languagearts902: natureoflanguage - exodus … · make-upoflanguage when god confused the languages...

LANGUAGE ARTS 902:NATURE OF LANGUAGE

CONTENTS

I. WHAT IS LANGUAGE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Origin of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Make-Up of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

A Second Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

II. HOW DID WE GET OUR LANGUAGE? . . . . . . 10

Indo-European Migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Indo-European Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Old English to Modern English . . . . . . . . . . 16

III. HOW SHALL WE USE LANGUAGE? . . . . . . . 20

Listening and Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Author: Margaret Goding, M.A.Ed.

Editor: Richard W. Wheeler, M.A.Ed.Consulting Editor: Larry Howard, Ed.D.Revision Editor: Alan Christopherson, M.S.

804 N. 2nd Ave. E., Rock Rapids, IA 51246-1759© MCMXCVI by Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. All rights reserved.LIFEPAC is a registered trademark of Alpha Omega Publications, Inc.

All trademarks and/or service marks referenced in this material are the property of their respective owners. Alpha Omega Publications, Inc.makes no claim of ownership to any trademarks and/or service marks other than their own and their affiliates’, and makes no claim of affiliation

to any companies whose trademarks may be listed in this material, other than their own.

NATURE OF LANGUAGE

All of God’s creatures have some form of communication. One worker bee tells the otherworkers where to find the sweetest blossoms; dolphins send underwater messages to otherdolphins. Even a Venus Fly Trap, that clever little plant which literally eats insects, has to sendout some form of communication to lure the bugs its way. Only man has language, a uniquesystem involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

You are going to investigate a few things in this LIFEPAC® that will help you understand anduse our very flexible language to better advantage. Whether you are preparing yourself to be alawyer, mechanic, homemaker, stenographer, teacher, or President of the United States, you canprofit from this study.

When you know what our language consists of and where it comes from, you will becomemore skillful at using it. As you become more careful with your pronunciation and spelling,increase your vocabulary, and improve your voice control, you will find that even adults will listenwith respect to what you have to say. So, full speed ahead into LIFEPAC 902 on the NATURE OFLANGUAGE.

OBJECTIVES

Read These objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you havesuccessfully completed this LIFEPAC.

When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to:

1. Explain the origin and background of language.2. Discuss the make-up of language.3. Present a convincing argument for learning a second language.4. Trace the migration of the Aryan-speaking people from Babel to Europe.5. Identify the Indo-European language families.6. Tell which major languages contributed what to English.7. Discuss the changes in English from Old English to Modern English.8. Demonstrate a vocabulary that includes the meanings of older words and root words.9. Use six prefixes skillfully in reading.

10. Use the suffixes -able and -ible skillfully in writing.

Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questionshere.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1

I. WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

What do you think when you hear the word language? Do you picture someone speaking in alanguage foreign to yours? a book containing information to learn? or a facial expression conveyingan unspoken communication? Spoken words, written words, and nonverbal expressions are alllanguage; and all three types of language are necessary for communication.

To define language in everyday terms is not an easy task. In our effort to define language, wemight ask these three questions:

1. Has man always had language, or did he develop it?2. After the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel, did the many resulting

language families still have anything in common?3. If a person intends never to travel in or move to a foreign country, does he need to

study any language other than his own?

SECTION OBJECTIVES

Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should beable to:

1. Explain the origin and background of language:1.1 Give the Biblical source of language.1.2 Discuss some Biblical backgrounds of language.1.3 Cite some evidence that man has always had language.

2. Discuss the make-up of language:2.1 List four characteristics languages have continued to hold in common.2.2 Define the four common characteristics of language.

3. Present a convincing argument of learning a second language.

VOCABULARY

Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.

anthropology (an´ thru pol´ u je–). Study of the origin, development, races, customs, andbeliefs of man.

archaeology or archeology (är´ ke– ol´ u je–). Study of cities, artifacts, and customs of theancient world.

emigrate (em´ u gra–t). To leave one’s own country to live in another.idiom (id e– um). A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood in the

ordinary sense.linguist (ling´ gwist). A person who studies the history and structure of language.linguistics (ling qwis´ tiks). Having to do with language or the study of languages.morphology (môr fol u je–). The study of word forms and how they are affected by their

origins.nonverbal (non ver´ bul). Language that is not expressed in words.phonetics (fu net´ iks). The branch of linguistics dealing with pronunciation.phonology (fo– nol´ u je–). The branch of linguistics dealing with sounds in words.semantics (su man´ tiks). The branch of linguistics having to do with meaning.syntax (sin’ taks). The branch of linguistics having to do with word order.tongues (tungz). The languages of people or nationalities.unique (yu ne–k’). The only one of its kind.

2

3

ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

The origin of language is as early as man. God is the source of language.Man was created in the image of God. He was created with the capacity tocommunicate freely with God and with other men. Both the Bible andarchaeology provide some background for the study of language.

Source. Some people will tell you that man, emerging from his savagestate, began to make himself understood by a series of grunts and groans.These sounds, accompanied by gestures and facial expressions, gradually—over a period of hundreds of years—led to words. Words led to sentences;sentences led to more complex syntax and finally to idiomatic expressionsand semantics. All this “language development” only took place as man’sbrain increased in size, of course!

Genesis 1:3 states, “And God said… .” This statement is repeated severaltimes in that first chapter of Genesis: in verses 6, 9, 11, 14, 20, 24, 26, 28, and29. When Adam was created, God communicated with him (Genesis 2:16-17);and Adam communicated with God (Genesis 2:19-20)—in a fully developedlanguage.

Background. Archaeological evidence indicates that man had more thanone fully-developed language in which he was able to write phonetically andidiomatically. That is, he used sounds and word meanings in more than oneway. This use of semantics shows that flexible, expressive languages werebeing used several hundred years before Abraham.

Still earlier, Noah had to have an involved language structure because ofthe complicated plan he received for building the ark. In addition, Noah was ateacher and preacher known by all. He was a preacher of righteousness to acorrupt world. God’s destruction resulted from men’s rejection of Noah’smessage.

That man was created knowing language is told us in this one sentencefrom Genesis 2:20: “And Adam gave names to all cattle…fowl…and beast… .”

Have you ever tried to find a name for a living creature which has neverbeen classified? For this task, a sophisticated language with a great variety ofnouns is required. Linguists tell us that the simplest spoken languages havevery few nouns. Their languages are built up of more complex verb forms,instead. Some languages, for example, often contain a complete expression ofsubject, verb, and object in only one word. In these languages, nouns are usedto express the most basic of daily needs.

Adam’s language, on the other hand, must have had a phonology thatcould suggest the very sound an animal made. Likewise, the nouns must havehad more than one meaning, which involves the use of semantics and theidiom.

Note: All vocabulary words in this LIFEPAC appear in boldface print the first time they areused. If you are unsure of the meaning when you are reading, study the definitions given.

Pronunciation Key: hat, a-ge, cãre, fär; let, e- qual, te.rm; it, i

-ce; hot, o-pen, ôrder; oil; out;

cup, pu. t, rüle; child; long; thin; /T-H/ for then; /zh/ for measure; /u/ represents /a/ in about,/e/ in taken, /i/ in pencil, /o/ in lemon, and /u/ in circus.

Complete these statements.

1.1 The Genesis account of Creation assumes ______________________ to be the sourceof language.

1.2 A recurring statement in Genesis chapter 1 that is related to language beginswith these three words: “And God ______________________ .”

1.3 Archaeological evidence indicates that flexible, expressive languages werebeing used several hundred years before ______________________ .

1.4 A man who both received a complicated building plan from God and delivereda message of righteousness to the people of his day was ______________________ .

1.5 Adam’s task of naming “every living creature” required a language with agreat variety of ______________________ .

Match the following items using only clues from reading the text.

1.6 _________ nonverbal a. languages of people or nationalities1.7 _________ phonetics b. dealing with pronunciation1.8 _________ semantics c. a person who studies languages1.9 _________ idiom d. dealing with word meanings1.10 _________ syntax e. dealing with word arrangement1.11 _________ archaeology f. the studying of cities and ancient1.12 _________ linguist peoples1.13 _________ linguistics g. an expression which cannot be1.14 _________ phonology understood in the ordinary sense1.15 _________ tongues h. dealing with sounds of words

i. study of language structurej. language without wordsk. spoken words

Complete these activities.

1.16 On the bus, at home, or in class, sit quietly and watch another person for aboutfive minutes. Jot down any nonverbal language that person uses. (Forexample, he frowns, he chews his pencil, he rests his chin in his hand, etc.)What do these nonverbal acts mean? (Translate them.) Write yourobservations here:____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.17 Pretend you are writing a letter to a friend who has been taught that the firsthumans could not use spoken language. Explain in the letter in a few well-organized sentences how you can be sure man had language from thebeginning.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4

MAKE-UP OF LANGUAGE

When God confused the languages of man at Babel, members of the newlycreated language families migrated to different areas. You will learn moreabout those migrations in Section II of this LIFEPAC.

As a great variety of languages developed following the confusion at Babel,all languages have retained at least four common characteristics:

1. a pattern of sounds. This pattern is a series of sounds that onlythe human speech organs can utter.

2. a collection of words. Words stand for objects, actions, or ideas.Man is the only created being that has words.

3. a system of word arrangement. A connected pattern of wordsused to express thoughts is present in all languages. The differentarrangements of words in one “tongue” or another is sometimescalled the thought pattern of that tongue.

4. the elements of grammar. These elements include syntax, ormeaningful order, and morphology, or variations of words to showhow they serve in a sentence. (For example: He gave the ball to me.I gave the ball to him. The change in form gives meaning to thepronouns he and him and I and me.)

Answer these questions.

1.18 What are four characteristics that languages have continued to have incommon since Babel?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.19 What are the names and definitions of two elements of grammar that havebeen a part of all languages since Babel?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.20 What is the different arrangement of words in one “tongue” or anothersometimes called?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.21 Why are the sounds of animals not properly called language?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5

A SECOND LANGUAGE

One might ask this question: “Why learn a second language if alllanguages have so much in common?” You may think now that you will neverneed another language. Anyway, English may seem difficult enough to learn.A growing number of people are traveling to South America, Europe, and Asia.Even more are emigrating from Latin America to the United States to work orto study. If you are a typical teenager, you probably enjoy communicatingboth verbally and nonverbally. Speaking and writing only English, you cancommunicate only with people of English speaking backgrounds. By learningSpanish you could speak or write to many more.

By studying Latin you can improve your understanding and spelling of theEnglish language. More than 50 per cent of our English words are of Latinorigin. If you want to be a botanist, nurse, doctor, or anthropologist, youwill need to study Latin.

Learning a second language can help in understanding people of othercultures as well. People living in the central United States may think that allthe world speaks English. Many of these people are unwelcome whentraveling to Latin America or elsewhere, not because they insist on speakingonly English, but because they know nothing about the customs of the peoplewho speak another language.

6

USE OF A SECOND LANGUAGE

Answer true or false.

1.22 __________ To emigrate is to leave one’s country to live in another.1.23 __________ Learning a second language does not help in understanding people

of other countries.1.24 __________ A Navajo talks about ideas; a Spaniard talks about things.1.25 __________ The study of Latin can improve one’s understanding and spelling of

English.1.26 __________ More than 50 per cent of our English words are of Latin origin.

Each language has its unique thought pattern. Speakers of simplerlanguages express themselves in relationship to the physical. Words relatedto the physical world are more important and are placed first in the structureof a sentence, or take a more prominent place in expression. Speakers ofEuropean, Middle Eastern, and Asian languages have an entirely differentoutlook and place more emphasis upon words for thinking and simply being.A speaker of a simpler language will talk more about things; others speak moreabout ideas.

Although man has always had language and all language has much incommon, each branch of each language family is adapted in many ways to thecharacteristics of its native speakers. For this reason many missionaries havenoticed that their children’s personalities were influenced by the secondlanguage they learned as small children.

Surely a missionary’s child raised in Colombia would waggle his indexfinger to say “No!” and wave good-bye with palm up, fingers moving towardhimself. If you can accept the strange gestures of another culture, you havecome a long way in understanding its people. All language, nonverbalincluded, begins to make sense when the culture is known.

7

NEED OF A SECOND LANGUAGE

Complete this activity with a friend.

1.27 Pretend that your friend and you do not understand each other’s language.Ask him the following questions in sign language. If he understands, have himanswer the same way.

Where is the nearest restaurant?How far is the next bus station?What time is it?Where can I spend the night?Where can I check my suitcase?How much does this scarf cost?

Have your teacher or another student check your dialogue. If the third personunderstands both of you, you should get an A. If you talk with words, you geta point off.

8

Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Testwill check your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Testwill indicate specific areas where restudy is needed for mastery.

SELF TEST 1

Complete these items (each answer, 4 points).

1.01 The name given the science of language study is _________________________________ .1.02 The people who study languages are named _______________________________________ .1.03 The four characteristics that all languages have in common are

a. _________________________________________________________________________________________b. _________________________________________________________________________________________c. _________________________________________________________________________________________d. _________________________________________________________________________________________

1.04 To leave one’s country to live in another is to _____________________________________ .1.05 The study of word forms and how they are affected by their origin is known as

______________________ .1.06 Man is the only created being that has ______________________ (for communication).1.07 One’s understanding and spelling of English can be improved by the study of

__________________________________ .

Match these items (each answer, 3 points).

1.08 __________ anthropology a. language without words1.09 __________ archaeology b. dealing with word meanings1.010 __________ idiom c. the only one of its kind1.011 __________ nonverbal d. study of the origin, development,1.012 __________ phonetics races, customs, and beliefs of man1.013 __________ phonology e. having to do with word order1.014 __________ semantics f. can be understood in the ordinary1.015 __________ syntax sense1.016 __________ tongues g. cannot be understood in the1.017 __________ unique ordinary sense

h. another word for languagesi. study of ancient cities, artifacts, and

customsj. dealing with sounds in wordsk. dealing with pronunciation

Answer these questions (each numbered answer, 5 points).

1.018 Why are the sounds of animals not properly called language?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.019 What are three advantages of learning a second language?a. ___________________________________________________________________________________________b. ___________________________________________________________________________________________c. ___________________________________________________________________________________________

1.020 How do you explain the origin of language?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.021 What are some evidences that man has always had language?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.022 What are three types of language?a. ___________________________________________________________________________________________b. ___________________________________________________________________________________________c. ___________________________________________________________________________________________

1.023 In our effort to define language, what are three questions that we might ask?a. ___________________________________________________________________________________________b. ___________________________________________________________________________________________c. ___________________________________________________________________________________________

9

80100

Score ________

Teacher check _______________Initial Date

II. HOW DID WE GET OUR LANGUAGE?

From Creation to Babel, everyone spoke one language (Genesis 11:1). The migration of menfrom Babel led to the development of various languages. In this section you can trace thedevelopment of our modern English from Babel through the Indo-European migrations and Indo-European families of languages, including Old English.

SECTION OBJECTIVES


4. Trace the migration of the Aryan-speaking people from Babel to Europe:4.1 From the Tigris-Euphrates valley to the Indus valley.4.2 From the Indus valley to Eastern Europe.

5. Identify the Indo-European language families:5.1 Name five languages in the Latin branch of Southern Europe.5.2 Name seven languages in the Germanic branch of Western Europe,

England, and Scandinavia.5.3 Locate the Greek branch.5.4 Name four languages of the Celtic branch.

6. Tell which major languages contribute what to English:6.1 The Germanic contribution.6.2 The Latin contribution.

7. Discuss the changes in English from Old English to Modern English:7.1 Trace the effects of other languages upon English.7.2 Explain the “Great Vowel Shift.”

VOCABULARY

Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.

Aryan (er´ e– un). The prehistoric language from which Indo-European comes.aspirate (as´ pur it). Letters pronounced with a puff of air as hot.Breton or Briton (bret´ n or brit´ n). The people or language of ancient England.case (ka–s). A form of noun, pronoun, or adjective that shows its relation to other words.Celts (selts). Ancient people of the British Isles.Chaucer (chô´ sur). Poet of the fourteenth century England.clergy (kler´ je–). A group of pastors or priests.council (koun´ sul). A group of people called together to give advice.dialect (di’ u lekt). A form of speech that varies from the standard language.diphthongal glide (dif thông´ ul glid). One vowel which becomes two sounds when

pronounced, as in long a.ecclesiastic (i kle–´ ze– as´ tik). A churchman such as pastor or bishop.gender (jen´ dur). The grouping of nouns into class: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

10

Great Vowel Shift (gra–t vou´ ul shift). A period in the history of England when the spellingof vowels changed to diphthongs or other spelling changes.

Indo-European (in´ do yur´ u pe– un). Of or having to do with a group of related languagesspoken in India, Western Asia, and Europe.

Indus valley (in´ dus val´ e–). The great valley located along the Indus River between Indiaand Pakistan.

melting pot (mel´ ting pot). One city or country containing many cultures.Mesopotamia (mes´ u pu ta– me– u). An ancient country which is now Iraq.mood (müd). The form of verb to indicate fact, doubt, command, etc.number (num´ bur). The form of a word which indicates the singular or plural.peninsula (pu nin´ su lu). A piece of land almost surrounded by water.person (per´ sun). A change in a pronoun or verb to show who is speaking.replenish (ri plen´ ish). To fill again.Scandinavian (skan´ du na–´ ve– un). Native of Norway, Sweden, or Denmark.Shakespeare (sha–k´ spir). A poet of sixteenth century England.tense (tens). The form of the verb which shows time relation.Tyndale (tin´ dl). Translator of the Bible in the sixteenth century.Wycliffe (wik´ lif). Fourteenth-century translator of the English Bible.ziggurat (zig´ u rat). A high tower with many stories, each one smaller than the one below.

INDO-EUROPEAN MIGRATIONS

As you learned in Section I, those who believe God’s Word also believe thatman was created with knowledge of a complete, comprehensive language.However, you may still be wondering where our English Language originated.To discover that source, let us go back to the Tower of Babel.

The Babel Tower. The Tower of Babel was located somewhere betweenthe Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what is now oil-rich Iraq. If a map or globeis in your classroom, you may want to find this country. Locating Iraq on amap or globe will help you understand the following information.

Imagine yourself a young person at work on the great tower, called byarchaeologists a ziggurat, or hill of heaven. Noah and his sons have followedGod’s command to replenish the earth, but the people have remained in thefertile valley of ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq). You hear them making plans.Remember Genesis 11:5-9? They plan to build a tower which reaches the hillof heaven.

A great tower has been uncovered at Ur, another ancient city ofMesopotamia, which measures 200 feet by 150 feet (60m x 46m) at its base.The original height is unknown. The tower was made of burned bricks;therefore, your job might have been to gather clay for the bricks or to tend thefires to harden them.

You have heard all the plans in a language you understood perfectly; butwhen you return to work the next morning, people are jabbering, waving theirhands (nonverbal language!), and running about trying to find someone whowill understand. God had “confounded” their language. You would not hearEnglish because the languages spoken at Babel were probably only the rootlanguages, that is, those basic language families from which all modernlanguages have their beginning.

11

Eventually you find a group that has the same phonetics that you findyourself using. Later, you move with that group eastward over the highmountains and burning deserts of what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.You Aryan-speaking people arrive at the great Indus valley and decide to makeit your home. Historians will call you the Indus people, not the Aryans.

The Indus people. More than thirty-five hundred years ago, one branch ofthe Indus people conquered India, bringing with them beautiful poetry and prosewritten in Sanskrit. This Sanskrit became the basis for the eastern branch of theIndo-European language. Other Indus people migrated to eastern Europe andspread their language there. Today, almost all Europeans speak an Aryan tongueexcept for a few who use dialects that have another root language. Otherwords meaning the same thing are Indo-European and Indo-German.

Write the letter for the correct answer on the blank.

2.1 The term Aryans refers to a/an/the __________ .a. superior race b. ancient c. ancient city d. ancient people

language2.2 A great tower has been uncovered at Ur, an ancient city of __________ .

a. Iran b. Afghanistan c. Mesopotamia d. Aryan2.3 The Indus people were __________ -speaking people.

a. Indu b. Aryan c. Iranian d. Sanskrit2.4 The branch of Indus people that conquered India brought with them poetry and

prose written in __________ .a. Indu b. Aryan c. Iranian d. Sanskrit

2.5 Today almost all Europeans speak a/an __________ tongue.a. Indu b. Aryan c. Iranian d. Sanskrit


2.6 Using your text as a guide, trace on your map (Map 1) the migrations of theAryan-speaking people. Use red arrows from the Tigris-Euphrates area to theIndus valley. Use blue arrows from the Indus valley to Eastern Europe.

2.7 Ask your pastor or minister of youth to explain to you the meaning of Genesis11:4 as it relates to God’s decision “to confound their language.” Your teachermight ask you to share your answer with your class.

INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILIES

The most influential language family is the Indo-European family. Abouthalf the people of the world speak a language that belongs to this family oflanguages. Look back at your map of Europe and Asia (Map 1). The Aryan-speaking people have arrived in the eastern part of Europe. In that area, printthe word Aryan and circle it.

Of course these people did not remain in one place. As their numbersincreased they began migrating to other areas where they could supportthemselves. They probably moved in family groups, because that is the waythey had always governed themselves. Each family head acted as the ruler overhis children and their families, making them his own little city or state. Thisfamily head, in turn, would represent his descendants in a council that advisedall the other groups.

12

Latin. On Map 1, draw an arrow to southern Europe and label it Latin.When this Aryan-speaking family arrived in southern Europe, their languagebegan to grow and change. They probably found people there who hadanother language. No doubt plants and animals were there that they hadnever seen before, as well as unfamiliar objects. They naturally adaptedthemselves to the language and civilization they found, absorbing somecustoms and words. Eventually this Latin branch became five different, yetclosely related, languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, andRomanian.

Germanic. On Map 1 draw another arrow with three points: one toWestern Europe, one to England, and one to Scandinavia (the boots up northof England). Label the main part of the arrow Germanic. The Germaniclanguages are Dutch-Flemish, German, English, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish,and Icelandic.

Greek and Celtic. Two other branches of the Indo-European languagewhich have affected our English language are Greek and Celtic. On Map 1draw an arrow to the modern Greek peninsula (you may need to consult alarger map or globe for this activity). Label it Greek. Draw another to modernScotland and Ireland and label it Celtic. The four Celtic languages of Gaelic,Scots-Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton contributed some fascinating words, ideas,and legends to our language.

13

RUSSIA

INDIA

SWEDEN

UNITED

KINGDOM

North Sea

AralSea

FRANCE

Italy

Romania

SPAIN

Mediterranean Sea

Greece

Black Sea

Turkey

CaspianSea

IRAQ

IRANEuphrates River

TigrisRiver

Red Sea

Arabian Sea

Persian Gulf

Indo-European Language Families

(Map 1) IndianOcean


2.8 About half the world’s population speaks a language that belongs to the_________________________________________ language family.

2.9 Speakers of the Aryan language came to Eastern Europe from the Tigris-Euphrates area by way of the _______________________ valley.

2.10 In Southern Europe the Latin branch of the Aryan-speaking family became thefollowing five different, but closely related, languages:a. _____________________________________ d. _____________________________________b. _____________________________________ e. _____________________________________c. _____________________________________

2.11 In Western Europe, England, and Scandinavia, the Germanic branch of theAryan-speaking family became the following seven languages:a. _____________________________________ e. _____________________________________b. _____________________________________ f. _____________________________________c. _____________________________________ g. _____________________________________d. _____________________________________

2.12 Two other branches of the Indo-European language are ____________________ andCeltic.

2.13 The four Celtic languages are these:a. _____________________________________ c. _____________________________________b. _____________________________________ d. _____________________________________

2.14 The language of ancient England was ________________________ .

Complete this activity.

2.15 Using your text and Map 1, make a chart showing the four western branchesof Indo-European and the languages that are part of each branch; include thesublanguages given in the text.

Indo-European

14

LANGUAGEARTS 9 0 2

Name

Date

Score

80

100

LIFEPAC TEST

LANGUAGE ARTS 902: LIFEPAC TEST

Match these items (each answer, 2 points).

1. _________ God a. French2. _________ Noah b. Greek3. _________ Adam c. is the source of language4. _________ Aryan d. relied upon word endings5. _________ Latin branch e. was the ancient origin of Indo-6. _________ Old English European language

f. received complicated buildinginstructions from God

g. gave names to every living creature

1

Write the letter for the correct answer on each blank (each answer, 3 points).

12. All of the following prefixes mean in or into except _________ .a. ir b. im c. em d. in

13. If the root word is a full word, the suffix is usually _________ .a. -ible b. -able

14. French was merged with Old English by the _________ .a. Normans b. Danes c. Saxons d. Angles

15. The root word graph means to _________ .a. speak b. write c. read d. listen

16. The following prefix means -into _________ .a. un b. ir c. in d. il

17. Use the suffix -ible when _________ .a. a final silent e is dropped from the root wordb. a final y changes to i in the root wordc. the root word is fulld. the root word is not full

18. Words of Latin origin make up _________ per cent of the English language.a. 50 b. 65 c. 25

19. The Indus people were _________ -speaking people.a. Indu b. Aryan c. Iranian

20. All of the following languages are Celtic except _________ .a. Welsh b. Breton c. Greek

21. The following language is not Germanic _________ .a. English b. French c. German

22. Anglo-Saxon words make up _________ of the words used most in our language.a. one-fourth b. four-fifths c. two-fifths

Answer true or false (each answer, 2 points).

7. ______________ All languages have elements of grammar.8. ______________ Learning a second language will expand one’s English vocabulary.9. ______________ Many English conjunctions and relative pronouns are of Greek origin.10. ______________ In 1611, the word conversation meant manner of living.11. ______________ Adding a prefix to a word changes the root spelling.


23. Archaeological evidence indicates that flexible, expressive languages were being usedseveral hundred years before ____________________________ .

24. All languages have retained a pattern of sounds that only the ___________________________________________________________ speech organs can utter.

25. One can increase his understanding of people in other cultures by learning a_________________________________________ language.

26. Aryan-speaking people emigrated from the Tigris-Euphrates valley to thea. ________________________ valley and then to Eastern b. ___________________________ .

27. Spanish belongs to the a. ________________________ branch of the b. __________________language family.

28. About four-fifths of the words you use most often in daily speech are of_________________________________ origin.

29. Latin has made the ____________________________ most important contribution to the Englishlanguage.

30. All Indo-European languages have clearly defined ____________________________ .

Answer this question (this answer, 5 points).

31. Why are the sounds of animals not properly called language?

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________

2

NOTES:

3

15

Indo-European

INDIAN

SANSKRIT

ANATOLICBENGALI

HINDUSTANI

PHRYGIAN

ARMENIAN

ALBANIAN

GO

THLA

ND

IC

GERMANICNORTH GERMANIC

EAST

NO

RSE

DANISH

SWEDISH

ICELANDICWEST NORSE

NORWEGIAN

FAROESE

EASTG

ERMAN

IC

GO

THIC

MID

DLEDUTCHO

LDS

AX

ON

ENG

LISH

PLATTD

EUTS

CH

MID

DLE

EN

GLIS

H

WES

TG

ERM

AN

IC

HIG

HG

ERM

AN

YIDDISH GERM

AN

LOWGERMAN

FRISIANPROVENCAL

ITALIC

LATIN

FREN

CH

MODERN

ENGLISH DUTCH

FLEMISH

OLD FRISIAN

SPANISHCATALAN

PORTUGUESE

POLISHROMANIAN

ITALIAN

BULGARIAN

OLD

PERSIAN

SERBO-CROATIAN

CZECHLETTISH

OLD SLAVIC

BALTO-SLAVIC

BALTIC LITHUANIANGREEK

GAELIC

BRETON

IRANIAN

AVESTAN

HELLE

NIC

IRISHWELSH

CELTIC

The Family of Indo-European Languages

RUSSIAN

OLD ENGLISH TO MODERN ENGLISH

What confusion! English is now classified as a Germanic language, but itwas not always so. Just as the United States is considered the melting potof the nations, so English could be considered the melting pot of Indo-European languages.

Other-language effects. Only one-fourth of the words in the Englishdictionary are of Germanic origin. However, these words are conjunctions,relative pronouns, and adverbs as and, if, but, who, what, when, where, that,which, here, there. The articles a, an, the are Germanic in origin as well asmany simple names of ordinary things. Because of these facts, about four-fifths of the words you use most often in daily speech are of Germanic, orAnglo-Saxon, origin.

The words of Latin origin are the second most important in the Englishlanguage. These words may have come to us directly from Latin or in a moreroundabout way from French, Spanish, Italian, or Portuguese.

One advantage of a language that grew up in such a hit-or-miss fashion asEnglish is the ease with which new words can be formed out of old ones. Bysimply joining two words such as rain and fall, you can say exactly what youmean. Some other languages have to use many words to express what youcan say in English with one compound. Try explaining railway, backslide,outcome, or whiplash. How many words did you have to use?

In Section III other convenient features of the English language will beconsidered: prefixes, suffixes, and the like. The purpose here is to examinethe growth of Modern English from the ancient languages of the Britons andthe Celts spoken in the British Isles before Christ.

The people living in England in 55 B.C. were considered savages by theRomans. Rome took nearly ninety years to conquer them, but finally the wholearea was added to the Roman Empire. Latin became the official language.Even the Latin name Britannia was given to the country. When missionariescame, they spoke Latin and Greek. That is why so many of our words havingto do with religion are of either Latin or Greek origin: church, minister, spirit,ecclesiastic, elders, bishop, and scribe are just a few of them.

All Indo-European languages have clearly defined parts of speech. Theseinclude nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. These words take on certainendings to show gender, number, case, person, mood, and tense.Because Latin had no particular word order, but depended upon endings togive the meaning, Old English kept these endings for a time. Chaucer was theone who led the change to Middle English. His writings represent examples ofthe language in transition. As sentences gradually began to fall into a regularpattern of subject-verb-object, the word endings were changed to what we callMiddle English, then dropped at last to become Modern English. Blindanbecame blinde, then blind. As word order became more important, wordendings became less important.

The real English language, then, did not begin until Angles, Saxons, andJutes brought their Germanic language into the islands and pushed back theRomanized Britons. Since these Anglo-Saxons were practical people theycontributed the everyday words: bread, water, sea, land, world, be, have, ask,answer, go, and as you have seen, all our connecting words, adverbs, andpronouns. These people were the ones who picked up, used, and standardizedthe Latin words mentioned earlier.

In A.D. 870 the Danes, also of a Germanic language group, invadedEngland. Since some words in Anglo-Saxon were awkward, the Danesreplaced them with such shorter words as take, cut, and get. Other words werenot replaced, but came to us along with the Danish words: (the first word isAnglo-Saxon, the second Danish) no, nay; from, fro; shirt, skirt; ditch, dike.

16

An even greater change came to the English language in 1066. TheNormans came into England from Northern France. Their language, too, wasof indo-European origin, but through the Latin branch. They were a welleducated people who had been Christian for centuries. They used only Latinand French in their literature. To them the English language was only for thelower class. French words were added to the language, but only in a morerefined form; that is, English words for meat referred to the animal itself: ox,calf, swine; but the French words referred to the food as it was eaten: beef,veal, pork.

The French words did not replace the English. The two languages simplyco-existed: (the first word is Anglo-Saxon, the second French) heal, cure;glass, mirror; wedlock, marriage; sorrow, grief; might, power. Some words inAnglo-Saxon were results of pagan medical practices, or what the Normansconsidered ignorance. These words are no longer used: leechcraft, earthcraft,steadholder.

The merging of Old English and French was even more difficult than theprocess of merging Old English and Danish. The French-speaking Normanswere the overlords, the clergy, and the scholars. The Anglo-Saxons were thesubjects. All writing was done in Latin or French, except for a few brave poetsof whom Chaucer was one. The Bible was in Latin, read only by the clergy.Can you see why Wycliffe and Tyndale were willing to give their lives totranslating the Bible?

Answer true or false.

2.16 __________ Words of Latin origin are the most important in the English language.2.17 __________ Although only one-fourth of the words in the English dictionary are of Germanic

origin, about four-fifths of the words we use most often in daily speech are ofGermanic origin.

2.18 __________ Such English words as conjunctions, relative pronouns, and adverbs are ofLatin origin.

2.19 __________ Many English words related to religion are of either Latin or Greek origin.2.20 __________ Indo-European languages have clearly defined parts of speech.2.21 __________ One effect of Latin upon Old English syntax was the reliance upon word

endings rather than word order.2.22 __________ Chaucer’s writings represented examples of our language in transition from

Middle English to Modern English.2.23 __________ The Normans used only English and French in their literature.2.24 __________ After the Norman invasion of England, the French-speaking Normans were the

overlords, the clergy, and the scholars; the Anglo-Saxons were the subjects.2.25 __________ During the Old-English period, nearly all writing was done in Latin or French;

the Bible was done in Latin.


2.26 Look at the vocabulary for this section. Find five very ordinary words whichhave different meanings when used in connection with language. Write themhere and also write their linguistic meanings.a. _________________________________________________________________________________________b. _________________________________________________________________________________________c. _________________________________________________________________________________________d. _________________________________________________________________________________________e. _________________________________________________________________________________________

17

The Great Vowel Shift. Many other changes came to the Englishlanguage; however, one change that took place between Chaucer andShakespeare will be mentioned. This change, called the Great VowelShift, can be blamed for some of the headaches you have in learning to spellEnglish.

Until Chaucer’s time an effort had been made to keep the vowels “pure,”both in speaking and writing. By pure vowels we mean vowels with a steadysound, not a 10 glide as we have in our long vowels today. Say long a toyourself. You slide to long e before you finish. This glide was taking place inAnglo-Saxon speech, and writers were having trouble spelling these sounds.At that time the sounds of Latin and French vowels were converted to some ofthe diphthong spellings that give us trouble in Modern English: a change inspelling from long vowels to diphthongs. Long e became ee, ie, ey ea; long atook on such forms as, ai, ey, and ei; long i became igh because of theaspirate at the end; long o sometimes ended in a slight ah sound, thus itbecame oa or ough. These changes are just some of the difficulties of theEnglish language that can be explained by its origin. More will be included inthe next section.

Answer these questions (answer in complete sentences).

2.29 What is meant by “pure” vowels?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2.27 List ten words used in our language that are almost the same as in their originallanguage. For example, dialogue is the same in French; amen is listed fromHebrew. Many Spanish words are used in the entire country, particularly in theSouthwest.a. ________________________ e. ________________________ i. ________________________b. ________________________ f. ________________________ j. ________________________c. ________________________ g. ________________________ k. ________________________d. ________________________ h. ________________________ l. ________________________

2.28 In the following list of breakfast foods, you will find words from at least eightdifferent languages. Try matching the foods on the right with the languages onthe left. Check your answers (1) with a good dictionary and (2) with the answerkey.a. __________________________ Chinese cerealb. __________________________ French baconc. __________________________ Arabic eggsd. __________________________ Portuguese toaste. __________________________ Old Norse butterf. __________________________ Latin marmaladeg. __________________________ from the name of a coffee

Roman goddess cocoah. __________________________ Nahuatl or Mexican tea

Spanish

18

2.30 What is meant by the Great Vowel Shift?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

19

Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The SelfTest will check your mastery of this particular section as well as yourknowledge of the previous section.

SELF TEST 2Match these items (each answer, 2 points).

2.01 _________ Aryan a. sixteenth century religious reformer2.02 _________ Celts b. word order in a sentence2.03 _________ dialects c. the language from which Indo-2.04 _________ Tyndale European came2.05 _________ ziggurat d. Aryan-speaking people lived here2.06 _________ Indus valley e. the study of word forms2.07 _________ Normans f. to leave one’s country2.08 _________ morphology g. invaded England in 1066 A.D.2.09 _________ emigrate h. speech which is not standard2.010 _________ syntax i. ancient people of British Isles

j. a very high towerk. earliest settlers in France

Write the letter for the correct answer in each blank space (each answer, 3 points).

2.011 The science of language study is _______ .a. archaeology b. linguistics c. anthropology

2.012 Words of Latin origin make up _______ per cent of the English language.a. 50 b. 65 c. 25

2.013 French was merged with Old English by the _______ .a. Saxons b. Danes c. Normans

2.014 Anglo-Saxons words make up _______ of the words used most in our language.a. one-fourth b. four-fifths c. two-fifths

2.015 Only about _______ of the words in the English dictionary are of Germanicorigin.a. one-third b. one-half c. one-fourth

2.016 Anthropology is the study of _______ .a. cities b. man c. animals

2.017 Archaeology is the study of _______ .a. cities b. man c. animals

2.018 The Genesis account of Creation reveals the source of language to be _______ .a. Adam b. God c. men

2.019 A man who both received a complicated building plan from God and delivereda message of righteousness to the people of his day was _______ .a. Adam b. Noah c. Abraham

2.020 The following language belongs to the Latin branch of Aryan-speaking family:_______ .a. French b. German c. English


2.021 The three types of language are written, a. ___________________ , andb. _______________________ .

2.022 The four major Indo-European language families are Germanic, a. ______________ ,b. ________________________ , and Celtic.

2.023 Both Latin and Old English syntax relied upon word endings rather than word___________________________________ .

2.024 The Germanic language was brought into English by the a. ______________________ ,b. _________________________ and Jutes.

2.025 Many words in English having to do with religion are of a._________________________and b. _________________________ origin.

2.026 Indo-European languages have clearly defined parts of_________________________ .

Answer these questions (each answer, 5 points).

2.027 What is meant by the “Great Vowel Shift”?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2.028 What was Chaucer’s influence on Old English?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

20

III. HOW SHALL WE USE LANGUAGE?

Spoken words, written words, and nonverbal expression are three types of language. Skillsutilizing language are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These four skills and how toimprove them are the subjects of this section.

SECTION OBJECTIVES


8. Demonstrate a vocabulary that includes the meanings of older words and rootwords:8.1 Define five words that have changed from their original meanings.8.2 Define and use in word building eight root words.

80100

Score ________


9. Use six prefixes skillfully in reading:9.1 Define six prefixes.9.2 Determine the meanings of words containing known prefixes.

10. Use the suffixes -able and -ible skillfully in writing.

VOCABULARY

Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.context (kon´ tekst). The parts of a sentence which influence the meaning of a word.mnemonics (ni mon´ iks). Aids used to improve the memory.obsolete (ob´ su le–t). Something that is no longer used.peers (pirz). Persons of the same grade, age, rank, etc.root (rüt). The part of a word to which prefixes and suffixes are added.schwa (schwä). An unstressed vowel sound as a in about or u in circus, represented here by

the symbol u.

21

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Teachers endeavor to present materials to students at the proper readinglevel: so many sentences and syllables per 100 words for a third grader andso many for a ninth grader, for example. However, reading level is not the onlything to consider. Listening and speaking skills are also essentialconsiderations. Read the following selections. Pretend you are hearing eachselection in a lecture.

Selection 1Them dirty lousy politicians is getting altogether too high and mighty, the

way they is always arranging to take advantage of the little businessmen byraising up the tax payments and collecting more money from the little fellows.They ain’t nothing much can be done about this here business, because thempoliticians has certainly got the inside connections and they always workthrough under-cover arrangements. It’s mighty funny that the generals andthe admirals and the presidents of the big corporations aren’t paying out nooversized tax installments but only just the little businessmen who aren’tgetting much money nohow.

Selection 2You ask me, do you, how fares the morpheme? I tell you it is the warp and

woof of style. Use it awry and your style is inept. Like Pater, you must graspits forte. The prefix shapes the things to come. By their apt use, you do butwhet your style. Your prose takes on a new semantic sheen. Your yen forverbal zest now finds an open way. You see your style is now less trite. Yourpeers will laud your new eclat. You will preempt a place among your mentors.

What made the Selection 2 more difficult? Vocabulary made the difference,of course! Yet the reading level for Selection 1 was Grade 16, or collegegraduate level; and the reading level of Selection 2 was fourth-grade level.

If you do not understand what you hear, you may not have had anopportunity to build your vocabulary. Unless you listen to speakers older thanyou, you tend to build your own language into a dialect, understood only byyour peers.

In this section you will look at some words that have lost their originalmeanings, and some word roots that help you build your vocabulary.

Word meanings. By 1611, when the King James translation of the Biblewas completed, the English language had become so well stabilized that wecan still understand it today. We use the King James Version because it is sobeautifully expressed and is true to the original Greek and Hebrew languages.Although not obsolete, some words have changed their original meanings somuch that we cannot understand certain passages if we use today’s meaningsfor the words.

One such word is conversation. In many passages is stated something likethis: “Your vain conversation received from your fathers,” or “Ourconversation is in heaven.” In the first passage, conversation refers to amanner of life; and in the second, it means citizenship. If you were to look upthe root word and prefix, you would find that it means to have some kind ofinteraction with another person. Can you see, then, why it was used to referto the way a person conducted himself in private and in public?

The word peculiar was used in 1611 to mean a very special person orobject. This meaning can be followed to its present meaning, strange, odd, or,unusual. Likewise, the word corn in England was the name used for all othergrains except corn. They had never seen the grain they obtained later from theAmerican Indian. Also, temperance meant only self control, sober onlyserious-minded. Today these words are generally used in an entirely differentway; they are often applied to drunkenness.

22

The Translation of the Bible

Look up the following words. The meanings given to them are themeanings they had in 1611. In each case write the modern meaning in thespace provided.

word 1611 meaning present meaning3.6 without outside ________________________________3.7 ghost wind ________________________________3.8 feebleminded fainthearted ________________________________3.9 shamefaced with godly fear ________________________________3.10 husbandman farmer ________________________________3.11 to let to hinder ________________________________3.12 throughly thoroughly ________________________________3.13 charity love ________________________________3.14 goodman owner ________________________________3.15 ensue pursue ________________________________

Now choose two words from the preceding list. Go to a friend and tellhim or her (1) what the word meant originally and (2) why you think it came tomean what it does now. When you have done this, write the words here andhave your friend initial in the space provided.

3.16 My two words are _______________________________________________________________________I listened to the explanation ___________________________________________________________

Initials of listener

Tell your parents or an older relative or friend two words, such as“cool,” that you use in talking to your peers. Ask them what the wordsmean to them. Write the words and both meanings (peer, present) here. If youcan think of more than two, include them.

3.17 ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


3.1 Failing to understand what one hears may be a result of a limited ______________ .___________________ .

3.2 Something that is no longer used is called ____________________________ .

Complete this chart.

word 1611 meaning present meaning3.3 conversation ________________________________ interaction3.4 peculiar very special ________________________________3.5 corn grain ________________________________

23

Sometimes you can determine the meanings of obsolete words by thecontext. Read the stanza from this ballad written in Scottish-Englishdialect in the century before King James. Write it in modern English.You can probably do all but erst (once) brand (sword), and gang (walk) if youremember the “Great Vowel Shift.”

“Why dois your brand sae drap wi bluid, Edward, Edward,Why dois your brand sae drap wi bluid.

And why sae sad gang yee O?”“O I hae killed my hauke sae guid,

And I had nae mair but hee O.”“Your haukis bluid was nevir sae reid, Edward, Edward,Your haukis bluid was nevir sae reid,

My deir son I tell thee O.”“O I hae killed my reid roan steid, Mither, mither,O I hae killed my reid roan steid,

That erst was sae fair and free O.”

3.18 ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Word roots. Another way to increase your speaking vocabulary is tomaster the meanings of certain word roots. As a carry over from the Latin,different endings for nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are still used. Forexample: beauty is a noun; beautiful, an adjective; and beautifully, an adverb.

To form English words, people have taken certain roots from the originallanguage; added other words, prefixes, or suffixes; and made new words. TheGreek word helix, meaning spiral, plus opter meaning wing, has combined tomake helixopter or helicopter. Para plus allelos, became parallel. If you knowthese facts, you cannot misspell either of these words!

24

Study the following list of roots and their meanings for a fewminutes before you go on with the activity.From each of the following roots, make at least two words. Find what eachword means, if you do not know. You may use your dictionary.

root definition new words3.19 soph wise, wisdom ________________________________3.20 log talk, knowledge ________________________________3.21 sect cut ________________________________3.22 graph write ________________________________3.23 plic, ply fold ________________________________3.24 doc, doct teach ________________________________3.25 tact, tang, ting touch ________________________________3.26 man, manu hand ________________________________

READING

As you have already learned, English grew up from Latin, German, Celtic,and Greek roots to which were added other words, prefixes, or suffixes, and,at times, all three. These kinds of words are difficult to spell, pronounce, andunderstand unless you unlock them with several keys.

The first key we have already tried: knowing the meaning of the root word.In this section you will learn to work skillfully with certain prefixes. No doubtyou have studied them many times before; therefore, this study will merely bea review for you. Since re means to do again, you will look over again someof the facts you may have forgotten.

One very comforting fact concerning prefixes is this: Adding a prefix doesnot change the spelling of the root word. With whatever letter the base wordbegins, its spelling is not changed when a prefix is added. Add mis to spelland you must write misspell, even though a strange double s combinationresults. Caution: Do not apply this rule to suffixes, for adding suffixes oftencauses a change in the root word. By this time you have probably learned thatyou can never say always about the English language; but, if you know thislittle rule about the addition of prefixes, at least you can read and write themwith assurance.

However, can you understand them? Some small dictionaries list only theroot words and give only a list of the most common prefixes. Since theaddition of prefixes does not change spelling, one way to save space is to listwords in this way. If you only have one of the little pocket-type dictionaries,you can save yourself time by looking up the root word. If you know themeaning of the prefix, then you know the meaning of the word. You will workin this way with the prefixes im, em, in, en, il, and ir.

The prefixes en, em, im, and in mean in or into. The m takes the place ofn in words that begin with consonants such as p and b, which are pronouncedwith the lips in position to say m. Thus we have impart, imbue, immune, butintake, income, and innovate. At times the prefix meaning in is spelled enfrom the Old French. Encourage (put courage into) is one of these spellings.Furthermore, en is written em before b, m, p and ph. Notice the wordsempower, emboss, and emplace.

In addition to meaning in or into, the prefixes in and im also mean not.Consider the words inapt and immature.

25

The other two prefixes il and ir, which come from certain Latin forms, alsomean not. Be careful not to confuse the prefix il with the prefix ill, meaningbad.

If you have any doubt as to the true meaning of a word, consult yourdictionary to see where the syllables are divided.


3.27 Adding a prefix to a root word ____________________ (does, does not) change thespelling of the root word.

3.28 This rule (3.27) ____________________ (does, does not) apply to suffixes.

Read the following paragraph in which all six prefixes are used atleast once, and do the following activities. Do you understand it?Probably you don’t; but after you have finished your activity, you will.Remember, the prefixes in and im have two meanings.

Henry was not illiterate, but the letter was so well encoded that he found itirrelevant. “What an irresponsible person,” he said impatiently, “to write suchan invincible, illogical letter. It was certainly an illaudable thing to do. I wouldlike to indoctrinate him with irresistible teaching.”In the above paragraph are ten words containing prefixes. On the followinglines, copy the words, then write the meaning of each one. If you need to usethe dictionary, find the base word only and then determine the meaning fromthe prefix. Example: illiterate . . . look up literate.

3.29 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.30 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.31 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.32 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.33 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.34 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.35 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.36 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.37 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.38 _____________________________________________________________________________________________

WRITING

Some people spell so poorly that their messages cannot be decoded. Manyof the things you have learned about the origin of the English language willhelp you in the spelling of it. Still, you will need to study certain troublesomespellings. Because the unstressed vowels in the word endings -able and -iblesound the same, you need some mnemonics to help you learn to spell themcorrectly. In our vocabularies, these unstressed vowels called the schwa areindicated by the u; but when is the vowel a and when is it i? Is the worddetestable or detestible, predictable or predictible? The answer depends uponthe Latin derivation of the word. Although you may never have studied Latin,you can still be fairly sure of your spelling if you learn and practice thesemnemonics which divide the -able and -ible words into groups.

26


Group I. If the root is a full word, the ending is usually -able.3.39 Write the endings for the following words:

a. detest ________________________________ f. accept ________________________________b. predict _______________________________ g. perish _________________________________c. mail __________________________________ h person ________________________________d. avail _________________________________ i. correct ________________________________e. depend ______________________________ j. detect _________________________________

Group II. When the root is a full word except for a final e, the forms usuallyare spelled with -able and by dropping the final e. Example: blam(e) becomesblamable.

3.40 Add these endings:a deplore ______________________________ f. love ___________________________________b. desire ________________________________ g size ___________________________________c. debate _______________________________ h. pleasure ______________________________d. excite ________________________________ i. use ____________________________________e. presume _____________________________ j. value _________________________________

Group III. The suffix -able always follows i. Thus, if you follow our Englishcustom of changing y to i in these words, you will add -able.

3.41 Try these words:a. envy _________________________________ d. satisfy ________________________________b. justify _______________________________ e. appreci _______________________________c. rely __________________________________ f. soci ___________________________________

Group IV. When the root has other forms built on the letter a, the -able formis used. example: demonstrate becomes demonstrable.

3.42 Now change these words:a. duration _____________________________ d. hospitality ___________________________b. irritate _______________________________ e. abomination _________________________c. reparations _________________________ f. penetrate _____________________________

Group V. When the root ends in hard c or g, -able is used.3.43 Complete the following words.

a. despic _______________________________ e. applic _________________________________b. educ _________________________________ f. amic __________________________________c. emplac ______________________________ g. practic ________________________________d. revoc ________________________________ h. navig _________________________________

The suffix -able is the only possible ending after hard c or g, in order to keepthe proper pronunciation.Study the following mnemonics for these words taking -ible. More of thesewords exist than you will find here, but you will have enough here to help youwith your future spelling.

27

28

Group VI. When the root is not a full word, -ible is used.3.44 Complete these words:

a. aud _______________________________ e. plaus _________________________________b. cred _______________________________ f. tang _________________________________c. divis _______________________________ g. horr _________________________________d. feas _______________________________ h. terr _________________________________

Group VII. When the word has an immediate -tion form, -ible is used. Thus:collection becomes collectible.

3.45 Change these words:a. digestion _________________________ c. exhaustion _________________________b. corruption _________________________ d. contraction _________________________Would this mnemonic apply to presentation and expectation? The answer is nobecause they are complete words and the suffix -tion is not an immediateaddition of -ion. An a is needed.

Group VIII. When the root ends in ns, miss, or soft c or g, -ible is used.Defense becomes defensible.

3.46 Try these words:a. indefens _________________________ d. neglig _______________________________b. sens _____________________________ e. intellig _______________________________c. irrespons _________________________ f. intang _______________________________An exception is indispensable. You can remember this word by thinking thatan able worker is both indispensable and dependable.

Now try your skill on these words. (1) Write the endings you think theyshould have. (2) Write the number of the mnemonic which applies. Check youranswers with the key. If you missed more than three, read the section again.

3.47 deplor _____________________________________________________________________________________3.48 predict ____________________________________________________________________________________3.49 avail _______________________________________________________________________________________3.50 exhaust ___________________________________________________________________________________3.51 applic _____________________________________________________________________________________3.52 aud ________________________________________________________________________________________3.53 depend ___________________________________________________________________________________3.54 cred _______________________________________________________________________________________3.55 sens ______________________________________________________________________________________3.56 justifi _____________________________________________________________________________________3.57 irrit ________________________________________________________________________________________3.58 indispens _________________________________________________________________________________

29

SELF TEST 3

Complete the following statements (each answer, 3 points).

3.01 A mnemonic is an _______________________________________________________________________ .3.02 Language is expressed in these three ways: a. __________________________, b. _____

_____________________, and c. _________________________ .3.03 The meaning of a word is influenced by the _____________________ in which it is

found.3.04 In this LIFEPAC the schwa is expressed by _____________________ .3.05 Endings are added to a word _____________________ .3.06 Mesopotamia is now the country of _____________________ .3.07 Your _____________________ are those of your own age group.

Add the suffix -able or -ible to these words. Then write the mnemonic that applies(each answer, 1 point).

3.08 desir ______________________________________________________________________________________3.09 envi _______________________________________________________________________________________3.010 person _____________________________________________________________________________________3.011 digest _____________________________________________________________________________________3.012 horr _______________________________________________________________________________________3.013 demonstr _________________________________________________________________________________3.014 practic ____________________________________________________________________________________3.015 depend ___________________________________________________________________________________

Number the following items in the order in which English came to us (each numbereditem, 2 points).

3.016 Aryan-speaking people came to the Indus valley.____________________________________3.017 The Normans invaded England.________________________________________________________3.018 Tongues were confused at Babel.______________________________________________________3.019 The Indus valley people came to Western Europe.___________________________________3.020 The Angles and Saxons took over England.___________________________________________3.021 The Romans invaded England.__________________________________________________________3.022 The Danes invaded England.____________________________________________________________

1. _________ Read the objectives. See if you can do them.2. _________ Restudy the material related to any objectives that you cannot do.3. _________ Use the SQ3R study procedure to review the material:

a. Scan the sections.b. Question yourself.c. Read to answer your questions.d. Recite the answers to yourself.e. Review areas you did not understand.

4. _________ Review all vocabulary, activities, and Self Tests, writing a correct answer forevery wrong answer.

Before you take this last Self Test, you may want to do one or more ofthese self checks.

30

Name three things all languages have in common (each answer, 3 points).

3.023 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.024 _____________________________________________________________________________________________3.025 _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Write one word for each root and tell the meaning of the root (each numbered item, 2points).

3.026 sect _______________________________________________________________________________________3.027 graph _____________________________________________________________________________________3.028 log ________________________________________________________________________________________3.029 soph ______________________________________________________________________________________3.030 tang _______________________________________________________________________________________

Match these words with their meanings by writing the correct letter in the blank(each answer, 1 point).

3.031 _________ written in symbols a. irresponsible3.032 _________ does not apply b. invincible3.033 _________ not dependable c. encoded3.034 _________ cannot be conquered d. illaudable3.035 _________ not worthy of praise e. irrelevant

1. ________ Read the objectives. See if you can do them.2. ________ Restudy the material related to any objectives that you cannot do.3. ________ Use the SQ3R study procedure to review the material.4. ________ Review activities, Self Tests, and LIFEPAC vocabulary words.5. ________ Restudy areas of weakness indicated by the last Self Test.

Before taking the LIFEPAC Test, you may want to do one or more ofthese self checks.

5467

Score ________


languagearts902: natureoflanguage - exodus … · make-upoflanguage when god confused the languages...

Documents