lateglacial to holocene alluviation and landscape development: high speed 1 investigations at...

8/20/2019 Lateglacial to Holocene Alluviation and Landscape Development: High Speed 1 Investigations at Stratford

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LATEGLACIAL TO HOLOCENE ALLUVIATION AND LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT: HIGHSPEED 1 INVESTIGATIONS AT STRATFORD, LONDON BOROUGH OF NEWHAM

Catherine Barnett, Rob Scaife and Chris J. Stevens

SUMMARY

A large hollow was observed cutting the underlying Pleistocene gravels during excavations in

advance of construction of High Speed 1 (HS1; formerly Channel Tunnel Rail Link) at Stratford

Box, NGR 538250 184650 (Figure 1; see Valler and Crockett 2011). This hollow (feature 4271;

Figure 2) proved to be the edge of a substantial relict channel forming a tributary of the River Lea,

that contained well-stratified waterlogged alluvial and peat deposits (Figure 3). Analysis of the

sediments, pollen (Figure 4), waterlogged plant remains and wood, coupled with a series of three

AMS radiocarbon dates, demonstrate this as an important, well-preserved Lateglacial to mid-

Holocene sequence. A detailed picture of the evolution of the local fluvial, fen and terrace

landscape with colonisation and succession of plant types from cold stage tundra types, to pine

forest and ultimately deciduous woodland is presented. The peat itself formed in the early

Holocene and early Mesolithic at 9460-9270 cal BC to 8450-8240 cal BC. Although its growth

relates predominantly to local conditions, it may also have an indirect relationship with a more

widespread regression that predates the Tilbury sequence described by Devoy (1979, 1980),

Gibbard (1994) and Haggart (1995). The rich terrestrial fen environment represented by the peat

would have offered plentiful food and other resources to any Mesolithic groups present in the area.

There was a return to alluvial sedimentation and an increase in spring activity in later prehistory

(Late Mesolithic/ Early Neolithic to Bronze Age), represented by deposits which may in part relate

to the Thames III transgression observed elsewhere in the catchment (Devoy 1979, 1980; Gibbard

1994; Haggart 1995). The environment was increasingly open due to human activity, which

included the establishment of rough pasture and possible arable cultivation nearby. However,

willow continued to grow along the wetlands and small stands of mixed deciduous types including

ash, hornbeam and oak were available for management and use by humans. That they were

exploited in this way is demonstrated by the worked wood assemblage of Middle Bronze Age,

Middle Iron Age and Saxon dates at the site (Valler and Crockett 2011). Indeed stake alignments


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of Bronze Age and Iron Age date which follow the eastern edge of the hollow/channel, pushed into

the top of the earlier peat at a time of increased alluviation suggest a direct response to increasing

water levels and minor flood events. This was perhaps an attempt to stabilise the wetland edge in

order to protect agricultural land or to create a structure that enabled continued access to the area

for water or grazing. These upper alluvial sediments therefore provide a useful record of the

environment in part contemporary with human activity recorded from the archaeological remains.

The very top of the sequence contains food plant remains (spelt wheat and fig) of likely Romano-

British date, suggesting there may have been contemporaneous settlement nearby.

INTRODUCTION

High Speed 1 (HS1), formerly the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, is a new high speed railway linking

London St Pancras to the Channel Tunnel, and crossing the River Lea at Stratford en route. Works

undertaken at Stratford primarily comprised the construction of a substantial sub-surface structure,

colloquially referred to as the ‘Stratford Box’, which carries the new track in a concrete-lined cutting

across the east side of the Lea Valley.

The site lies on the NW perimeter of Stratford town centre in the London Borough of Newham, East

London (Figure 1). It covers most of the eastern side of the floodplain of the River Lea, and is

bounded by the river to the west and higher ground overlooking the floodplain to the east. To the

north is the A12 trunk road, and to the south formerly Carpenter’s Road, though much of this route

has since been re-modelled as part of the London 2012 Olympic Park works. With specific

reference to this more recent development, the Stratford Box passes centrally through the Olympic

Village (within Olympic Delivery Authority Planning Delivery Zones 9 and 11; not illustrated).

The land within the site is generally level, with modern ground surface at approximately 5m above

Ordnance Datum (OD). Overall, the site comprises an approximate diamond-shaped parcel of land

measuring at its extremities 1.2km east to west and 1km north to south, though the majority of

archaeological investigations focussed on the central east to west corridor of Stratford Box itself.


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As part of a comprehensive programme of archaeological investigations associated with the

construction of HS1 (which also included desk-based assessment, boreholes, trial trenches and

construction watching brief), an archaeological excavation (formed of two adjoining areas) was

undertaken by Wessex Archaeology at the west end of the Stratford Box. The centre of the

excavation was dominated by a large hollow (feature 4271; Figure 2), extending to the south

beyond the limit of excavation.

The hollow was filled with a sequence of alluvial channel edge and peat deposits (Figure 3) which,

being waterlogged and in indirect association with excavated archaeological remains, were of

raised palaeoenvironmental potential. Following assessment, selected samples were therefore

analysed to elucidate the sedimentary history of the feature, and to build a picture of the past local

environment using pollen, waterlogged plant remains and waterlogged wood. A series of

radiocarbon dates was gained in order to place the sequence in its chronological and

archaeological context.

It should be noted that for consistency, this report will adopt the conventions Lateglacial and Post-

glacial to describe the Palaeolithic – Mesolithic transition.

RESULTS

The Sediments

Catherine Barnett

Introduction

The sedimentary sequence at Stratford Box is generally of made ground over stiff clays, sands and

iron-rich gravels laid down under fluctuating fluvial conditions, most likely during the Devensian

cold-stage, forming a gravel terrace. The local underlying solid geology was recorded as Tertiary

London Clay, with facies of both the Woolwich and Reading Beds. The rafted organic deposits of

the Lea Valley Arctic Beds which are found, albeit rarely, in the gravels in this area (see Allison et

al. 1952), were not found in any of the excavations.


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One notable exception to this stratigraphy was recorded within the excavation area, where a large

hollow or basin (feature 4271; Figure 2), filled with a complex of waterlogged fine sediments and

peat of Holocene age, overlay the Pleistocene gravels. A monolith sequence some 1.67m deep

was taken through the profile (Figure 3) and is described in detail in Table 1. The monoliths were

cleaned prior to recording and standard geoarchaeological descriptions used, (following Hodgson

1997) including Munsell colour, texture, structure and nature of boundaries.

The feature was associated with a series of worked wooden stakes (see Valler and Crockett 2011),

which were pushed into the top of the peat and through to the underlying gravels along one edge

of the feature. These stakes have been dated, the main alignment being of Middle Bronze Age

date with a solitary Middle Iron Age stake to the south. In addition to assessing the potential of

these deposits for the preservation of environmental remains, of specific interest is the relationship

between the changing depositional environment over time and the human response to these

changes in the form of waterside structures.


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Table 1: Sediment Descrip tions for Hollow 4271

Site code ARC SBX00 Notes Monolith 1084 and 1085 overlapping.Monolith 1084 0-1.05M and monolith 1085 0.88-1.67mMonolith 1084 0m = 0.953m OD

Feature 4271 hollow

Section no. 2059

Context Sampleno.

m OD Depth (m) Texture Uppercontact

Description Interpretation

From To

4316 0.953- 0.703 0 0.25 Sandysilt

- Mixed layer of slightly humicfine sand and silt (2.5Y 3/2 verydark greyish brown) with veryabundant shells and abundanttwig and wood fragments.Patches of greasy (2.5Y 4/1dark grey) silty clay. Largewood fragments in the darkgrey silty clay at 0.13-0.20m

Edge depositwith alluvialinput

4317 0.703- 0.513 0.25 0.44 Siltyloam

Clear (2.5Y 3/2 very dark greyishbrown) Massive slightly humicsmooth silt with no inclusions

Alluvium

4317 0.513- 0.403 0.44 0.55 Sandysilt

Clear - Abrupt

2.5Y 3/2 very dark greyishbrown slightly humic silt andfine sand, no visible inclusions.

Alluvium

4318 0.403- 0.283 0.55 0.67 Sand Clear 2.5Y 4/3 Olive brown cleanmedium-coarse calcareoussands, common shells,common small stones, somewith calcareous silt coatingforming tufaceousnodules/concretions.

Alluvium

4319-4324

0.283- 0.153 0.67 0.8 Siltysand

Abrupt(erosional)

Variable bands 1-5cm of 'dirty'humic medium sands withshells, organic silty sands and

organic silty sands withreworked tufa/tufaceous marl -intercalation and inwash oferoded material. at 0.72 =organic silty sand

Intercalatingedge andalluvial/spring

deposits

4325 0.153- 0.123 0.8 0.83 Peatysand

Clear "twig layer" 70% twig and woodin medium coarse organiccalcareous sand (2.5Y 2.5/1black)

humic edgedeposits

4326 0.123- 0.083 0.83 0.87 Sand Sharp 2.5Y 4/2 dark greyish brownmedium dirty calcareous sand.Some finely comminutedorganics. Common shellincreasing fine sand and

organic content to top of

Alluvium

4327 0.083- 0.053 0.87 0.89 Peat Sharpwavy?erosional

7.5YR 2.5/2 very dark brownand black soft slightly humifiedslightly silty fibrous peat,numerous well-preservedrecognisable herbaceous plantremains and vertical rootlets totop of layer.

Edge fen peat


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Site code ARC SBX00 Notes Monolith 1084 and 1085 overlapping.Monolith 1084 0-1.05M and monolith 1085 0.88-1.67mMonolith 1084 0m = 0.953m OD

Feature 4271 hollow

Section no. 2059

Context Sampleno.

m OD Depth (m) Texture Uppercontact

Description Interpretation

From To

4327 0.053- 0.033 0.89 0.92 Siltypeat

7.5YR 2.4/1 black humified siltypeat with common to abundantvery small - small roundedchalk fragments, rare mediumrounded chalk pieces anddegraded chalk matrix. Few finewood fragments, andrecognisable plant matterincluding fine woody stem/rootfragments.

Peat and chalkyinwash

4327 0.033- -0.357 0.92 1.31 Peat Abruptwavy/indurated

7.5YR 2.4/1 Black humified(silty) Phragmites peat (finereed stems material common),very fine irregular bands (1mm)of fine silt, increasing at base.

Peat with siltinwash

4328 -0.357- -0.467 1.31 1.42 Silt Gradual Coarse banded very darkgreyish brown (7.5YR 3/2) siltsand humic silts with some veryfine lenses of freshwater shells(including Pisidium sp.) Mediumflint resting on contact

Alluvium

4329 -0.467- -0.717 1.42 1.67 Silt Sharp Zone of banded silts 1.42-1.47m dark greyish brown (2.5Y4/2) silt to silty clay. 1.47-1.59m very dark grey (2.5Y 2/1)humic fine banded silt with thinlaminae of freshwater shell(including Pisidium sp.) 1.59-1.62m massive very dark grey(2.5Y 3/1) humic silt, raremedium flint. 1.62-1.67mstrongly and distinctlybanded/laminated silt of olivegrey (5Y 5/2) and dark grey (5Y4/1) of between 2 and 4mmwidth.

Alluvium (gravelinclusionsobservedimmediatelyunder this levelin excavation)

Interpretation

The hollow is suggested to represent the edge of a major Holocene age freshwater channel

forming a tributary to the River Lea. This cut the Pleistocene gravels and perhaps exploited natural

variations in their surface topography at the end of the Devensian period (the Lateglacial) or very

early in the Holocene climatic amelioration. No flood couplets indicative of rhythmic tidal movement

were found, however, the thin regular banding of the basal humic silts (context 4329) indicates

repeated changes in energy of flow, perhaps seasonal, with fluctuation between fine alluvial

sedimentation and semi-stabilisation with establishment of emergent edge fen vegetation providing

the organic lenses.


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The channel proceeded to migrate and meander, leaving a widened floodplain across which a

variety of habitats could establish and where peat began to form away from submerged areas. This

peat (context 4327) represents a stable, though waterlogged, terrestrial land surface on which

vegetation established and which would have been accessible to grazing herbivores and for

human exploitation. An erosional flood water event truncated its top and brought a return to fine

alluvial sedimentation (context 4326) and the repeated provision of highly calcareous spring water

is also indicated by the presence of tufaceous nodules (contexts 4319-4324). The hollow continued

to receive periodic alluvial sediment input from the nearby channel later in its infill (contexts 4316-

4318) as well as repeated periods of colonisation emergent vegetation and stabilisation.

The dominant depositional environment from relatively early in the Holocene was therefore of

channel edge activity with slow moving water and fen. The feature may ultimately have been cut off

from the main channel, remaining as a waterlogged infilling oxbow although no evidence of a

dividing bank was found in excavation.

Dating the Sequence

Catherine Barnett (neé Chisham)

Discrete plant remains stratified in the top, middle and base of the peat (context 4327) were

submitted for dating at the Rafter AMS radiocarbon dating facility as detailed in Table 2. Organic

remains within the rest of the sequence were potentially reworked given their alluvial context and

were not therefore chosen for dating. The AMS radiocarbon results were calibrated using Oxcal

v.3.10 (Bronk Ramsey 1995), incorporating atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004) and

expressed at the 94.5% confidence level and to 2 sigma level.

The results (Table 2) show that peat growth initiated within hollow 4271 during the early post-

glacial period at 9460-9270 cal BC and it continued to accumulate into the Early Mesolithic period,

its top at 8450-8240 cal BC eroded by inundation associated with deposition of fine alluvium.


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Table 2: AMS Radiocarbon Dates from Hollow 4271

Context Sampleno.

Material dated,identification

Comment Resultno.

C13‰

ResultBP

Fractiondetails

Cal dateBC (2sigma)

Phase

4327 1085

0.88m

Waterlogged

wood: degradedtwigwood

Top of peat. NZA

27376

-

27.4

909945 Treated

wood-cellulose

8450-8240

cal BC

early

Mesolithic

4327 10850.98 m

Waterloggedwood: juvenileSalix/Populussp.

Middle peat. NZA27358

-27.9

952240 Treatedwood-cellulose

9140-8970BC(42.6%)8930-8730cal BC(52.8%)

earlyPost-glacial

4327 10851.31m

Small fragmentsof woody stem

Base of peat. Thelayer is true peat buthas alluvial siltelement. Providesdate for base of thispeat or the inception

of peat in the localarea

NZA27360

-28.2

991140 Plantmaterial

9650-9610BC (2.0%)9460-9270cal BC(93.4%)

earlyPost-glacial

The fine humic sediments deposited prior to peat initiation were not suited to absolute dating but

the analysis of plant remains and pollen (reported below) indicates they are of terminal Lateglacial

to earliest post-glacial date (potentially pre-Early Mesolithic). Likewise the plant remains from the

alluvial, spring and edge deposits above the peat give some indication of time span, with late

prehistoric and Romano-British deposits at the top of the sequence (context 4316).

Pollen

Rob Scaife

Introduction

Pollen analysis was undertaken on eight 2ml samples taken from the monoliths through feature

4271. These were processed using standard techniques for the extraction of the sub-fossil pollen

and spores (Moore and Webb 1978; Moore et al. 1991) in combination with micromesh sieving

(10u). Taxonomy follows Moore and Webb (1978) modified according to Bennett et al. (1994) for

pollen types and Stace (1997) for plant descriptions.

All samples contained plentiful and well-preserved pollen, counts of 450-700 grains per level were

achieved and five local pollen assemblage zones were defined as shown in Figure 4.


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Results

ZONE 1: -0.447- -0.267M OD (1.4M - 1.22M DEPTH), CONTEXTS 4329 - BASE OF 4327, BETULA-POACEAE .

Herbs are dominant at c.80%, with Poaceae at 55% and a range of fen and aquatic types. Of note

are the diverse assemblages of herbs that include diagnostic late-Devensian taxa including

Polemonium caeruleum (Jacobs ladder), Helianthemum (rockrose), Sanguisorba officinalis (greater

burnet), cf. Dryas octopetala (mountain avens) and Artemisia (mugwort). Trees and shrubs are

sparse, comprising Betula (birch) including B. nana (dwarf birch) in the basal level, Pinus (pine)

and Juniperus communis (juniper). The assemblage is diagnostic of the late-Devensian/earliest

Holocene and includes taxa from a wide range of habitats including short turf grassland, tall herb

communities, disturbed/ open ground, fen/ marsh, aquatic and dwarf shrub communities.

ZONE 2: -0.267- -0.047M OD (1.22M - 1.00M DEPTH), CONTEXT 4327, PINUS-POACEAE.

Herbs decline in diversity and quantity, especially Poaceae (to 8%) and aquatic Myriophyllum and

Pediastrum. There is a sharp expansion of Pinus to 78% at -0.087m OD (1.04m depth) and

reduction in Betula and Juniperus. Of note is the arrival and expansion (i.e. rational limit) of

Quercus from the base of this zone along with occasional shrubs including Rhamnus catharticus

(alder buckthorn), Sorbus type (whitebeam or hawthorn) and Prunus/Malus (apple/plum).

ZONE 3: -0.047- -0.083M OD (1.00M - 0.87M DEPTH), TOP OF CONTEXT 4327, PINUS-CORYLUS AVELLANA TYPE.

Pinus declines to absence at the base of zone 4. Corylus avellana type (hazel) expands to up to

59%. Ulmus (elm) appears, with a single peak to 18% at 0.88m. Total herb percentages are at their

lowest in this zone (5-10% maximum). Notably, no Taxus was found.

ZONE 4: -0.083- 0.283 M OD (0.87-0.67M DEPTH), CONTEXT 4319-4325, ALNUS GLUTINOSA.

Based on a single sample, this zone is characterised by a massive peak of Alnus glutinosa (alder;

88%). Corylus avellana remains present but with a reduced percentage (10%). Pinus is absent

while Quercus and Ulmus are also present at low levels. Herbs remain at low levels.


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ZONE 5: 0.353 - 0.473 M OD (0.60M-0.48M DEPTH), CONTEXT 4317-4318, PLANTAGO LANCEOLATA-POACEAE-

CYPERACEAE.

Absolute pollen values are reduced with increased degradation noted. Alnus is almost absent,

replaced by Poaceae (50%), Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain; 6-7%) and a range of other

herbs possibly of pastoral affinity. Marshy/fen taxa become more important with increases in

Cyperaceae (12%), Potamogeton type (pondweed), Typha latifolia (greater reed-mace) and Typha

angustifolia/Sparganium type (bur reed and lesser reedmace).

Interpretation

The Zone 1 pollen assemblage is typical of the Lateglacial cold stage (Younger Dryas/Zone III) of

between 11600-12900 cal BC (10,000-11,000 BP). There was marked diversity of open

herbaceous communities and habitats brought about by harsh climatic conditions of a Tundra

environment in which plants and plant communities were under competition. The landscape was

devoid of trees except, perhaps occasional birches. The presence of large numbers of algal

Pediastrum cysts and of aquatic macrophytes suggests that the dominant depositional habitat was

fen and open water.

The depositional environment of Zone 2 was a drier grass sedge fen. This pre-Boreal/early Boreal

period (Holocene Chronozone Ia and Ib) pollen assemblage shows the establishment and spread

of coniferous woodland in the wider landscape and a consequent decline in herbs after climatic

amelioration at the end of the Devensian cold stage. A number of warm-loving shrub and tree taxa

including oak also appear, having migrated/ expanded out of their glacial refugia. Elm then first

appears in Zone 3, expanding with oak and hazel. However, values of oak are smaller than

encountered at many other sites for this period, indicating greater local dominance of hazel with

remaining pine, comparable to the Boreal pine-hazel woodland of Godwin (1975). During this

phase, the depositional habitat at Stratford Box remained fen but there is also evidence of willow,

this tree/shrub is normally poorly represented in pollen assemblages and presence here may infer

development of some floodplain carr woodland.


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Zone 4 shows a significant change to complete dominance by alder, which colonised and

expanded locally to form a floodplain alder carr woodland. That and the presence of lime/linden

(Tilia cordata) suggest this assemblage zone is later in date, probably middle Holocene age

(Atlantic/ Holocene II) from between ca. 6000-4300 cal BC, representing the late Mesolithic period.

The change between zones is such as to suggest a hiatus (see sediments).

A further large environmental change is evident in the uppermost pollen Zone 5, there was a return

to grass sedge fen on the floodplain, with alder absent. This suggests that there may also be a

further hiatus in the sedimentation between zone 4 and 5. A decline in woodland is also indicated,

with only small values of oak and hazel (possibly related to managed stands). The local habitat of

this phase was a floodplain of grass and sedge, possibly forming rough pasture, with pasture and

probable cereal cultivation on better-drained soils as indicated by the presence of ribwort plantain

and an expansion of other herbs, also small numbers of large pollen grains of Poaceae possibly

from cereal cultivation. A late prehistoric date (Neolithic or post-Neolithic) is indicated for this upper

sediment.

The sequence shows the development of vegetation from the close of the last (Devensian) cold

stage through the early Holocene, the middle Holocene and possibly into the start of the late

prehistoric period. This profile therefore provides an important long vegetation history represented

within a relatively short (compacted) sediment series. As such, closer interval pollen analysis,

notably across the zone boundaries, may prove informative in the future.

Waterlogged Plant Remains

Chris J Stevens

Introduction

A sequence of fourteen bulk samples from the peat and alluvial deposits of feature 4271 was

assessed for waterlogged remains, four of which were selected for full analysis (contexts 4316,

4322, 4326 and 4328). Laboratory flotation was undertaken on 1L sub-samples with flots retained

on a 0.25mm mesh and residues on a 0.5mm mesh. Residues were fractionated into 5.6mm and

0.5mm groups and any coarse (>5.6mm) non-waterlogged fraction was sorted, weighed and


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discarded. The flots and residues were sorted using a low-powered stereo-binocular microscope,

waterlogged and charred plant material was extracted and identified using the nomenclature of

Stace (1997). Waterlogged material was recorded in all samples, but was less abundant towards

the base (contexts 4327 and 4329). Variations in the waterlogged assemblage have allowed

differentiation into three broad phases.

Results

PHASE 1: -0.717 - -0.083 M OD (1.67-0.87M DEPTH), CONTEXTS 4329 TO 4327, BETULA-CHARA

Tree and shrub species were sparse in the peat and humic silts, but represented by seeds and

cone scales of birch (Betula sp), including one of dwarf birch (Betula nana). Several buds of

probable willow (Salix sp.) were also recovered. The assemblage analysed in detail for context

4328 was dominated by seeds and spores of aquatics including pondweed (Potamogeton sp.),

water-crowfoot (Ranunculus subgenus. Batrachium), rigid hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum),

water-cress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum), and water-milfoil (Myriophyllum sp.). Also recovered

were the ephippium or eggs of the water-flea (Daphnia sp.) indicative of still flowing or standing

water.

Water’s edge habitats were also represented, with willow-herb (Epilobium sp.), sedges (Carex sp.),

bristle club rush (Isolepis setaria) and marsh cinquefoil (Potentilla palustris). Dog-violets were

identified, Viola subg. Viola, section Uncinatae, (cf. Viola odorata/hirta, attributed to these two

species by virtue of their large size, Godwin 1984, 137). Given the nature of the rest of the

assemblage, it is probable that hairy violet (Viola hirta), found within calcareous pastures and open

scrub, is represented. Taxa of open and disturbed ground included nettle (Urtica dioica) and

goosefoot type (Chenopodiaceae), also crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), a species today found only

in the moorlands and uplands of northern Britain.

PHASE 2: 0.083 - 0.283 M OD ( 0.87-0.67M DEPTH), CONTEXTS 4326 TO 4319, ALNUS GLUTINOSA

These alluvial sediments were dominated by remains of alder ( Alnus glutinosa) with cones, fruits

and catkins recovered in large numbers. The samples from context 4326 at the base and context

4322 analysed in full contained other shrub types including hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) fruit


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and thorns, and seeds of dogwood (Cornus sanguinea) and elder (Sambucus niger ). Three hazel

nut fragments (Corylus avellana) occurred in 4322. Herbaceous woodland or wooded-fen species

were generally rare, but context 4322 yielded several seeds of woody nightshade (Solanum

dulcamara). Local aquatic and emergent types were common, including seeds of yellow water-lily

(Nuphar lutea), sedges (Carex sp.), common club-rush (Schoenoplectrus lacustris), and branched

bur-reed (Sparganium erectum). Herbaceous water’s edge types were rare at the base but

increased up the profile to include seeds of buttercup (Ranunculus repens, bulbosus or acris),

greater spearwort (Ranunculus lingua), bog pimpernel ( Anagallis tenella), mint (Mentha sp.), and

common nettle (Urtica dioica). Wild hop (Humulus lupulus), which tends to be found on the

riverbank close to the edge of woodland fen-carr, was also identified.

PHASE 3: 0.283-0.953M OD (0.67-0M DEPTH), CONTEXTS 4318 TO 4319, RANUNCULUS-RUMEX-

SCHOENOPLECTRUS

Alder ( Alnus glutinosa) was virtually absent in this phase, the assemblage dominated instead by

species of rough grassland, wetlands and aquatic environs. Many species identified can be

associated with rough-open wet grassland/pasture, such as buttercup (Ranunculus sp.), probably

creeping buttercup (R. repens) and meadow-buttercup (R. acris), meadow-rue (Thalictrum flavum),

ragged-robin (Lychnis flos-cuculi), common meadow-rue (Thalictrum flavum), thistle

(Cirsium/Carduus sp.) and dock (Rumex sp.), including both clustered dock (Rumex

conglomeratus) and curled-leaved dock (Rumex crispus). Others are more directly associated with

open ground, disturbance and nitrogen-rich soils, probably created by animals or human activity,

such as orache ( Atriplex sp.), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), chickweed (Stellaria media), common

nettle (Urtica dioica) and redshank/persicaria (Persicaria maculosa/lapathifolium).

Occurrence of bramble (Rubus sp.), elder (Sambucus nigra), woody nightshade (Solanum

dulcamara), bugle ( Ajuga reptans) and hazelnut (Corylus avellana) indicate presence of some

wooded scrub or hedge. Herbaceous types representative of wetter muddier soils close to the

water’s edge and in the shallows include winter cress, (Barbarea vulgaris), golden dock (Rumex

maritimus), wild celery/fool's watercress ( Apium graveolens/ nodiflorum), yellow iris (Iris

pseudacorus), bog-bean (Menyanthes trifoliata), narrow fruited water-cress (Rorippa nasturtium-


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aquaticum), water-droplet (Oenanthe sp.). The vast number of seeds of common club-rush

(Schoenoplectrus lacustris), sedge (Carex sp.), and branched bur-reed (Sparganium erectum)

suggests a large wet marshland presence within these later deposits. Aquatics were also well

represented, including yellow water-lily (Nuphar lutea), water-crowfoot (Ranunculus subgenus.

Batrachium), as well as horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris) and water-plantain ( Alisma

plantago-aquatica).

Two charred glume bases of spelt wheat (Triticum spelta) and a single seed of fig (Ficus carica)

were also found in context 4316, demonstrating human activity in the catchment area during this

phase.

Interpretation

PHASE 1: -0.717- -0.083 M OD (1.67-0.87M DEPTH), (EQUIVALENT TO POLLEN ZONES 1-3). LATEGLACIAL TO

EARLY POST-GLACIAL AND EARLY MESOLITHIC.

The radiocarbon dates reported for the peat demonstrate an early post-glacial date for the lower

peat. The waterlogged remains from the humic silts underlying this peat (context 4328) at -0.357- --

0.467m OD (1.31-1.42m depth), indicate a Lateglacial- early post-glacial date, with dwarf birch and

crowberry particularly diagnostic of an early date. Deposits and associated waterlogged remains of

this date are commonly encountered in the Lea Valley, having been recovered at Nazeing (Allison

et al. 1952; Godwin 1984) and also at Innova Park (Ritchie et al. 2008) to the north. The aquatics

suggest a large body of open neutral or calcareous water or an extensive open floodplain with

large stretches of still or slow-flowing water.

The data for the lower deposits complements the pollen data for Zone 1 (see Scaife above) well,

both indicating a largely open landscape, with birch being the most significant tree taxa. Dwarf

birch can grow on drier soils next to water and it is probable that birch, along with dwarf willows,

grew up to the water’s edge. Seeds of grassland rarely survive in waterlogged deposits, but the

pollen suggests that grassland (or perhaps common reed) dominated much of the immediate

landscape. While bristle club-rush (Isolepis setacea) is found in marshy meadows it also grows on

bare patches of sands and gravels. The upper context (4327), dated to the early Mesolithic,


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contained relatively few plant macrofossils. The pollen evidence (Scaife’s Zone 2-3) suggests pine

followed by pine and hazel forest during this phase. It was noticeable that wood and twig wood

became more common suggesting a more forested environment, extending probably up to the

water’s edge (see Barnett waterlogged wood below).

PHASE 2: 0.083 - 0.283 M OD ( 0.87-0.67M DEPTH), (EQUIVALENT TO POLLEN ZONE 4). LATER MESOLITHIC TO

NEOLITHIC/ BRONZE AGE.

There appears to be a sedimentary hiatus at 0.083m OD (0.87m depth, between contexts 4327

and 4326) and the precise date of the deposits lying between 0.083 - 0.283 m OD (0.87-0.67m

depth) is unknown, however, the clear dominance of alder carr demonstrated by the plant remains

and pollen suggests a late Mesolithic to Late Bronze Age date. The arrival of alder carr at Staines

Moor was dated to after 8710±70BP/8460±65BP (OXA-6470/ OXA-6474; Keith-Lucas 2000), while

the presence of lime in the pollen evidence suggests a Neolithic/Early Bronze Age date. The

majority of dates for alder carr within the London region are for the Early Neolithic to Middle Bronze

Age (Barnett et al. forthcoming; Crockett et al. 2002), as well as up-river at Runnymede (Greig

1991) and the lower Colne Valley, Slough (Wessex Archaeology 2006), with clearance of this fen-

landscape within the Middle to Late Bronze Age (Merriman 1992: 263, Scaife 2000; 2002; Allen et.

al. 2005, cf. Greig 1991) associated with increasing human activity (Meddens 1996). While alder

was recovered from Middle to Late Bronze Age deposits within a palaeochannel at Innova Park to

the north it was noted that probably only small stands were present (Ritchie et al. 2008).

Although alder would seem to have dominated the local vegetation during this period, within this

densely wooded riverine habitat, hazel, hawthorn, elder and dogwood all seem to have found a

niche, probably growing within drier patches on the more stable riverbanks. Within the more open,

still-flowing areas of the river, permanent pools and ox-bows would be found yellow water-lily

(Nuphar lutea), while rushes and reeds grew perhaps in narrow strips or occasional patches along

the edges.


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PHASE 3: 0.283-0.953M OD (0.67-0M DEPTH), (EQUIVALENT TO POLLEN ZONE 5). ?BRONZE AGE/ IRON AGE TO

ROMANO-BRITISH.

These uppermost layers are likely to be of a post-Middle Bronze Age, probable post-Late Iron Age

date, as they overlie the dated wooden stakes reported by Valler and Crockett (2011). The

presence of both fig and charred glumes of spelt wheat in the uppermost deposit (context 4316)

suggests a Romano-British date for the top of this sequence, and indicates nearby settlement of

this date. The earliest recorded spelt wheat in the general region is Middle Bronze Age from

Princes Road, Dartford (Pelling 2003). However, it might be noted that Middle and Late Bronze

Age assemblages both to the north from Innova Park (Ritchie et al. 2008) and to the south-west

from West-Thurrock (Stevens 2009) have tended to be dominated more by emmer wheat (T.

dicoccum) rather than spelt. The presence of spelt glumes is more in keeping with a Roman date

and along with the seed of fig (Ficus carica) would tend to suggest that at least the upper contexts

are likely to be Romano-British in date.

The macrofossils and pollen again largely agree, indicating a more open landscape than

previously, with the removal/ decline of alder carr leaving only single trees or small stands, and

probably the decline of woodland in general within the region. The species present are mainly of

open-country species probably associated with rough grassland, including creeping buttercup,

docks and ragged-robin. Other species such as common nettle indicate some disturbance and

nitrogen enrichment of the soil, perhaps associated with livestock. Seeds of yellow water-lily

continue to suggest areas of still to standing water in the vicinity, while species of water-crowfoot

may be found within both slow-flowing rivers and muddy wet areas at the rivers edge. Similar

evidence can be seen in the upper deposits from Staines Moor following the decline in alder,

suggesting an open landscape with meadows and some arable cultivation (Keith-Lucas 2000).


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Waterlogged Wood

Catherine Barnett

Introduction

Identification was undertaken on ten randomly selected waterlogged wood fragments from each of

the same four 1 litre waterlogged samples analysed for plant macrofossil remains through the

sedimentary sequence of Feature 4271. A fine slice was taken from each fragment along three

planes (transverse section (TS), radial longitudinal section (RL) and tangential longitudinal section

(TL) and identification undertaken at up to 400x magnification, according to the anatomical

characteristics described by Schweingruber (1990) and Butterfield and Meylan (1980).

Identification was to the highest taxonomic level possible, usually that of genus and nomenclature

is according to Stace (1997). The results are shown in Table 3 below.

Although the total number of fragments examined was relatively small, differences can be seen in

the range of taxa represented that coincide with the three phases defined on the basis of

waterlogged plant macrofossil content.

Table 3: Waterlogged Wood Identif ications Feature 4271

Context,depth

Sampleno.

Identification Common name No. offragments

Macrophase

4316, 0-0.25m

1086 Salix/ Populus sp. willow/ aspen type 2 3

Fraxinus excelsior ash 2 (1 twig, 1mature)

Pomoideae Pomaceous fruits (e.g. hawthorn,apple, pear, whitebeam)

1

Carpinus betulus hornbeam 1

Betula sp. birch 1

Quercus sp. oak 1 Alnus glutinosa alder 1

4322, 0.67-0.77m

1092 Betula sp. Twigwood birch 2 2

Alnus glutinosa alder 3 (2 twig, 1mature)

Corylus avellana hazel 1

cf. Corylus/ Alnus cf. hazel/ alder 2

Unidentifiable - 2

4326, 0.77-0.87m

1096 Alnus glutinosa alder 4 2

Salix/ Populus sp.twigwood

willow/ aspen type 4

Unidentifiable - 2

4328, 1.31-1.42m

1098 Salix/ Populus sp. Twigand roundwood

willow/ aspen type 10 1


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Interpretation

PHASE 1: LATEGLACIAL TO EARLY POST-GLACIAL AND EARLY MESOLITHIC.

Only one wood type was identified in the oldest sample, willow and aspen cannot be differentiated

on the basis of their wood anatomy and both could be present in this early Holocene context.

However, given the lack of aspen macrofossils, usually produced in abundance if present, local

importance of willow is suggested for the floodplain and wetland edges. All fragments were small

and immature and it is possible dwarf forms of willow are represented.

PHASE 2: LATER MESOLITHIC TO NEOLITHIC/ BRONZE AGE.

A continuation in the importance of damp habitats is indicated by the continued presence of willow/

aspen and the colonisation of alder. Although alder clearly came to be dominant in the wetland

zone by the plant macrofossil and pollen data, the wood assemblage also supports an

interpretation of the local establishment of open canopy mixed woodland on marginal drier areas,

as represented by the open-loving taxa, hazel and birch.

PHASE 3: BRONZE AGE/ IRON AGE TO ROMANO-BRITISH.

Despite the reversion to a broadly open environment as suggested by the pollen data, it can be

demonstrated that willow and alder continued to grow at the channel edge and what woodland or

stands of trees that remained locally were rich and varied in taxa. The first appearance of ash

(Fraxinus excelsior ), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), oak (Quercus sp.) and Pomoideae occurred in

this phase. The latter cannot be differentiated to species but may include taxa such as hawthorn,

apple, and whitebeam. All types represented are native and could have established locally but

management of this resource, in general decline in later prehistory due to clearance for agriculture,

might also have taken place nearby. Indeed worked elder, ash and oak have been reported for the

Middle Bronze Age and Late Iron Age at Stratford Box (Valler and Crockett 2011)

DISCUSSION

A detailed Lateglacial to mid-Holocene sedimentary sequence has been described. This is

important in that continued waterlogging has allowed preservation of a range of


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19

palaeoenvironmental remains. The information on past conditions provided from these remains,

including wood and macrofossils of very local origin, has combined to provide a detailed picture of

the changing landscape over this period, enhanced by the provision of absolute dates for the main

peat body (Table 4).

Table 4: Summary of Palaeoenvironmental Resul ts Feature 4271

Context m ODDepth(m)

Summary descrip tion PhaseMacrofossiland woodphase

Localpollenzone

Blytt andSernander period

43160.953-0.703

0-0.25

Edge deposit with alluvialinput comprises humic finesand and silt with abundantshells and wood

Romano-British

Phase 3

-

Sub-Boreal-

Sub-Atlantic4317 0.703-0.403 0.25-0.55 Humic silt alluviumLate Prehistoric(LBA/ IA)

Zone 5

43180.403-0.283

0.55-0.67

Calcareous shelly fluvialsands and tufa, truncatedtop of 4319Hiatus

4319-4324

0.283-0.153

0.67-0.8

Intercalating edge andalluvial/spring deposits ofbanded humic sands siltysands and organic siltysands with reworked tufa late Mesolithic/ Early

Neolithic to ?EarlyBronze Age

Phase 2 Zone 4 Atlantic4325

0.153-0.123

0.8-0.83

70% twig and wood inorganic sand

4326

0.123-

0.083

0.83-

0.87

Dirty calcareous sand, may

have truncated top of 4327Hiatus

43270.083-0.053

0.87-0.89

Fibrous herbaceous fenpeat

early Mesolithic upto 8450-8240 cal BC

Phase 1

Zone 3 Boreal4327

0.053-0.033

0.89-0.92

Humified silty woody peatwith chalky inwash

early Post-glacial(9469-9270 cal BCat base 1.31m,9140-8730 cal BC at0.98m

43270.033--0.357

0.92-1.31

Humified Phragmites peatwith occasional silt inwash

Zone 2 Pre-Boreal

Zone 1 - (Lateglacial)

4328-0.357--0.357

1.31-1.42

Silt and humic silt alluviumLateglacial-earlyPost-glacial - -

4329

-0.357-

-0.717

1.42-

1.67

Humic banded silt alluvium

(over fluvial gravels)

An open and initially relatively sparsely vegetated landscape has been demonstrated for the

terminal Lateglacial to early Post-glacial period. The local cold stage environment (context 4329-

4328, Phase 1, Zone 1) was of open damp sedge, reed and grass dominated floodplain with

extensive open moving water. Low-growing shrubs, notably juniper, crowberry, dwarf birch and

willow, grew on the edge and on drier raised areas of the Pleistocene gravel terrace. Pine


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woodland established on drier areas early on (base of 4327, Phase 1, Zone 2). Colonisation of a

wider range of plants then occurred in continued response to the climatic amelioration at the start

of the Holocene, with open taxa such as hazel expanding, followed by mixed deciduous woodland

shrubs and tree types such as oak and elm (context 4327, Phase 1, Zone 3), indicating the

transition from the pre-Boreal to the Boreal period. Fen plant types increasingly dominated the

floodplain and marginal wetland areas and a thick terrestrial fen peat deposit grew away from the

channel. This continued into at least the early Mesolithic, the exact date is unknown due to erosion

of the top of the peat by later floodwaters.

The lower sequence adds to a small but growing body of environmental evidence for landscape

evolution gained from wetland sedimentary sequences of Lateglacial to early Post-glacial date in

the River Thames tributaries such as the Lea (e.g. Allison et al. 1952; Godwin 1984; Lewis 1991,

2000; Lewis et al. 1992), Colne (e.g. Lacaille 1963; Gibbard and Hall 1982; Keith-Lucas 2000) and

Kennet Valley (Holyoak 1980; Chisham 2004). Such sequences not only have potential to record

climatic and vegetation changes but are of raised potential to inform on local early Mesolithic

activity, notably where charred remains and microcharcoal occur. In addition, parts of these

floodplains were accessible and where buried soils and peat horizons exist there is the potential for

often deeply buried in situ early Mesolithic archaeological remains and should remain a focus.

The sedimentary hiatus during the Mesolithic period is reflected in the vegetation record at

Stratford Box. The pollen, plant macrofossil and wood assemblages all attest to the subsequent

spread of dense alder carr on and along the floodplain edge (context 4326-4319, Phase 2, Zone 1)

during the Atlantic/ late Mesolithic period and the occurrence of small layers. Reworked pieces of

tufa indicate highly calcareous springs were active under warm wooded conditions in the local

area. Hazel, oak and elm continued to grow on the terrace with hawthorn, dogwood and elder.

A second, longer hiatus has been recorded, following repeated fluctuation between stable

terrestrial, alluvial and spring sedimentation in context 4319, the sequence was truncated once

more by fluvial inundation, also reflected in the abrupt change to Phase 3 in the macrofossil and

wood assemblage and Zone 5 in the pollen. Although potentially caused by a local channel shift,


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21

this inundation may in part relate to the wider phenomenon of the Thames III transgression

observed elsewhere in London (Devoy 1979, 1980; Gibbard 1994; Haggart 1995). The upper

humic alluvial and wetland edge deposits record the late prehistoric environment at Stratford Box,

most useful in providing a landscape context for the late prehistoric activity demonstrated at the

site (see Valler and Crockett 2011).

By the Middle Bronze Age/ Iron Age the floodplain was rich in herb taxa, with areas of still water

and boggy patches persisting while the immediate area had been opened up by human activity.

The establishment of rough pasture, with corresponding disturbed and nitrogen enriched soils and

possible arable cultivation is suggested by the pollen spectrum and macrofossils. An increase in

the variety of woody taxa at this time however indicates that although trees were fewer in number,

they had increased in diversity, with the possibility of local management raised. The local late

prehistoric community clearly exploited the woodland resource, as demonstrated by the presence

of Middle Bronze Age and Late Iron Age stake alignments and wood working chips. That these

follow the edge of the hollow/channel, and were pushed into the top of the earlier peat at a time

when an increase in alluviation has been demonstrated, is interesting. It appears the stakes were a

direct response to increasing water levels and minor flood events, either an attempt to stabilise the

wetland edge to protect agricultural land or as part of a structure to enable continued access to the

area, perhaps for water or grazing.

The plant macrofossil assemblage from the top of the sequence contained a fig seed and charred

glumes of spelt wheat in the uppermost deposit (context 4316), which, even if locally reworked,

suggests a Romano-British date for at least the top sample and also indicates nearby settlement of

this date despite a lack of use of the water’s edge at this location at the time (see Valler and

Crockett 2011).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The assistance of Mark Turner and Helen Glass, who monitored the project on behalf of RLE is

gratefully acknowledged, as is the on-site assistance of Kevin MacFarlane (RLE). Wessex

Archaeology would also like to thank Union Railways (North) Limited (URN) for commissioning the


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fieldwork project. Acknowledgement is also due to the on-site staff of contractors Skanska, who

gave their kind assistance and helped us achieve our aims. The project was monitored by Dr Jane

Sidell and Nick Truckle (then of English Heritage Greater London Archaeological Advisory

Service), whose comments and advice throughout the project are acknowledged.

The fieldwork was managed by Mick Rawlings and Andy Crockett for Wessex Archaeology and

directed in the field by Hilary Valler, ably assisted by Vic Tomalin as Project Supervisor, and a field

team too numerous to mention here – this report would not have been possible without their long

hours dedicated to the project.

The post-excavation programme was managed by Andy Crockett, on behalf of the Oxford Wessex

Archaeology Joint Venture, in close consultation with Stephen Haynes of RLE. In addition to the

many colleagues who provided invaluable peer review for this work, the principal authors would

particularly like to thank Sarah Wyles and Laura Catlin for their assistance during post-excavation

analysis. Pollen preparation was undertaken at the Palaeoecology Laboratory of the School of

Geography, University of Southampton, and radiocarbon determinations provided by the Rafter

Radiocarbon Laboratory, New Zealand.

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239

BARNETT with ALLEN, EVANS, GRIMM, SCAIFE, STEVENS & WYLES (forthcoming), C Barnett

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BENNETT, WHITTINGTON & EDWARDS (1994), K D Bennett, G Whittington and K J Edwards

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GREIG (1991), J R A Greig ‘The prehistoric riverside settlement at Runnymede: the botanical

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B

3845BH

3846BH

3847BH 3848BH

3849BH

3850BH 3952BH

Greater London

London Borough of Newham

The Site

Stratford Box

Site outline

Evaluation trench

Excavation Areas

Key:

5 3 8 5 0 0

185500

R i v e r L

e a

ARC3839TT

Balancing pond

ARC3841TT ARC3842TT

ARC3843TT

ARC3844TT

5 3 8 0 0 0

185000

184500

Line of High Speed 1

Borehole

Line of High Speed 1

Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown Copyright and database right 2012.

500 m0

Rivers

Railtrack

2 1

Figure 1. Site and trench location plan


29/33

A r e a o f e x c a v a t i o n

T i m b e r

H o l l o w

4 2 7 1

K e y :

R i v e r s

S e c t i o n

4 1 4 9

4 1 5 3

4 1 3 5

4 1 3 4

4 1 3 2

4 1 4 1

4 1 4 4

4 0 7 9

4 0 8 1

4 0 8 3

4 0 1 5

4 2

7 1

4 2 6 4

4 2 7 1

4 1 4 8

4

1 1 4

4 2 7 4

4 1 1 0

4 2 3 4

4 1 6 9

4 2 0 6

4 2 0 3

4 2 1 0

4 1 2 5

4 1 5 5

4 2 2 5

4 2 4 3

( F i g . 3 )

1 0 m

0

A r e a 2

C h a n n e

l s e a R

i v e r

A r e a 1

Waterworks River

M o d e r n s e r v i c e

F i g u r e 2 . S t r a t f o r d B o x e x c a v a t i o n A r e a s 1 a n d 2 , s h o w i n g l o c a t i o n o f H o l l o w

4 2 7 1


30/33

0.5 m0

0.953 maOD

4316

4317

4318

4319

4321

4323

43204322

43244325

4326

4327

4327

4328

4329

1085

0.072 maOD

1084

Key:

Bark / timber fragments

Chalk

Gravel

N S

Silt / alluvium

Peat

Sand

Sand and silt with alluvium

Chamfered step

Figure 3. Section through the sedimentary sequence filling hollow 4271


31/33

T R E E S & S H R U B S

S t r a t . B E

T U L A B

E T U L

A c f . N

A N A

P I N U

S

U L M

U S Q

U E R C

U S

P O P U

L U S

T I L I

A C A R

P I N U

S B E

T U L U

S

A L N U

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f o r H o

l l o w 4 2 7 1


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Z o n e 1


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