o g ic a lA g e n c y, B a n du n g , I n d o n es i a .

Received: 18 August 2014 Accepted: 20 November 2014

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doi:10.1186/s40677-014-0010-5Cite this article as: Lavigne et al.:The 21 February 2005, catastrophicwaste avalanche at Leuwigajah dumpsite, Bandung, Indonesia.Geoenvironmental Disasters 2014 1:10.

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