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Page 1: Language and Meaning Pragmaticstkoyama/lcc2013/files/06 Language...1 Language and Meaning Pragmatics: Inference Model of Communication 1 • 発話(メッセージ)の意味はどのように伝わ

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Language and Meaning Pragmatics:

Inference Model of Communication

1

• 発話(メッセージ)の意味はどのように伝わるのか?

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Topics to be covered …..

• Code Model of Communication(コードモデル) • Problems in Code Models  (コードモデルの問題点)

– Speech Act (発話行為) –  Indirect Speech Act (間接発話行為) – Non-literal meaning (字義通りでない意味)

•  Inferential Model of Communication  (推論モデル)

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I. Code Model of Comm

•  Shannon & Weber (1949) •  Burel (1996) SMCR model •  Locke (1691) •  De Saussure (1922) •  Chomsky (1965, among others) •  Katz (1966) •  Chafe (1970) •  Denes & Pinson (1963)

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Code modelの特徴

A.  Corresponding Rules (規則の一致)

•  Encode = Decode   (符号化 = 解読) •  Rules / Rule system (not Principles)   (原則ではなく、規則のシステム) •  Take meaning out of Sign   (「記号」から意味を取り出して理解する)

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Code modelの特徴

B.  Sources of Communication Breakdown

•  Noise   (雑音) •  Incompatible rules   (規則の不一致) •  Transmission problems   (通信障害) 6

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Code modelの特徴

C.  Implication ()

u  Message/Signals rule Meanings   (意味は「メッセージ」/「記号」によって決定される) u  Meaning is calculated mathematically   (「意味」は計算されるものである) u  Meaning is built-in   (「意味」は埋め込まれている) 7

II. Problems in Code Models A.  Disambiguity / Disambiguation

  (曖昧性解消の問題)

B.  Referent Identification   (指示特定の問題)

C.  The problem of speaker intention   (話者の意図特定の問題)

D.  Non-literal Meaning (metaphor)   (字義通りでない意味の問題)

E.  Speech Acts and Events   (発話行為)

F.  Indirect Meaning (indirect speech act)   (間接的な意味の問題) 8

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A. Disambiguity / Disambiguation (曖昧化性解消の問題)

–  「ハシで食べなさい!」    (端? 箸? 橋?)

–  The pen is in the box. The box is in the pen. –  Cannot be solved by “rules” (規則による脱曖昧化は不可能)

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B. Referent Identification (指示の特定の問題)

–  Pronoun references (代名詞の指示) –  External references (bat = object or

animal?) –  Nothing requires/guarantees the

interpretation   (特定の解釈を保証するものは見いだせない)   文脈? 感? 経験? 習慣?

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C. Problem of Speaker Intention (話者の意図特定の問題)

• 話者の発言の意図は? • 「言葉の意味」と「話者の意図」の関係は?

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D. Non-literal Meaning (字義通りでない意味の問題)

• Metaphors / Irony / Joke (比喩、皮肉、冗談) –  “She is cold ”/ “She is hot” /                “Your eyes are diamond” –  “Nice weather!” (when raining) /      “Thank you for forgetting our anniversary” –  “Oh, you have grown!”

• They work because they precisely violate the rules (規則違反こそがヒント)

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E. Speech Acts and Events (発話行為の問題)

• What is performed? (何が遂行されるのか?) –  “I now pronounce you husband and wife” –  “You are out!” –  “I’m really sorry.” –  “Congratulations!” –  “Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black.” –  “I’ll be there shortly.”

•  A sentence (message) can perform more than one act! (言語による複数の行為の遂行)

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F. Indirect meaning (間接発話行為の問題)

•  “Could you open the window?” (依頼) •  “Do you wear a seat belt?” (依頼) •  “You are standing in front of the TV.” (依頼) • A structure (locutionary force) and a

function (illocutionary force) of a message are not necessarily directly related. 

• (メッセージの「構造」と「機能」が必ずしも一致しない: 間接的な表現)

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Implications (以上より言えること)

• Comprehension is the process of inference beyond the information given

 (メッセージの「理解」とは、与えられた「情報」だけから得られるのではなく、何らかの「推論」を要する)

• Once communication occur, it is matter of plausible inference

 (一旦コミュニケーションが始まれば、「適切な推論」こそが鍵である)

• Signal ≠ Message (記号  ≠  意味(メッセージ))

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Alternative Models (代替モデル)

• Speech Act Theory (発話行為理論) •  Inference Model (推論モデル)

not mutually exclusive, but closely related (排他的な代替モデルではなく、密接に関わる

、ある意味で段階的な理論)

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Speech Act Theory (発話行為理論)

「Fregeが指摘した通り、語ではなく文が言語の第一義的な意味単位(primary units of meaning)である。語の意味は単にそれが現れる文の意味に貢献するものでしかない。従って、語ではなく文が言語の使用の文脈において発話行為(speech acts)を遂行するための 小の統語装置(syntactic devices)である。このことが文が形成される所以である。つまり、文は話すためのものである。」

(Vanderveken, 1990) 17

Speech Act Theory (発話行為理論)

「自然言語の文脈において文を発することによって、話し手は以下のような発語内行為を遂行しようと試みる: l Statement (陳述) l Question (質問) l Declaration (宣言) l Request (要求) l Promise (約束) l Apology (謝罪) l Order (命令) l Offer (申し出) l Refusal (拒否) 18

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• ある発話された「文」の意味は? ①  Propositional Content (命題内容) ②  Illocutionary Force (発語内行為)

•  Can you pass me the salt?

–  Propositional Content    → 「相手の塩をとる能力/可能性に対する

  知識の不足(疑問文)」 –  Illocutionary Force    → 「依頼」 19

Three related act in a single utterance/message (ある発話における三つの「行為」)

•  Locutionary Act (発語行為) –  Basic act of utterance (発話の も基礎的な行為) –  [Linguistic Meaning (Referent)] (言語学的意味/命題)

•  Illocutionary Act (発語内行為=発話行為) –  Purpose of the utterance (発話を行う「目的」/機能) –  [Communicative Meaning] (コミュニケーション上の意味) –  “Intention” (意図)

•  Perlocutionary Act (発語媒介行為) –  Intended Effect/Outcome of the utterance               (意図された効果/発話の結果) 20

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“I have just made some coffee” 「コーヒーいれたよ」

•  Locutionary Act –  I said “I’ve just made some coffee” which makes some sense to the

other members of the speech community. (スピーチ共同体の他のメンバーに理解可能な「コーヒーをいれた」という命題内容の発語)

•  Illocutionary Act –  Statement (宣言) –  Question / Offer (質問/申し出) –  Request (依頼)

•  Perlocutionary Act –  The hearer will (聞き手はこの発話を聞いて・・・)

•  know that I’ve made some coffee (話し手がコーヒーを入れたことを知る) •  Answer if she/he will have coffee (コーヒーを飲むかどうか返事をする) •  move to the room I am in (話し手のいる部屋へ移動する)

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Alternative Model?

•  「命題内容」はそれほど一義的に決まり、一義的に伝達されるのか? –  比喩、冗談、皮肉

•  「命題内容」はともかくも、特定の「発話行為(意味)」はどのように保証されるのか? –  「コーヒー入れたよ」 → 依頼? 宣言? 申し出?

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III. Inference Model (推論モデル) of Communication

Grice (1965) Sperber & Wilson (1986)

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III. Inference Model (推論モデル) of Communication

H. P. Grice (1965) •  Q. “How people read b/w lines? How we can do

that?” 

•  (人はどのように「言外の意味」を理解するのか? なぜそれが出来るのか?)

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III. Inference Model (推論モデル) of Communication

•  Answer: Presumption (推定) CP (Cooperative Principle) + Maxims

 CP(協調の原則) + 公理 –  As a listener, “we presume that people are trying to

make sense, to be relevant, etc.”  (聞き手として、我々は他人は「ちゃんとコミュニケーションを

取ろうとしているはずだ」という前提を持つ) –  When CP is violated, “we assume that they intend to

activate some additional or different knowledge”  (CPが順守されないとき、我々は「何らかの、意図的な逸

脱」を推定する) 25

Types of Meaning

Inferred Conveyed

What is said What is implicated (Implicature)

Conventional Non-conventional

Conversational Non-conversational

Generalized Particularized 26

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Types of Meaning •  Inferred (推察された意味)     vs. Conveyed (伝達された意味) • What is Said (言われたこと)     vs. Implicated (Implicature) (含意) • Conventional (慣習的意味)     vs. Non-conventional (非慣習的意味) • Conversational (会話の含意)     vs. Non-conversational(非会話の含意) • Generalized (一般化された含意)     vs. Particularized (特殊化された含意) 27

Types of Meaning

<1> Inferred Meaning (推察された意味) – Not communication:

S didn’t intend / H doesn’t think S intended  (「意図」の理解は含まれない:    話し手が「意図」した意味でなく、    聞き手も「話し手が意図した」とは考えない)

<2> Conveyed Meaning (伝達された意味) – Meanings that are intended (both S and H)  (「意図」の理解)

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<3> What is said (code inference)    (言われたこと: コードによる意味理解)

– Literal and Direct meaning (字義通りで、かつ、直接的な意味) – 「この部屋ちょっと暑くない?」 → 「この部屋が暑い」という認識     「疑問文」 (話し手の認識状態の不確実さの        表明、聞き手の認識状態の確認) 29

What is said に含まれるもの  – Entailment (○○○): the proposition that is

true if the proposition of what is said is true  (必然的に真である内包的事実)

• John met Mary. è John met someone. • I ate three apples. è I ate two apples.

– Presupposition(前提) (subtype of Entailment)  (What is saidが真であるための前提条件)

• The king of France is bald. à There is a king of France

• 鳩山首相が辞任した。→ (ある時点で)鳩山氏は首相に選ばれた。

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<4> Conventional Implicature(慣習的含意) – Not part of what is said, but implied

regardless of the context (”What is said”の一部ではないが、コンテクスト

に関わらず伝達される意味) –  “He is poor, but honest” à poor = dishonest –  “He is small, but perfectly formed.” à

small = not well formed

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<5> Generalized Conversational Implicature    (一般化された会話の含意)

– The additional conveyed meaning without any special knowledge required in the context.

 (”What is said”に加え、特定のコンテクストにおける特別な知識なしに伝達される意味) •  “I ate three apples” à   “I ate no more than three apples (not 4, not

5, ….). •  “If you don’t stop it, I’ll call the police.” à   “If you stop, I won’t call the police.”

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<6> (Particularized) Conversational Implicature (特殊化された会話の含意) – Need particular contextual information and/or

general world knowledge  (当該のコンテクストの特殊情報や一般知識を必

要とする含意) • A: “Is Kobayashi-sensei here?” • B: “I see a white Honda car outside.” “à Kobayashi-sensei is here”

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• Characteristics of Implicature (含意の特徴) – Cnacellability (却下可能性) –  Indefinite (不定性)

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Theory of Conversational Implicature 「会話の含意の理論」(Grice)

• Now, how can we do this??? • Answer:

– Conversational Implicature can be “worked” out by plausible inference.

 (会話の含意は「適切な推論」によって「解決/解明」される)

–  In many cases, Implicature involves certain types of “non-observance of maxims”

 (多くの場合、「含意」には「公理」の違反がかかわっている) 35

コミュニケーションの原理

•  Cooperative Principle (協調の原則): •  Four Maxims (4つの公理)

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•  Cooperative Principle (協調の原則): – Make your contribution such as is

required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose of direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged (Grice, 1968, p.308).

 (コミュニケーションにおいては、自分が参加している会話の流れとその目的に従って、必要とされる 大限の貢献をせよ)

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• Four Maxims (4つの公理): – For (propositional) information to be clearly

and effectively exchanged, people must observe maxims of (命題内容的情報が明確にそして効率的に伝達されるためには、人は以下の4つの公理に従わなくてはならない):

1. Quantity (量の公理) 2. Quality (質の公理) 3. Relation (関係の公理) 4. Manner (様態の公理)

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1. Quantity:

- Make your contribution as informative as is required.    (必要とされる「情報」を提供ようにせよ)

- Do not make your contribution more informative than

required. (必要以上の「情報」を提供しないようにせよ)

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2. Quality:

- Do not say what you believe to be false.   (真実でないと信じていることを述べてはならない) - Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.   (証拠/根拠がないことを述べてはならない)

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3.  Relation:          - Be relevant. (関連のあることを話せ) 4. Manner:          - Avoid obscurity of expression.         (はっきりしない表現を避けよ)    - Avoid ambiguity.

  (曖昧な言い方を避けよ)          - Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)

  (簡潔に話すこと)          - Be orderly.            (順序立てて話すこと)

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1. Quantity: - Make your contribution as informative as is required.

- Do not make your contribution more informative than required.

2. Quality: - Do not say what you believe to be false. - Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

3. Relation: - Be relevant. 4. Manner: - Avoid obscurity of expression.

- Avoid ambiguity. - Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) - Be orderly.

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Working out Implicature (含意の算定)

<1> Basic assumption: people observe the CP and       its maxims:    (大前提: 人は、CPとその公理を順守する) <2> “What is said” does not satisfy the maxim    (コミュニケーション場面において、”What is said”     が公理を満たさない: 間接発話行為、字義通り     でない表現、曖昧な表現、その他)

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Working out Implicature (含意の算定)

<3> There is no reason to think that S is not     trying to be cooperative    (話し手が「協調的でない」と考える理由が存在し     ない) <4> If I(Implicature) were conveyed, the S would    be cooperative.    (もし「含意」が伝達されていると仮定すると、     話し手は「協調的だ」ということになる)

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Working out Implicature (含意の算定)

<5> There is reason to think that S expects H to     be able to infer I.     (話し手が聞き手に対して「含意」の推定を期待      していると考えられる) <6> S is implicating I. (よって、話し手は「含意」を提示している)

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Alternative Model

•  Problem-Solving Task  (コミュニケーションは問題解決的タスクである)

–  Construct a context of knowledge in which the signal makes sense (「記号」が意味をもつためのコンテクスト(文脈)の形成)

–  Production è giving cues that allow the hearer to find the “context” (「発話」とは、コンテクストの鍵の提示である)

–  Comprehension è infer what’s the context/ assumption is (「理解」とは、コンテクストの理解である)

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References Austin, J. (1969). How to do things with words. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press. [邦訳:坂本百大. 『言語と行為』. (1978). 大修館書店.]

Burlo, D. K. (1960). The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Grice, P. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and Semantics (Vol. 3) Speech Acts (pp. 41-58). New York: Academic Press.

Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1986). Relevance: Communication & Cognition.  [邦訳:内田聖二他訳. 『関連性理論ー伝達と認知』. (2000). 研究者出版.]

Vanderveken, D. (1990). Meaning and Speech Acts. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. [邦訳:久保進(監訳). 『意味と発話行為』. (1997). ひつじ書房.]

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