latin 2 national latin exam study guide i
TRANSCRIPT
LATIN 2 NATIONAL LATIN EXAM STUDY GUIDE I. The Passive Voice
Epistulae semper ad matrem meam mittuntur.
a. are sent b. will be sent c. were sent d. had been sent _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Remember the difference between the active and passive voices.
1. Active: __________________________________________________
a) e.g. ______________________________________________
2. Passive: _________________________________________________
a) e.g. _______________________________________________
B. Active Endings: _________________________________________________
________________________________________________
C. Passive Endings: _________________________________________________
________________________________________________ II. Prepositions with an accusative object
Milites vehicula trans __________ moverunt.
a. pons b. pontis c. pontem d. ponte _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Remember that many prepositions take an _______________ object.
1. e.g. cum amicā
__________________________________________________
2. e.g. ex urbe
__________________________________________________
3. e.g. Epistulae a filiis mittuntur. __________________________________________________
B. However, many prepositions also take an _______________ object.
1. e.g. trans pontem
__________________________________________________
2. e.g. Epistulae ad matrem a filiis mittuntur.
__________________________________________________
C. Note that the preposition ________ can take an accusative or an ablative object
with a change in meaning.
1. e.g. in (+abl.) implies static location
__________________________________________________
2. e.g. in (+acc.) implies motion
__________________________________________________ III. Comparative adjectives/adverbs
Necesse est discipulis diligentius studēre.
a. very diligently b. so diligent c. most diligent d. more diligently _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Examples of positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives in English
1. positive: good; high; fast; intelligent
2. comparative: ________________________________________
3. superlative: ________________________________________
B. Examples of positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives in Latin
1. positive: longus a um; pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum
_________________________________________________
2. comparative: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3. superlative: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
C. Positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives and adverbs in Latin
1. positive adjectives:
a) ________________________________________
b) ________________________________________
2. positive adverbs:
a) ________________________________________
b) ________________________________________
3. comparative adjectives:
a) ________________________________________
b) ________________________________________
4. comparative adverbs:
a) ________________________________________
b) ________________________________________
5. superlative adjectives:
a) ________________________________________
b) ________________________________________
6. superlative adverbs:
a) ________________________________________
b) ________________________________________ IV. demonstrative pronoun hic, haec, hoc
Incolae huius insulae hostes devorant!
a. these b. of this c. for this d. to these _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Type of pronoun: _________________________
B. Definition: _________________________
C. hic, haec, hoc paradigm
sing. masc. fem. neut.
Nom. ________________________________________________________
Gen. ________________________________________________________
Dat. ________________________________________________________
Acc. ________________________________________________________
Abl. ________________________________________________________
plur. masc. fem. neut.
Nom. ________________________________________________________
Gen. ________________________________________________________
Dat. ________________________________________________________
Acc. ________________________________________________________
Abl. ________________________________________________________ V. Filii imperatoris fortiter in bello pugnaverunt. _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Filii imperatoris fortiter in bello pugnaverunt.
1. Lexical form: ______________________________
2. Declension: ______________________________
a) 1st declension nouns: ______________________________
b) 2nd declension nouns: ______________________________
c) 3rd declension nouns: ______________________________
3. Case and Number: ______________________________
4. Translation of filii: ______________________________
B. Filii imperatoris fortiter in bello pugnaverunt.
1. Lexical form: ______________________________
2. Declension: ______________________________
a) 1st declension nouns: ______________________________
b) 2nd declension nouns: ______________________________
c) 3rd declension nouns: ______________________________
3. Case and Number: ______________________________
4. Translation of imperatoris: ______________________________
C. Filii imperatoris fortiter in bello pugnaverunt.
1. ADV:
a) Positive: ____________________ ____________________
b) Comparative: ____________________ ____________________
c) Superlative: ____________________ ____________________
D. Filii imperatoris fortiter in bello pugnaverunt.
1. in (+abl.): _______________
2. bello
a) Lexical form: ______________________________
b) Declension: ______________________________
c) Case and Number: ______________________________
d) Translation of in bello: ______________________________
E. Filii imperatoris fortiter in bello pugnaverunt.
1. Principal Parts: ___________________________________________
a) _______________ ______________________________
b) _______________ ______________________________
c) _______________ ______________________________
d) _______________ ______________________________
2. The ____________________ (along with pluperfect and future perfect) are
formed from the __________ principal part.
3. Perfect active indicative endings:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
VI. Future tense of 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs; passive voice; ablative of agency
Omnia a nobis simul agentur.
a. has been done b. must be done c. will be done d. had been done
A. Review: Future Tense of 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs form the future tense
with _______ plus the personal endings.
1. amare __________________________________________________
2. monēre _________________________________________________
B. 3rd & 4th conjugation verbs form the future tense with _______ plus personal
endings.
1. mittere __________________________________________________
2. audire __________________________________________________
3. Note: The ____________ tense of 3rd conjugation verbs looks like the
_______________ tense of 2nd conjugation verbs
a) monet (from monēre) ____________________
b) mittet (from mittere) ____________________
4. Recognizing verb conjugations
*1st a__________ port___re
*2nd ē__________ mon___re
*3rd e__________ mitt___re
*4th i___________ aud___re
C. The passive voice (for present, imperfect, and future tenses) is formed by the
following endings: _________________________________________________
1. The passive voice is commonly accompanied by either by an ablative of
_______________ phrase or an ablative of _______________ phrase.
a) ablative of agency example: arbor a puero acciditur.
_______________________________________________________
1) notice the preposition a (+abl.): a typically means
____________________
2) However, a (+abl.),in a sentence which employs the passive
voice, a could be translated as _________ in an ablative of agency phrase.
b) ablative of means example: arbor serrā acciditur. _______________________________________________________
1) Notice that the preposition ____ is not required in the ablative
of means construction.
VII. Relative pronoun qui, quae, quod; cum suffix
Quibuscum ad ludos ibitis? a. With whom b. Whose c. To whom d. From whom
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Type of pronoun: _________________________
B. Definition: _________________________
C. qui, quae, quod paradigm
sing. masc. fem. neut.
Nom. ________________________________________________________
Gen. ________________________________________________________
Dat. ________________________________________________________
Acc. ________________________________________________________
Abl. ________________________________________________________
plur. masc. fem. neut.
Nom. ________________________________________________________
Gen. ________________________________________________________
Dat. ________________________________________________________
Acc. ________________________________________________________
Abl. ________________________________________________________
D. Notice that the preposition __________ often attaches itself to the __________
of the noun that it governs in the prepositional phrase, like __________________.
VIII. Recognizing case endings and declensions; here the nominative plurals.
Piratae, __________, magnam navem capere volunt. a. viri scelesti b. viros scelestos c. virum scelestum d. viris scelestis
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Look up piratae in whitaker’s words or another dictionary and see…
1. Lexical form: _________________________
2. Definition: _________________________
3. Case, Number, Gender of piratae: _________________________
4. Declension: __________
a) recognizing the declension to which a noun belongs
1) 1st declension: ____________________
2) 2nd declension: ____________________
3) 3rd declension: ____________________
B. Look up viri [scelesti] in a dictionary and see...
1. Lexical form: _________________________
2. Definition: _________________________
3. Case, Number, Gender of viri: _________________________
4. Declension: __________
a) recognizing the declension to which a noun belongs
1) 1st declension: ____________________
2) 2nd declension: ____________________
3) 3rd declension: ____________________
C. Summary of noun declensions:
singular 1st decl. 2nd decl. m. 3rd decl. m.&f. 3rd decl. n.
nom. ________ ________ ________ ________
gen. ________ ________ ________ ________
dat. ________ ________ ________ ________
acc. ________ ________ ________ ________
abl. ________ ________ ________ ________
plural. 1st decl. 2nd decl. m. 3rd decl. m.&f. 3rd decl. n.
nom. ________ ________ ________ ________
gen. ________ ________ ________ ________
dat. ________ ________ ________ ________
acc. ________ ________ ________ ________
abl. ________ ________ ________ ________ IX. Present Participles
Apollo nymphae fugienti exclamavit, “Curre lentius!” a. about to flee b. they will flee c. fleeing d. viris scelestis
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Recognize the present participle by the letters _______.
B. Translate the present participle with __________.
C. Participles are verbal ____________________ and can therefore describe
_____________ while conveying a _______________ idea.
D. Declension of the present participle: follows the pattern of _____ decl. nouns.
nom. sg. _____________________________________________________
gen. sg. _____________________________________________________
dat. sg. _____________________________________________________
acc. sg. _____________________________________________________
abl. sg. _____________________________________________________
nom. pl. _____________________________________________________
gen. pl. _____________________________________________________
dat. pl. _____________________________________________________
acc. pl. _____________________________________________________
abl. pl. _____________________________________________________
X. Aut discite aut discedite!
a. Both...and b. Either...or c. If only...then d. Whether...or _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ XI. ne question; vocabulary: it is necessary, it is pleasing, it is permitted
Placetne tibi hoc? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. _______ is the sign of a _______________ the answer to which could be
yes or no. In other words, the answer is uncertain to the one asking the question.
B. Vocabulary under consideration:
1. necesse est: ____________________ 2. oportet: ____________________ 3. licet: ____________________ 4. placet: ____________________
XII. perfect active infinitive
Hercules duodecim labores confecisse dicitur. a. to be accomplished b. to have accomplished c. had accomplished d. going to accomplish
_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Note: ________ uses of the ____________________.
1. Infinitive as a _____________.
a) Errare est humanum.
_____________________________________________
b) Edere necesse est.
_____________________________________________
c) Donare bonum est.
_____________________________________________
2. Infinitive as a _______________________.
a) Possum vidēre.
______________________________________________
b) puella cantare voluit.
______________________________________________
3. Infinitive in ____________________ statement.
a) Puto eum sapientem esse.
______________________________________________
b) Caesar dixit puerum matrem amare.
______________________________________________
c) Caesar dicit puerum matrem amare.
______________________________________________
B. Tenses of the infinitive: ______________ ______________ ______________
*amo, amare, amavi, amatus to love
1. Present active and passive infinitive:
a) Present Active: ______________ _______________
b) Present Passive: ______________ _______________
2. Perfect active and passive infinitive:
a) Perfect Active: ______________ _______________
b) Perfect Passive: ______________ _______________
3. Future active infinitive:
a) Future Active: ______________ _______________
XIII. Indirect Statement
Midas nuntiat se cupere plus auri.
a. that he turns himself to gold b. to have accomplished c. had accomplished
b. going to accomplish _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. 3 major components of indirect statement
1. Verb(s) of _______________ _______________ _______________
2. Subject of the infinitive in the ___________________ case.
3. The _______________
B. The importance of the ____________ of the infinitive in indirect statement.
1. Present: The action happens ____________________ as the main verb.
*puto, putare, putavi, putatus to think *laboro, laborare, laboravi, laboratus to work
a) Puto discipulos diligenter laborare.
_______________________________________________________ b) Putavi discipulos diligenter laborare. _______________________________________________________
2. Perfect: The action happens __________________ the main verb.
*dico, dicere, dixi, dictus to say *laboro, laborare, laboravi, laboratus to work
a) Magister dicit puellam diligenter laboravisse.
_______________________________________________________
b) Magister dixit puellam diligenter laboravisse.
_______________________________________________________
3. Future: The action happens __________________ the main.
*credo, credere, credidi, creditus to believe *laboro, laborare, laboravi, laboratus to work
a) Magister credit puerum diligenter laboraturum esse.
_______________________________________________________
b) Magister credidit puerum diligenter laboraturum esse.
_______________________________________________________
XIV. Numbers 110 cardinal and ordinal
Complete the sequence: primus, secundus, tertius, __________. a. quartus b. quintus c. septimus d. decimus
A. Cardinals 110:
1. __________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________
9. __________________________________________________
10. __________________________________________________
B. Ordinals 1st 10th:
1. __________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________
7. __________________________________________________
8. __________________________________________________
9. __________________________________________________
10. __________________________________________________
XV. Ablative of comparison
Pater meus est altior tuo!
a. tallest of all b. taller than yours c. taller than all of you d. too tall _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Examples of regular positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives
1. positive: brevis, breve; celer, celeris, celere
_________________________________________________
2. comparative: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3. superlative: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
B. Examples of irregular positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives
1. positive: bonus a um; malus a um; magnus a um; parvus a um
multi ae a
_________________________________________________
2. comparative: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
3. superlative: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
C. Comparison
1. ablative of comparison:
a) Puellae diligentiores pueris sunt.
_________________________________________________
2. comparison with quam:
a) Puellae diligentiores quam pueri sunt.
_________________________________________________
XVI. More indirect statement
Magistra superba dicit discipulos omnia scituros esse.
a. know b. have know c. were known d. will know _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. 3 major components of indirect statement
1. Verb(s) of _______________ _______________ _______________
2. Subject of the infinitive in the ___________________ case.
3. The _______________
B. The importance of the ____________ of the infinitive in indirect statement.
1. Present: The action happens ____________________ as the main verb.
*nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi, nuntiatus to announce *spargo, spargere, sparsi, sparsus to scatter
a) Nuntio eum dentes draconis in terrā spargere.
_______________________________________________________ b) Nuntiavi eum dentes draconis in terrā spargere. _______________________________________________________
2. Perfect: The action happens __________________ the main verb.
*nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi, nuntiatus to announce *spargo, spargere, sparsi, sparsus to scatter
a) Puer nuntiat eum dentes draconis in terrā sparsisse.
_______________________________________________________
b) Puer nuntiavit eum dentes draconis in terrā sparsisse.
_______________________________________________________
3. Future: The action happens __________________ the main.
*nuntio, nuntiare, nuntiavi, nuntiatus to announce *spargo, spargere, sparsi, sparsus to scatter
a) Puer nuntiat eam dentes draconis in terrā sparsuram esse.
_______________________________________________________
b) Puer nuntiavit eas dentes draconis in terrā sparsuras esse.
_______________________________________________________
XVII. relative pronoun qui, quae, quod
Femina, _______ porcum dederam, cum eo per vias ambulavit.
a. quae b. quarum c. cui d. quam _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________
A. Type of pronoun: _________________________
B. Definition: _________________________
C. qui, quae, quod paradigm
sing. masc. fem. neut.
Nom. ________________________________________________________
Gen. ________________________________________________________
Dat. ________________________________________________________
Acc. ________________________________________________________
Abl. ________________________________________________________
plur. masc. fem. neut.
Nom. ________________________________________________________
Gen. ________________________________________________________
Dat. ________________________________________________________
Acc. ________________________________________________________
Abl. ________________________________________________________
XVIII. Conversational Latin
The student exclaimed “Tibi gratias ago!” as the Latin teacher handed him a gold medal. a. “I can’t believe it!” b. “You should be pleased!” c. “Thank you!” d. “I did it for you!” A. Hello.
1. singular: _______________
2. plural: _______________
B. How are you?
1. singular: _______________
C. I am well, very well, bad(ly)
__________________________________________________________________
D. Goodbye.
1. singular: _______________
2. plural: _______________
E. Felicem natalem tibi __________________________________________
F. Maxime pluit __________________________________________
G. Ignosce mihi __________________________________________
H. satis bene __________________________________________
I. quid novi? __________________________________________ XIX. Mythology
Where would one find Charon, Proserpina, and the River Styx?
a. Mt. Olympus b. Crete c. Troy d. the Underworld
A. Charon: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
B. Proserpina: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
C. River Styx: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
D. Mt. Olympus: ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
E. Crete: __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
F. Troy: __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
G. The Underworld: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
XX. Geography
Which sea is farthest to the EAST of Rome?
a. Adriatic b. Aegean c. Black d. Tyrrhenian
XXI. History
Which of these famous people lived at the very end of the Roman Republic?
a. Horatius and Cincinnatus b. Antony and Cleopatra c. Nero and Hadrian
b. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Martius
A. Four major periods of Roman History
__________________________________________________________________
1. __________________ Period:
Dates:
____________________________________________________________
a) 1st King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
b) 2nd King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
c) 3rd King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
d) 4th King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
e) 5th King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
f) 6th King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
g) 7th King: ______________________________
____________________________________________________
2. ____________________ Period:
Dates:
____________________________________________________________
a) Roman Heroes of the early Republic
1) _____________________
_________________________________________________
2) _____________________
_________________________________________________
3) _____________________
_________________________________________________
4) _____________________
_________________________________________________
5) _____________________
_________________________________________________
6) _____________________
_________________________________________________
b) Wars of the early Republic
1) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
c) End of the Republic: major characters
1) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. ____________________ Period:
Dates:
____________________________________________________________
a) Early Empire
1) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
4) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
5) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
6) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
7) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
8) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
9) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
10) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
11) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
12) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
13) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
14) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
b) Later Empire
1) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
4) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
5) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
6) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
7) ______________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. ____________________ Period:
Dates:
____________________________________________________________
a) ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________ XXII. More Mythology
Which hero was set adrift on the sea as an infant, grew up to slay a hideous monster, saved a princess chained to a rock, and then turned his enemy to stone?
a. Perseus b. Theseus c. Oedipus d. Jason
A. Perseus: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
B. Theseus: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
C. Oedipus: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
D. Jason: ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ XXIII. Life and Places in Ancient Rome
Ubi sum? Video servum qui strigilem et unguentum in apodyterium portat. Mox in palaestrā me exercebo. Deinde in frigidarium descendam!
a. in foro b. in thermis c. in basilicā d. in amphitheatro
A. Forum: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
B. thermae: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
C. basilica: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
D. amphitheatrum: _____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
E. Circus: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
F. The Hills: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
G. Aqueduct: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
H. Via Appia: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
I. Colosseum: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
1. Types of gladiators:
a) name: ________________________________
armor: ________________________________
b) name: ________________________________
armor: ________________________________
c) name: ________________________________
armor: ________________________________
d) name: ________________________________
armor: ________________________________
J. Pantheon: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
K. Curia: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
XXIV. Even more mythology
Which powerful god was the father of the heroes Hercules and Perseus, and of the deities Mars, Apollo, and Diana.
a. Pluto b. Jupiter c. Neptune d. Saturn
A. Hercules: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
B. Perseus: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
C. Mars: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
D. Apollo & Diana: ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
E. Saturn: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
F. Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto: _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ XXV. More Roman History
Who was known for leading a nearlysuccessful rebellion of slaves in Italy in 7371 BC?
a. Spartacus b. Julius Caesar c. Tarquinius Superbus d. Hannibal
A. 4 major periods of Roman History:
1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________ B. Tarquinius Superbus: __________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
C. Hannibal: ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
D. Spartacus: ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
E. Julius Caesar: _________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
XXVI. Etymology
The English word pejorative derives from the Latin adjective meaning
a. worse b. greater c. smaller d. more XXVII. Common Latin Expressions
As Pliny the Elder sailed toward Mt. Vesuvius, what did he reportedly exclaim in hopes that his courage would be rewarded?
a. Manus manum lavat! b. Ignorantia legis neminem excusat! c. Fortes fortuna iuvat! d. Ab ovo usque ad malum!
A. Manus manum lavat
________________________________________________________________
B. Ignorantia legis neminem excusat
________________________________________________________________
C. Fortes fortuna iuvat
________________________________________________________________
D. Ab ovo usque ad malum
________________________________________________________________
E. Ad astra per aspera
________________________________________________________________
F. caveat emptor
________________________________________________________________
G. status quo
________________________________________________________________ H. ex post facto ________________________________________________________________ I. per se ________________________________________________________________ J. sine qua non ________________________________________________________________ K. cassus belli ________________________________________________________________
L. Dum spiro spero ________________________________________________________________ M. amor omnia vincit ________________________________________________________________ N. pro tempore ________________________________________________________________ O. post mortem ________________________________________________________________ P. festina lente ________________________________________________________________ Q. e pluribus unum ________________________________________________________________ R. Mens sana in corpore sano ________________________________________________________________ S. in situ ________________________________________________________________ T. habeas corpus ________________________________________________________________ U. nolo contendere ________________________________________________________________ V. tempus fugit ________________________________________________________________
W. Sic semper tyrannis ________________________________________________________________ X. semper fi(delis) ________________________________________________________________ Y. a mari usque ad mare ________________________________________________________________ Z. cum laude/magna cum laude/summa cum laude ________________________________________________________________ A. mea culpa ________________________________________________________________
XXVIII. Common Latin Abbreviations
The common Latin abbreviation N.B. stands for
a. Nulli Boves b. Nihil Boni c. Nobiscum Bibite d. Nota Bene
A. N.B. ____________________ ____________________
B. A.M. ____________________ ____________________
C. P.M. ____________________ ____________________
D. P.S. ____________________ ____________________
E. etc. ____________________ ____________________
F. S.P.Q.R. ____________________ ____________________
G. i.e. ____________________ ____________________
H. Q.E.D. ____________________ ____________________
I. m.o. ____________________ ____________________
J. et al.____________________ ____________________